Hydrodynamics Theory and Applications

cover_dicker_final 07-10-2004 13:58 Pagina 1 (PANTONE 307 C Plaat)
Hydrodynamics, as a branch of physics that deals

Cheng
with the forces exerted by fluids, finds its applications
in almost every aspect of human life. This ranges from Yeow
traditional areas such as civil mechanical, marine, off-
shore, coastal, naval architectural and environmental
engineering to relatively new areas such as bio-fluid
mechanics. there is no doubt that Hydromechanics will
maintain its strong role in human life as a branch of
science in future.
HYDRODYNAMICS VI
The International Conference on Hydrodynamic
(ICHD) conference series was initiated in China in
1994 and has been held biennially ever since in Asia. It
Theory and Applications

has become an important event at which academics,
researchers and practitioners exchange new ideas and
their research findings. The proceedings of the 2004
ICHD conference held in Perth contains a selection of
invited keynote lectures and refereed papers. The
papers cover a wide range of topics such as naval archi-
tectural and ocean engineering, coastal and offshore
engineering, industrial fluid mechanics, heat and mass
transfer, environmental fluid mechanics and hydrau-
lics, water resources, fundamental fluid hydrodyna- HYDRODYNAMICS VI
mics and computational fluid mechanics.
The proceeding is meant to serve as a source of referen-

ce for all those interested in the state-of-the-art in
hydrodynamics and fluid mechanics: academics,
researchers and engineers in civil, mechanical, naval
architectural, ocean, coastal and offshore engineering.
Liang Cheng & Ker vin Yeow, editors
Balkema
prelims 20/9/2004 17: 1 page I
HYDRODYNAMICS VI
THEORY AND APPLICATIONS
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PROCEEDINGS OF THE 6TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HYDRODYNAMICS,

24–26 NOVEMBER 2004, PERTH, WESTERN AUSTRALIA
Hydrodynamics VI
Edited by
Liang Cheng and Kervin Yeow
The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia
A.A. BALKEMA PUBLISHERS LEIDEN / LONDON / NEW YORK / PHILADELPHIA / SINGAPORE

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prelims 20/9/2004 17: 1 page V
Hydrodynamics VI – Theory and Applications – Cheng & Yeow (eds)

© 2005 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 04 1536 304 7
Table of Contents
Preface XI
Organisation XIII
Keynote speakers
Hydrodynamics of high speed marine vehicles 3
O.M. Faltinsen
Liquefaction around Marine Structures, LIMAS, an EU research program 15
B. Mutlu Sumer
Naval architecture and ocean engineering

Pentamaran hull for medium size fast ferries 23
E. Begovic, C. Bertorello, S. Caldarella & P. Cassella
Motions and added resistance of multihull marine vehicles at high speed: numerical and
experimental results 29
D. Bruzzone, P. Gualeni, P. Cassella & I. Zotti
Experimental evaluation of high performance rudder enhanced by Coanda effect for VLCC
at low speed operation 37
B.J. Choi, J.M. Yang, H.W. Park, J.S. Kim & H. Kim
On the roll reduction by using a hydrodynamic model with rudder control 45
M.-C. Fang, M.-L. Lee & J.-H. Luo
Hydrodynamic performance of marine propeller in cavitating flow 53
H. Ghassemi
A generalized propeller blade design method based on NURBS 61
C.-Y. Hsin, K.-T. Lien & C.-L. Wu
A numerical calculation of wave pattern generated by a seagoing ship 67
Y. Inoue & Md. Kamruzzaman
Fast evaluation of ship responses in waves 77
J.J. Jensen
RANS computations of hydrodynamic forces and moments acting on a submarine 83
J. Kim, I.-R. Park & S.-H. Van
An experimental study on the design of skeg for barge type stern form 89
K.J. Lee & K.H. Kim
Wave resistance of a boxlike ship by a modified Dawson’s method 95
Q. Miao, X. Kuang & J. Xia
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Speed effects on the motions of high-speed crafts 101

F. Pérez & J.A. Clemente
Evaluation of resistance performance of a power boat using unmanned high-speed
towing carriage 109
J.I. Shin, J.M. Yang, H.W. Park, J.S. Kim, H. Kim, S.H. Lee & S.H. Van
Fundamental investigation on wave making interactions around multi-hull vessel 117
K. Suzuki, H. Kai, S. Ohkoshi & K. Ohno
Experimental and numerical study of shipping water impact on running ship foredeck
in regular head seas 125
K. Tanizawa, H. Sawada, M. Tsujimoto & S. Koshizuka
Validation of 2.5D sea-keeping prediction method 135
Y. Wang, S. Ma & W.Y. Duan
Double-frequency wave force and moment on a body moving forward in
steep regular wave 143
J.P. Wu, R.K. Wang & Z.J. Zou
A unified approach to ship seakeeping and manoeuvering using a RANSE method 151
Y. Xing-Kaeding & G. Jensen
Evaluation of propulsive performance of a tanker in damaged conditions 159
J.M. Yang, S.H. Rhee, J.K. Lee & H. Kim
Bowflare and stern slamming induced whipping of large ships 167
R. Zhao, O.D. Økland, J.R. Hoff & J.V. Aarsnes
A comparative study of 3-D methods with experimental results for seakeeping analysis 173
T. Zhu, L. Xu, S.P. Singh & T.B. Ha
Sloshing simulation of viscous liquid coupled with elastic structures 181
R.Q. Zhu & Y.S. Wu
Coastal engineering
Transverse waves in a channel with decreasing width 193
L.-M. Deng & A.T. Chwang
Evaluation of cost function in wave data assimilation with WAM 199
N. Hashimoto & K. Matsuura
Numerical simulation of wave attenuation over porous seabeds 205
S.A.S.A. Karunarathna & P. Lin
Behaviour of suspended sediment in a shallow tidal estuary 213
K. Kawanisi
Testing of CEM wave prediction model for Lake Ontario 219
M.H. Kazeminezhad, A. Etemad-Shahidi & S.J. Mousavi
Multigrain coastal sedimentation model and its Terschelling beach application 225
F. Li, C. Dyt & C. Griffiths
The numerical simulation of local scour around a large cylinder due to
wave-current action 231
Y. Li, D. Liu, B. Chen, G. Dong & L. Li
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Bragg reflection of water waves with currents 239

M.C. Lin, C.M. Hsu & C.L. Ting
The depth-dependent radiation stresses and their effect on coastal currents 247
P. Lin & D. Zhang
Hydraulic efficiencies of non-wave overtopping type seawall installed on a mound 255
K. Murakami, Y. Kamikubo & N. Takehana
A numerical model for low-frequency harbor oscillation induced by
wave group deformation 261
S. Nakamura
Field measurements on morphological change and tidal exchange in a mangrove estuary 267
Y. Nihei & T. Nakamura
Modeling of beach erosion and sediment transport under storm condition 273
A. Rabiee, A. Yeganeh-Bakhtiary, A. Etemad-Shahidi, T. Yamashita & M. Larson
Pipeline floatation in liquefied soils under waves 279
B. Mutlu Sumer, F. Hatipoglu, J. Fredsøe & N.-E. Ottesen Hansen
Numerical simulation of fully nonlinear wave propagation 287
B. Teng, X.T. Zhang & D.Z. Ning
Wetting and drying scheme for POM and its applications to San Francisco Bay 293
Y. Uchiyama
Hydrodynamics of a perforated circular caisson and suction pipe of a seawater
intake structure 301
K. Vijayalakshmi, R. Sundaravadivelu, S. Neelamani & K. Murali
The shapes of large surface waves on the open sea 309
D.A.G. Walker, P.H. Taylor & R.E. Taylor
Investigation on model law of air bubbles breakwater 319
Y. Wang, G. Wang, G. Li & Y. Cheng
Variability on velocity structures due to internal waves near the mouth of Mutsu Bay 325
R. Yamanaka, S. Nishida & K. Nakatsuji
Numerical solutions of unsteady wave-making problems using a panel method in
time-domain 333
C.S. Zhan & Z.J. Zou
Numerical modeling for breaking wave-induced momentary liquefaction in
a porous seabed: Case study at Gold Coast 339
H. Zhang & D.-S. Jeng
Offshore engineering
Measured and computed results of wave drift added mass of a vertical circular cylinder
or an array of vertical circular cylinders 349
W. Bao, T. Kinoshita & M. Yoshida
Three-dimensional analysis of slamming 357
M. Chezhian & O.M. Faltinsen
Towards hydro-elastic tank testing of a compliant buoyant tower 365
Z. Hu, J. Xia & N. Haritos
VII
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Velocity measurements of modulated waves in deep water 375

H.-H. Hwung, K.-S. Hwang, Y.-H. Chang & H.-H. Chen
Wave radiation and diffraction by a floating body in a two-layer fluid 383
M. Kashiwagi & I. Ten
Dynamics of deepwater offshore structures – a review 391
J. Xia & Q. Miao
Environmental fluid mechanics and hydraulics

The numerical simulation of pollutant mixing zone from riverside discharge outlet in
Three Gorges Reservoir 401
Y. Chen, Z. Liu & M. Shen
Numerical simulation of pollutant dispersion in urban areas 409
P. Cheng, C.X. Xu, L.X. Fu & Z. Wang
El Niño phenomenon in SODA data 415
M. Cui & L. Wu
Numerical simulation of ash-spills induced by dike failure on ash tailings
impoundments – a case study 421
D. Ðordević, D. Komatina & M. Jovanović
Improvement of oxygen-deficient water using microbubble aeration technology 429
M.S. Islam & M. Isobe
Dispersion of spilled oil by cavitating jet 435
H. Kato
Numerical simulation on the channel flow of fiber suspensions with the successive
iteration method 443
Z. Kun & L. Jianzhong
Using artificial neural networks to estimate sea level in continental and island
coastal environments 451
O. Makarynskyy, D. Makarynska, M. Kuhn & W.E. Featherstone
An in situ erosion rate of sediments in an urban river with a new device 459
Y. Nihei, Y. Yamasaki & T. Nishimura
Prediction of salinity intrusion using empirical equations and numerical modeling 465
B. Sherkati-Azin, A. Etemad-Shahidi, E. Jabbari & A. Dorostkar
Thermorheological effect on Bénard and Marangoni convections in
anisotropic porous media 471
P.G. Siddheshwar & A.T. Chan
Electroconvection in aqueous solutions of polymeric liquids 477
P.G. Siddheshwar & C.V. Srikrishna
Dispersion of solute in a fully-developed flow of a Boussinesq-Stokes suspension 483
P.G. Siddheshwar & R.P. Thangaraj
Linear and weakly non-linear analyses of convection in a micropolar fluid 489
P.G. Siddheshwar & S. Pranesh
Dispersion in a Hagen-Poiseuille flow of Casson fluid 495
P.G. Siddheshwar & S. Markande
VIII
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Dispersion in a plane-Poiseuille flow of Casson fluid 501

P.G. Siddheshwar & S. Manjunath
The limiting internal solitary wave in a stratified fluid 507
X.B. Su, G. Wei & S.Q. Dai
A transformation method for unsteady convection-diffusion equations in non-uniform
difference grid systems 513
X. Wang & Z.F. Yang
Environmental fluid mechanics and hydrodynamics

Fluid forces and bistable flow on two circular cylinders in staggered arrangement 523
Md. Mahbub Alam & H. Sakamoto
Study on the control of flow past circular cylinder at subcritical Reynolds number by LES 533
G. Cui, Y. Liu, C. Xu & Z. Zhang
Numerical analysis of 3-D turbulent flow in the sump of the pump station 539
J.-H. Guo, H.-X. Chen & M. Zhao
Slamming – horizontal circular members in intertidal zone 547
V. Hariprasad, S. Neelamani & R. Sundaravadivelu
Nonlinear wave motions in containers and wave breaking characteristics 555
A. Royon, E.J. Hopfinger & A. Cartellier
Effects of travelling water screen configurations on pump sump flows 563
K.-S. Hwang, C.-H. Yang & H.-H. Hwung
Air entrainment induced by vorticity–free-surface interaction 569
A. Iafrati & E.F. Campana
Hydrodynamic load acting on an oar blade and an improvement of rower’s motion and
equipments by using rowing velocity prediction program 575
T. Kinoshita & H. Kobayashi
Water flow over box filled with porous media 583
C.J. Lai, J.M. Leu, H.C. Chan & G.T. Chang
Numerical study on flow field around hydrofoil of finite span with shallow submergence 589
S.J. Lee & J.M. Lee
Comparison of turbulence models in simulating flow past a circular cylinder above wall 597
D. Liang & L. Cheng
Vortex dislocation in wake-type flow caused by local spanwise nonuniformity 605
G.C. Ling, H.L. Zhao & J.Y. Niu
Free-surface waves due to a Stokeslet in a viscous fluid of infinite depth 611
D.-Q. Lu & A.T. Chwang
The interaction of gravity current with a submerged circular cylinder 619
K.M. Mok, K.K. Ieong & H. Yeh
On characteristics of tandem hydrofoils 627
K. Nakatake, J. Ando, A. Yoshitake & K. Kataoka
Effects of terrain on the slow spreading of fluid mud 633
T. Nakaya, M. Yuhi & H. Ishida
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Response characteristics and suppression of flow-induced vibrations of rectangular

prisms with cross-flow vibrations 641
H. Sakamoto, Md. Mahbub Alam & K. Takai
Vortex-induced vibration of cylinders with non-linear compliance 649
B. Stappenbelt & K. Thiagarajan
Numerical study of the three-dimensional flow around a vertical submerged cylinder 655
S. Umeda, M. Yuhi, H. Ishida & L. Cheng
Numerical simulation of water-entry and water-exit of a horizontal circular cylinder 663
Y. Xing-Kaeding, G. Jensen & M. Peric
Velocity distributions in rectangular-section and trapezoid-section open channel
flows with a new Reynolds-stress expression 671
M. Zheng & C. Hongxun
Author index 677
X
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Preface
The proceedings contain a selection of the papers presented at the Sixth International Conference
on Hydrodynamics (ICHD) held in Perth, Australia, 24–26 November 2004. All papers included in
the proceedings are peer-reviewed by international experts in the corresponding areas of research.
The keynote lectures were presented in ship and offshore hydrodynamics and coastal engineering.
This conference is the sixth of the series of international conferences on hydrodynamics. The
first International Conference on Hydrodynamics was held in Wuxi, China in 1994. Since then
conferences in the series have been held approximately biennially in Hong Kong, Seoul, Yokohama
and Tainan. The conference has become an important event among academics, practitioners and
researchers in the Australasian region. After five successful conferences in Asia, this is the first
time that the conference is held out of Asian region. ICHD 2004 is hosted by School of Civil &
Resource Engineering, The University of Western Australia. Based on the information gathered at
this point of time, this conference will be attended by over 100 delegates from around the world.
I would like to take this opportunity to thank the members of the local organising committee
and scientific committee who processed and reviewed the abstracts and full papers. In particular,
I would like to thank Mr. Kervin Yeow for his time and efforts devoted to the conference. I would
also like to thank Keynote Conferences for their efforts in organising the conference, the sponsors
for their generous financial support and my students and friends for their help.
Liang Cheng, Chairman of Local Committee

Perth, Western Australia
August 2004
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Organisation
Sponsors
Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Hong Kong.
Tainan Hydraulics Laboratory, National Cheng Kung University.
Australian Maritime College, Launceston, Australia.
Organising committee
A/Prof. Liang Cheng (Chair) The University of Western Australia
Ms. Rebecca Dicker (Secretary) Keynote Conferences
Prof. Andrew Deeks The University of Western Australia
Prof. Hong Hao The University of Western Australia
Dr. Azam Khan Curtin University of Technology
Dr. Chengwang Lei James Cook University
Dr. Jinzhu Xia Australia Maritime College
Mr. Kervin Yeow The University of Western Australia
A/Prof. Song-Ping Zhu University of Wollongang
Scientific committee
S. Armfield (AUS) W.T. Bakker (Netherlands) H. Chanson (AUS)
X.B. Chen (Fr) H.S. Choi (Korea) A.T. Chwang (HK)
S.T. Dong (China) G.H. Dong (China) L. Doctors (AUS)
O. Faltinsen (Norway) C.C. Fang (Taiwan) J. Fredsoe (Denmark)
T. Gourlay (AUS) Y.S. He (China) J.R.C. Hsu (Taiwan)
Y. Himeno (Japan) M. Isobe (Japan) J.J. Jensen (Denmark)
H. Kato (Japan) M. Kashiwagi (Japan) K. Klaka (AUS)
C.J. Lai (Taiwan) Y.C. Li (China) L. Li (AUS)
W. Liao (China) S.J. Lee (Korea) J. J. Miau (Taiwan)
B. Melville (NZ) H. Miyata (Japan) H. Oumeraci (Germany)
V.C. Patel (USA) W.G. Price (UK) S.D. Sharma (Germany)
B.M. Sumer (Denmark) J. Suendermann (Germany) R. Eatock Taylor (UK)
B. Teng (China) Y. Tsujimoto (Japan) J. Xia (AUS)
R.J. Yang (Taiwan) Z.F. Yang (China) JX Yu (China)
Y. Zhuge (SA) S.P. Zhu (AUS)
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Keynote speakers
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Hydrodynamics of high speed marine vehicles
O.M. Faltinsen
Centre for Ships and Ocean Structures, NTNU, Trondheim, Norway
ABSTRACT: Hydrodynamics of high-speed vessels supported by submerged hulls, hydrofoils,

air cushion or a combination of these effects are considered. Resistance, propulsion, maneuvering
and seakeeping are covered in the presentation. A water jet system in calm water and in a seaway
is discussed. Special physical features of high-speed vessels are emphasized. Examples are the
cobblestone oscillations of an SES in small sea states, cavitation, ventilation, dynamic instabilities
and generation of waves (wash). The importance of nonlinear free surface effects in particular
for planing vessels is pointed out. Both local and global slamming effects are discussed from a
structural point of view.
1 INTRODUCTION
√
Hydrodynamicists tend to use a Froude number Fn = U / Lg larger than about 0.4 to characterize a
fast vessel. Here U is the ship speed, L is the ship length and g is acceleration of gravity. The Froude
number has a clear relevance for vessels supported by the submerged hull, e.g. monohulls and cata-
marans. The pressure carrying the vessel can be divided into hydrostatic and hydrodynamic pressure.
The hydrodynamic pressure depends on the flow around the hull and is approximately proportional
to the square of the ship speed. Roughly speaking the buoyancy (hydrostatic) force dominates
relative to the hydrodynamic force effect when Fn is less than approximately 0.4. When Fn > 1.0–
1.2, the hydrodynamic force mainly carries the weight, and we call this a planing vessel. Vessels
operating with maximum speed in the range 0.4–0.5 < Fn < 1.0–1.2 are called semi-displacement
vessels.
Ship speeds about 50 knots represent an important barrier for a high-speed vessel. This is when
cavitation typically starts to be a problem, for instance on the foils and on the propulsion system.
Supercavitation means that the suction side of the foil is not wetted. Partial cavitation can cause
damage to a foil or a propeller blade in terms of implosion of bubbles. In addition ventilation can
occur, for instance as a consequence of cavitation. Ventilation means that there is a connection or
an air tunnel between the air and the foil surface. Occurrence of ventilation also leads to significant
drop in the lifting capacity of a foil. Supercavitating foils and propellers are used to increase the
speed barrier substantially beyond 50 knots.
Minimization of the hull weight with consideration of the structural strength is important for
all high-speed vessels. One early foil catamaran design resulted in too heavy foils and struts. The
consequence was reduced payload and unsatisfactory transport economy.
Ship wave generation, i.e. wash, and limited seakeeping ability are important issues for further
market expansion. The decay of the generated waves perpendicular to the ship’s course is important
from a coastal engineering point of view.
There is a broad variety of high-speed vessels in use with very different physical features. The
vessel weight can be supported by submerged hulls, hydrofoils, air cushion, or a combination of
these effects. Figure 1 from the FAST’91 Conference illustrates a fictitious high-speed vessel using
air cushion, foils and submerged hulls to support the vessel weight. The air cushion is enclosed
between the side hulls and by seals in the forward and aft end of the vessel.
3
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Figure 1. Fictitious high-speed vessel with air cushion, foils and SWATH effects.
Figure 2. Water jet propulsion system. Pump and stator located between positions
3 and .
5
2 GENERAL HYDRODYNAMIC BACKGROUND
The classical disciplines in ship hydrodynamics are resistance, propulsion, maneuvering and sea-
keeping. Each main type of high-speed vessels have special hydrodynamic features. This will be
dealt with in later sections. The resistance can be divided into viscous resistance, spray and spray
rail resistance, wave resistance, appendage resistance, added resistance in wind and waves. The
main type of propulsion unit for a high-speed vessel of non-planing type is water jets. Important
issues for the ITTC (International Towing Tank Conference) are to develop procedures for model
test measurements of thrust and efficiency and how to scale the results to full scale. The boundary
layer caused by the vessel can have a thickness of the order of the width of the inlet at position
1 in Figure 2. The thrust of the water jet is estimated by considering a stream tube from slightly
upstream of position 1 to position 7 in Figure 2 and using conservation of fluid momentum.
The power delivered by the impeller of the pump can be expressed by conservation of kinetic fluid
energy. The energy is used to accelerate the water through the water jet system, to lift the water a
height above the mean water level and to overcome the losses in the water jet flow. Even if cavitation
is a smaller problem for a water jet than a propeller, consideration of cavitation is important in the
design of the pump and the water jet inlet area. The lip at position 2 in Figure 2 is an area where
cavitation may occur. The effect of a seaway is important to consider for a water jet. This will be
further discussed in section 6 dealing with an SES.
Propellers fitted to inclined shafts are sometimes used for planing vessels and hydrofoil vessels.
The oblique inflow to the propeller and the nonuniform wake due to the shaft cause more easily
cavitation problems than for instance for a tractor propeller with Z-drive.
4
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It is generally sufficient in maneuvering analysis of displacement vessels at moderate speed to

consider only the motions in the horizontal plane. However, motions in all six degrees of freedom
are often necessary to include in the analysis of high-speed vessels. The hydrodynamic forces and
moments acting on the vessel are clearly influenced by the forward speed, e.g. in terms of the waves
generated by the maneuvering of the vessel.
Water impact (slamming) is an important sea load for all high-speed vessels. This has both local
and global structural effects. Slamming is a complex physical phenomenon where for instance
hydroelasticity and air cushions may matter. It is essential in the analysis of slamming to consider
the problem from a structural reaction point of view, for instance in terms of structural stresses. This
will eliminate complicating hydrodynamic effects as the compressibility of the water. Global wave
load effects from a structural stress point of view are most important for vessels larger than 50 m.
A ship is often hydrodynamically optimized in calm water conditions. Since good seakeeping
behaviour is an important feature of a high-speed vessel, optimization in calm water conditions
may lead to unwanted behaviour in a seaway. Both wave resistance and wave radiation damping
of wave induced vessel motions are due to the ship’s ability to generate waves. Since low wave
resistance may imply low wave radiation damping in heave and pitch, the result can be unwanted
large resonant vertical motions of a semi-displacement vessel. However, this can be counteracted
at high speed if the vessel is equipped with damping foils.
Another example is the recent designs of passenger cruise vessels with very shallow local draught
and nearly horizontal surfaces in the aft part of the ship. This was the result of hydrodynamic
optimization studies in calm water. One does not need to be a hydrodynamicist to understand that
this caused slamming problems. Aft bodies with shallow draught should also be of concern for
directional stability and for ventilation of water jet inlets in waves. Hydrodynamic optimization
studies must therefore consider resistance, propulsion, maneuvering and seakeeping. There are
obviously also constraints of non-hydrodynamic character, for instance, minimalization of ship
motions may lead to higher global structural loads.
3 SEMI-DISPLACEMENT VESSELS
The most common type of commercial high-speed vessels is the catamaran. The catamaran is often
equipped with an automatic motion control system and, for example foils, trim tabs and/or inter-
ceptors that minimize wave-induced motions. Catamaran designs include the wavepiercing and
semi-SWATH type of hulls. Trimarans and pentamarans with one large centre hull combined with
smaller outrigger hulls are other types of multi-hull vessels.
The beam-draught ratio of semi-displacement monohulls with lengths longer than approximately
50 m may vary from around 5 to more than 7 which is very different from displacement ships. Large
monohulls are often equipped with automatic motion control devices similar to the ones used for
catamarans. Roll fins are common to use. Pronounced increase in the length of a submerged hull
is generally favourable for the wave induced vertical motion and acceleration. It means that a
relatively long monohull with the same displacement as a catamaran has an advantage relative to
the catamaran. However, attention has to be paid to roll motion of monohull vessels.
A Small WaterplaneAreaTwin Hull (SWATH) vessel has higher natural periods in heave and pitch
and generally lower vertical excitation loads than a similarly sized catamaran. If control surfaces are
not used, a SWATH is dynamically unstable in the vertical plane beyond a certain Froude number.
A SWATH has better seakeeping behaviour than a similarly sized catamaran operating in head-sea
conditions. However, if the sea state, speed and heading cause resonant vertical motions of the
SWATH, it may not have a good seakeeping behaviour. The reason is small hydrodynamic damping
in heave and pitch.
Both viscous and wave resistance matter for a semi-displacement vessel. Viscous resistance
estimates are often based on simple formulas for 2D flow along a flat plate. Three-dimensional
flow corrections are introduced by experimentally determined form factors. The effect of hull
roughness is important to account for. Wave resistance can be either experimentally or numerically
5
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Figure 3. Example on hollow in the water aft of the transom stern. The Froude number is 0.47. The length of
the hollow increases with Froude number.
determined. Nonlinearities matter and the hollow in the water aft of a transom stern at Froude
numbers larger than 0.3–0.4 must be accounted for (see Figure 3). Wave interaction between the
hulls of a multi-hull vessel can be significant. When the Froude number is larger than approximately
0.5–0.6, divergent wave effects dominate. This implies that 2.5D (2D+t) theories represent a good
approximation except in the close vicinity of the bow and the transom stern where the flow is fully
3D. An interceptor at the transom stern can therefore not be handled. Analysis of interceptors would
also need to consider viscous effects. This is not normally included in a 2.5D numerical method.
The effect of breaking bow and stern waves can be accounted for by using for instance the SPH
(Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics) method (Tulin and Landrini, 2000). Vorticity is created when
a plunging breaker hits the underlying water. This impact cannot be accounted for by a Boundary
Element Method (BEM) solving Laplace equation. However, the jet flow of the plunging breaker
can be numerically cut off without influencing the ship resistance. These methods will correctly
account for the pressure part of the spray resistance. Since viscosity is neglected, the viscous part
of spray resistance is not predicted.
The linear thin ship theory by Michell (1898) can give valuable information about wave resis-
tance. The theory has been modified by several researchers to account for wave interference between
waves generated by the separate hulls of a multi-hull vessel. This can be used to optimize distance
and stagger between different hulls from a wave resistance point of view. By wave interference is
meant that the waves generated by each hull are superposed without accounting for that the waves
generated by one hull will be diffracted by another hull.
The wash and wave resistance is affected by finite water depth h when the water depth – ship
√
length ratio h/L is smaller than approximately 0.4. The depth Froude number Fnh = U / gh plays
then an important role. There are both transverse and divergent waves for subcritical speed, i.e.
Fnh < 1. The Kelvin angle defining the outer boundary of the waves is close to the deep water
result for Fnh < 0.6 and increases strongly when Fnh > 0.9 until the waves are perpendicular to
the ship’s course at critical speed. Only divergent waves are created according to linear steady flow
theory at supercritical Froude numbers Fnh > 1. These waves decay slowly with the distance from
the ship. Actually, a linear shallow water theory predicts no wave decay (Tuck, 1966). Unsteady
and nonlinear effects become important in the vicinity of the critical Froude number Fnh = 1 at
small values of h/L. If the ship is in a channel, this will cause large solitary waves propagating
upstream of the ship. This is common to analyze with the Boussinesq equation. However, how to
incorporate the ship in the analysis is often approximated. The linear wave resistance can be used
as an integrated measure of how large the wash is at different h/L and Fnh (Yang, 2002).
The unsteady waves created by the ship motions and diffraction of incident waves can cause
resonant fluid motions between the hulls of a multi-hull vessel. The effect decreases with increasing
speed and the dominant resonance periods will not always be in a period range of important ship
motions and sea loads.
It is important to investigate the wave induced motions and loads at different vessel headings
relative to the wave propagation direction. For instance, a catamaran in following regular waves
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may have a speed close to the phase speed of the waves. Further, if the wavelength is of the order of
the vessel’s length, the catamaran can assume a position relative to the waves so that the fore part of
the vessel dives into a wave crest. The slender fore part will normally not have sufficient buoyancy
and the more voluminous aft part will be lifted up by the waves. The result is a significant amount
of water in over the fore deck.
Directional instability in following sea with the subsequent risk of capsizing when the vessel has
broached, becoming broadside to the waves is a well known phenomenon for monohulls. This is
referred to as “broaching” and can occur under similar conditions as the “dive-in”. Since a multi-
hull semi-displacement vessel has good static stability in roll and is very difficult to capsize in
waves, broaching is less important for catamarans. However, large sway and yaw motions as well
as steering problems may also occur for catamarans in following and quartering sea.
Quasi-static stability in roll of monohulls in following sea with small frequency of encounter
should also be considered. This is of particular concern if the local water plane area, i.e. local width
of the hull at the hull/water line intersection clearly changes as a function of local draught. The
hydrostatic transverse stability should then be calculated as a function of different frozen incident
wave shapes along the ship. These frozen conditions should also be considered as structural load
cases for the hull girder. When calculating hydrostatic stability, the increased importance of steady
hydrodynamic pressure on the hull with increasing speed relative to hydrostatic pressure should be
recognized. This is an implicit consequence of being a “semi-displacement” vessel.
Wetdeck slamming is important to consider for multi-hull vessels. It can cause both local and
global effects. If the angle between the impacting free surface and the wetdeck surface is small,
let us say smaller than 5 degrees, hydroelasticity matters for local slamming effects. The very high
slamming pressures happening in a condition as that are too concentrated in space and time to
directly influence maximum structural stresses. The structure needs time to react. When analyzing
the global effect due to wetdeck slamming, a detailed slamming model is unnecessary (Ge et al.,
2004). However, it is important to account for both the water entry and exit phase. By water entry
and exit are meant that the wetted surface of the wetdeck respectively increases and decreases.
Global hydroelastic effects play an important role. Accurate numerical predictions of the slamming
effects are sensitive to the predictions of relative vertical motions and velocities in the impact area
as well as the relative angles between the impacting free surface and the wetdeck surface. The trim
angle is an important parameter. This requires numerical tools that properly consider the steady
and unsteady flow effects. Conventional strip theories have limited applicability. Model tests can
also have large uncertainties (Ge et al., 2004). An important error source can be changing wave
conditions along the track of the ship model. In Ge et al.’s study there was also large uncertainties
associated with the autopilot-system and an asymmetry in the mass distribution about the centre
plane. This caused unintended roll, yaw and sway motions in head sea longcrested water. However,
the largest uncertainty was associated with inaccurate trim measurements.
4 PLANING VESSELS
2D water entry theory based on potential flow can be combined with a 2.5D theory to predict the
steady vertical position and trim of a planing vessel with hard chines (Zhao et al., 1997). The exact
nonlinear free surface conditions without gravity are satisfied. It is essential to account for flow
separation from the chines. Further developments should include the gravity effect. The pressure
distribution causing the lift and trim of the vessel will also have a resistance component.
Special dynamic instability problems may occur for a planing vessel. Examples are “chine
walking” (dynamic roll oscillations), “porpoising”/dynamic coupled pitch-heave oscillation) and
“corkscrewing” (pitch-yaw-roll oscillations).The propulsion unit, rudders, cavitation and ventila-
tion may also influence stability. A scenario might be two supercavitating propellers where one of
them suddenly ventilates. This causes an asymmetry in thrust with resulting directional instability.
Studies of cavitation and ventilation effects in model scale requires that the cavitation number is
the same in model and full scales. This is not possible to satisfy in a conventional towing tank.
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Figure 4. Illustration how 2D water entry analysis can be used in steady flow analysis of a planing vessel.
When the planing craft passes through an earth-fixed plane, the problem is similar to 2D water entry of a body
with changing form. U = Ship speed. τ = trim angle (rad) (Zhao et al., 1998).
The wave induced motions and accelerations of a planing vessel are strongly influenced by
nonlinearities and interaction between steady and unsteady flow. The vessel can under certain
circumstances jump out of the water in waves. When the vessel later on impacts on the water, large
vertical accelerations occur. This is also an important slamming load case. Further development of
rational theoretical methods that can handle dynamic instabilities as well as wave induced motions
and loads on planing vessels is needed.
5 FOIL-SUPPORTED VESSELS
Hydrofoil-supported monohulls have either fully-submerged or free-surface-piercing foils. The

first commercial high-speed vessels were the monohull hydrofoil boats with free-surface-piercing
foils. If the flap angle of the foils and the trim of the vessel are held constant, the foil lifting capacity
increases approximately with the square of the vessel’s speed until cavitation occurs. Since the foil
lift is approximately proportional to the projection of the foil area on to the mean free surface,
the inclined free-surface-piercing foils need larger foil area than fully-submerged foils for a given
weight and design speed. The free-surface-piercing foil is self-stabilizing with respect to vertical
position, heel and trim.
In the beginning of the 1990’s foil catamarans were a promising concept, having small resistance
and good seakeeping behaviour. Fully-submerged horizontal foil systems were used. A control
system that activates foil flaps is needed to stabilize heave, roll and pitch of a hydrofoil boat with
fully-submerged foils in foilborne condition. Another important design consideration is sufficient
power and efficiency of the propulsor system to lift the vessel to the foilborne condition. This is of
special concern when water jet propulsion is used and is due to its decreased efficiency at lower
speeds. Another concern is the ventilation along one of the two forward struts during maneuvering.
This may ventilate the forward foil system and cause loss of the lift force. A coordinated turn
with a bank (heel) angle limits the transverse hydrodynamic forces on the struts and reduces the
probability of ventilation.
Foil cavitation limits the vessel’s speed to about 50 knots. Proper design to delay cavitation on
the aft foil system requires evaluation of the wake from the forward foil system. This is affected
by the divergent and transverse waves generated by the forward foil. An important effect is due to
roll-up of tip vortices originating from the forward foil system (see Figure 5). The wake from the
forward foils causes an angle of attack that varies along the span of the aft foil (see Figure 6). This
can be counteracted by using a twisted aft foil that is adapted to the inflow. One foil catamaran
experienced problems with foil cavitation during operation. This was resolved by drilling holes in
the aft part of the foils to provide communication between the flow on the pressure and suction
sides of the foils.
Reynolds number scaling of model test results of foils and struts represents a challenge. Viscous
resistance of the foils and struts is an important contribution to the total resistance. Viscosity also
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Figure 5. Interaction between the foils of a foil catamaran. The wake (shear layer) including roll up of tip
vortices generated by the two upstream low-aspect ratio lifting surface affects the angle of attack of the flow
at the downstream (aft) foil. The waves generated by the forward foils will also affect the aft foil.
Figure 6. Calculated downwash along the aft foil (AF) due to two small aspect-ratio forward foils (FF) for a foil
catamaran (see Figure 5) at 50 knots. Displacement = 102 tonnes. 60% of lift generated by aft foil (AF). Span
AF = 7.8 m. Average chord AF = 1.3 m. Span FF = 2.5 m. Average chord FF = 0.95 m. Foil immersion = 1.9 m.
Distance between mid-span of forward foils = 5.45 m. Distance from FF to AF = 17.1 m. Effect of roll up of
the vortex sheet and generation of the free surface waves are included (Mørch, 1992).
affects the lift and cavity inception. It is necessary that the boundary layer flow of the foil is mainly
turbulent during model testing. Hama strips is one possibility to trigger turbulence with small
change of foil profile.
Very precise and smooth foil surfaces are needed from a resistance, lift and cavitation point of
view. This requires special fabrication procedures and frequent cleaning during operation. The high
production and maintenance costs are important reasons why few foil catamarans have been built.
There also exist hydrofoil-assisted catamarans where the foils only partially lift the vessel.
If a motion control system is not used, large vertical wave induced vessel motions will occur
when the frequency of encounter is small, for instance in following waves. However, very good
seakeeping characteristics can be obtained with a motion control system.
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6 AIR-CUSHION SUPPORTED VESSELS
Surface Effect Ships (SES) or air-cushion catamarans of lengths less than 40 m were frequently
built for commercial use until the middle of the 1990’s. An air cushion is enclosed between the
two side hulls and by flexible rubber seals in the bow and aft end (see Figure 7). The skirt in the
front end is easily worn out. Yamakita and Itoh (1998) made a broad investigation of the wear
characteristics of the bow seal fingers on the SES test craft Megura-2 by means of sea trials. Very
high accelerations of the fingers were measured. This is probably caused by flutter.
The excess pressure in the air cushion is produced by a fan system which lifts the vessel and
thereby carries about 80% of the weight. The excess pressure reduces the metacentric height but the
static roll stability is still good. It also causes a mean depression of the free surface inside the cushion
that results in waves and wave resistance. However, since the hull wetted surface is diminished, the
total calm water resistance is small relative to a catamaran of similar dimensions. The lifting-up of
the SES will also cause an increase in air resistance. Since resistance is proportional to the mass
density of the fluid and the air density is only about 1/1000 of the water density, the air resistance
is smaller than water resistance. The ship speed can be up to 50 knots in small sea states.
Resonance oscillations in the air cushion cause “cobblestone” oscillations with a dominant fre-
quency around 2 Hz for a 30–40 m long vessel. Physical effects influencing cobblestone oscillations
are illustrated in Figure 8. The word “cobblestone” is associated with the feeling of driving a car
on a road with badly layed cobblestones. The highest natural period is due to a mass-spring system
where the compressibility of the air in the cushion acts like a spring. The mass is related to the
total weight of the SES. The damping is small and caused by air leakage and the lifting fans. The
excitation is induced by volume changes in the air cushion due to incident waves. The resonant
oscillations require incident wave energy at a frequency of encounter close to the natural frequen-
cies of the cobblestone oscillations. This occurs in very small sea states. The resulting vertical
accelerations are of concern from a comfort point of view. Damping of the cobblestone oscilla-
tions can be increased by an active control system introducing air leakage through louvers. The
placement of the louver system is essential. For instance, if the louver system is placed midships,
it will have a negligible effect on the lowest acoustic resonance mode in the cushion. If no special
attention is paid to scaling laws, the cobblestone phenomenon will not be detected in model tests
that are based on Froude scaling. If the SES is on cushion and no cobblestone oscillations occur,
the vessel has generally lower vertical accelerations than a similarly sized catamaran in head seas
(see Figure 9).
When the SES is on cushion, there is a small distance from a water jet inlet at the hull bottom
to the air cushion. This can easily cause ventilation of the water jet inlet in a seaway or during
turning as a consequence of a heel angle. Since the water jet inlet flow acts similar to a flow sink,
Figure 7. Artist’s impression of an SES (Surface Effect Ship) illustrating the air cushion with fans to lift the
vessel and with flexible skirts in the bow and a flexible bag in the aft end used to enclose the air cushion
between two catamaran hulls. The side hulls are not shown in the figure.
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significant cross-flow occurs in the vicinity of the inlet. If the hull cross-section has a small radius
of curvature in the inlet area, very high local velocities and low pressures occur. This increases the
danger of ventilation even in calm water.
Meek-Hansen (1991) presented service experience with a 37 m long SES equipped with diesel
engines and water jet propulsion. An example with significant wave height, H1/3 , around 2 m, head
sea and 35 knots speed showed significant engine load fluctuations at intervals of 6 to 12 seconds.
These fluctuations result in increased thermal loads in a certain time period, caused by a very high
fuel/air ratio. These high thermal loads may lead to engine breakdowns.
Possible reasons for the engine load fluctuations are believed to be: exposure of the water jet inlet
to the free air, flow separation in front of and inside the inlet, ventilation and penetration of air from
the free water surface or from entrained air in the boundary layer. The phenomena mentioned above
often interact in a complicated way, e.g. separation may be one of the causes for onset of ventilation
and cavitation. Under certain conditions a cavity can be penetrated and filled with air. Separation
Figure 8. Physical effects influencing cobblestone oscillations of an SES (Ulstein, 1995).
Figure 9. Calculated operational limits of similarly sized catamaran and SES in head sea longcrested waves
with different significant wave heights (H1/3 ) and mean wave periods (T1 ). The 0.2 g RMS value of vertical
acceleration at the Centre of Gravity (COG) is used as a criterion. Involuntary speed loss due to wind resistance
and added resistance in waves are considered.
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and cavitation are primarily dependent on the pressure distribution in and near the water jet inlet. For
a given inlet geometry this distribution depends mainly on speed and thrust (resistance) of the ship.
Exposure of the water jet inlet to free air is a result of the relative vertical motions between the
vessel and the waves. An operational limit can be related to the probability of exceeding a certain
limit of the relative vertical motion amplitude between the vessel and the waves at the water jet
inlet. In particular, with an SES equipped with flush inlets, the exposure to free air represents a
problem even for small sea states. The reason is the small distance between the inlet and the calm
water surface inside the air cushion. Fences on the cushion side of the side hulls have been proposed
to deal with this problem.
An SES experiences a more significant involuntary speed loss than a similarly sized catamaran
in a seaway. The relative vertical motions between the vessel and the waves cause air leakage which
decreases the air cushion pressure when the lifting power is kept constant. The resulting sinkage
implies higher resistance. If the fan system does not have sufficient power to maintain air cushion
pressure, significant speed loss can occur even in moderate sea states.
The Air-Cushion Vehicle (ACV) is the oldest type of air cushion supported vessel. Since a flexible
seal system is used for the air cushion, the ACV is amphibious. It also implies that air propellers are
used. This may represent a noise problem. Since there is no submerged hull to provide hydrostatic
restoring moments in roll and pitch, static stability in these modes of motion needs attention during
the design state.
Air Lubrication Technology (ALT) use air caverns that run for approximately half the length
of a hull in the aft part of the vessel. Air cushion has also been considered in connections with
Ekranoplanes or Wing-in-ground (WIG) vehicles to facilitate the lifting to airborne condition. The
WIG flies close to the water surface. This gives extra lift.
7 CONCLUSIONS
The vessel weight of a high-speed vessel can be supported by submerged hulls, hydrofoils, air
cushion or a combination of these effects. Submerged-hull supported vessels can hydrodynamically
be categorized and divided into semi-displacement and planing hulls.
Ship speeds about 50 knots represent an important barrier for a high-speed vessel. This is when
cavitation typically starts to be a problem.
Many high-speed vessels use automatic motion and acceleration control. A hydrofoil vessel with
fully-submerged foils needs an automatic control system to maintain a steady position.
It is often necessary to consider special fluid dynamic phenomena for the different types of high-
speed vessels. An example is the “cobblestone” oscillations associated with resonance oscillations
in the air cushion of an SES in small sea states.
The waves, i.e. wash, generated by a high-speed vessel are for instance of concern from a coastal
engineering point of view. The wave resistance is an integrated measure of the wash.
When the water depth-ship length ratio is less than approximately 0.4, the effect of finite depth
and the depth Froude number must be considered.
Water jet is the most common propulsion system for commercial high-speed vessels. How to
measure thrust and efficiency in model tests and how a seaway affects the performance require
further studies. A water jet inlet with small submergence, for instance on an SES, can suffer
ventilation both in calm water conditions and in a seaway.
Maneuvering analysis of high-speed vessels requires that motions in six degrees of freedom are
considered. The hydrodynamic loads on the vessel during high-speed maneuvering will be affected
by wave generation.
Ventilation of struts and the wake effect of upstream foils on an aft foil are examples on
challenging hydrodynamic problems for a hydrofoil vessel.
Divergent steady and unsteady waves are dominating the wave system generated by a semi-
displacement vessel at maximum operating speed. This implies that a 2.5D (2D+t) theory can be
used except for the close vicinity of the bow and the stern. Interceptors at the transom stern can
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therefore not be handled. Nonlinearities associated with breaking waves and the hollow in the water
aft of the transom stern should be considered. However, Michell’s linear thin ship theory for wave
resistance is still useful.
Many different dynamic instability problems can occur for a planing hull. Hydrodynamic analysis
of steady and unsteady performance of a planing hull requires a nonlinear method that accounts
for flow separation from chines. Interaction between steady and unsteady flow is important. The
possibility that a planing vessel can jump out of the water in a seaway must be accounted for.
Further development of theoretical methods for dynamic behaviour of planing vessels is needed.
Slamming represents an important sea load for all types of high-speed vessels. Hydroelastic-
ity can matter both in a local and global slamming analysis. Slamming must be studied from a
structural reaction point of view. This will eliminate complicating hydrodynamic phenomena as
the compressibility of the water. If very high slamming pressures occur, there are in general small
correlation between the magnitudes of maximum slamming pressures and structural stresses.
Hydrodynamic optimization of high-speed vessels must not be limited to calm water conditions.
The interaction between hydrodynamic and structural analysis needs to be considered.
REFERENCES
Ge, C., Faltinsen, O.M., Moan, T., 2004, Global hydroelastic response of catamarans due to wetdeck slamming,
to be published in J. Ship Res.
Meek-Hansen, B., 1991, Engine running conditions during high speed marine craft operations, In Proc.
FAST’91, ed. K.O. Holden, O.M. Faltinsen, Vol. 2: pp. 861–876, Trondheim: Tapir Publishers.
Michell, J.M., 1898, The wave resistance of a ship, Phil. Mag., Series 5, Vol. 45: pp. 106–123, London,
England.
Mørch, J.B., 1992, Aspect of hydrofoil design with emphasis on hydrofoil interaction in calm water, Dr.ing.
thesis, Dept. of Marine Hydrodynamics, NTNU, Trondheim, Norway.
Tuck, E.O., 1966, Shallow water flow past slender bodies, J. Fluid Mech., Vol. 26: pp. 89–95.
Tulin, M., Landrini, M., 2000, Breaking waves in the ocean and around ships, In Proc. 23rd Symp. on Naval
Hydrodynamics, Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
Ulstein, T., 1995, Nonlinear effects of a flexible stern seal bag by cobblestone oscillations of an SES, Dr.Ing
thesis, Dept. of Marine Hydrodynamics, NTNU, Trondheim, Norway.
Yamakita, K., Itoh, H., 1998, Sea trial test results of the wear characteristics of SES bow seal finger, In
Proc. Hydroelasticity in Marine Technology, ed. M. Kashiwagi, W. Koteryama, M. Ohkusu, pp. 471–476,
Fukuoka, Japan: RIAM, Kyushu University.
Yang, Q., 2002, Wash and wave resistance of ships in finite water depth, Dr.ing. thesis, Dept. of Marine
Technology, NTNU, Trondheim, Norway.
Zhao, R., Faltinsen, O.M., Haslum, H., 1997, A simplified nonlinear analysis of a high-speed planing craft in
calm water, In Proc. FAST’97, ed. N. Baird, Vol. 1: pp. 431–438, South Yarra, Victoria and London: Baird
Publications.
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Liquefaction around Marine Structures, LIMAS, an EU research

program
B. Mutlu Sumer
Technical University of Denmark, MEK, Coastal and River Engineering Section ( formerly ISVA),
Lyngby, Denmark
ABSTRACT: During the past three years, EU has supported a research program on LIquefaction
around Marine Structures (LIMAS) (http://vb.mek.dtu.dk/research/limas/limas.html). The pro-
gram has been undertaken by a consortium of 10 European institutions (universities, hydraulics
and geotechnical engineering laboratories and consulting companies). In this presentation, this
research program is described, highlighting the objectives of more than ten sub-projects under the
program, focusing on different aspects of the topic. The major part of the program concerns the
wave-induced liquefaction although the seismic-induced liquefaction is also studied with regard to
its impact on marine structures.
1 THE RESEARCH PROGRAM AND ITS OBJECTIVE
LIquefaction around Marine Structures (LIMAS) LIMAS is a three-year (2001–2004) research

program funded by the Commission of the European Union Directorate General XII within the
framework of EU Fifth Framework Program with specific program: Energy, Environment and
Sustainable Development, Key Action 3 “Sustainable Marine Ecosystems”.
The objectives of the program are two-fold: (1) To investigate potential risks for failure of
structures due to liquefaction; and (2) To prepare and disseminate practical guidelines (guidance
for design and maintenance), to be developed from the present research and also taking into
consideration all state-of-the-art knowledge.
2 MOTIVATION
In the geotechnical-engineering terminology, liquefaction stands for the state of the soil where the
effective stresses between the individual grains in the bed vanish, and therefore the water-sediment
mixture as a whole acts like a fluid. Under this condition, the soil fails, thus precipitating failure of
the supported structure such as breakwaters, seawalls, pile structures, sea barriers, pipelines, and
armouring systems. Some such failures have been catastrophic (Figs 1 and 2).
While a substantial amount of knowledge has accumulated on flow and morphological processes
around marine structures in the last decade or so, comparatively little is known about the impact
of liquefaction on these structures. The topic has been very little covered in recent EU research
which has substantially advanced the design of coastal structures, but not of their foundations with
regard to soil liquefaction. This is basically what has motivated the present research.
3 ORGANIZATION OF LIMAS
The program is organized in two tasks: Task 1. Liquefaction/Structure/Scour; and Task 2. Related
processes and implementation.
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Figure 1. Aerial view of two pipelines floated to the surface on a mud flat. Taken from Damgaard (2004).
Courtesy of David Osario.
Figure 2. Kocaeli (Turkey) Earthquake, 1999, Derince Port. Backfill behind the quay wall was liquefied and
eventually settled. Quay wall damaged and crane damaged. Image: 2 years after the earthquake. Taken from
Sumer (2004).
Task 1 consists of five workpackages (WP):

• WP1. Liquefaction around a structure due to buildup of pore pressure under waves;
• WP2. Fluid-Soil-Structure interaction in liquefaction around coastal structures;
• WP3. Investigation of processes susceptible to lead to liquefaction in the bed below caisson
breakwaters. Large-Scale facility experiments;
• WP4. Field study of liquefaction and scour around coastal structures; and
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• WP5. Stability of slender cylindrical structures on a liquefied bed, and scour around structures
in fully or partially liquefied soil.
Task 2 also consists of five workpackages:
• WP6. Bearing capacity of sand during partially drained conditions caused by impulsive loads;
• WP7. Development of a soil sampler for investigation of real gas content in pore water;
• WP8. Impact of earthquake-induced liquefaction on marine structures;
• WP9. Formulation of guidelines for design and maintenance; and
• WP10. Mathematical modelling of pore-pressure generation due to earthquakes and the effect
of the Kocaeli (Turkey) Earthquake on marine structures.
Laboratory studies (WP1, WP2, WP5, WP6, WP7, WP10), large-scale laboratory studies (WP3),
theoretical and numerical methods (WP4, WP5, WP6, WP8, WP10), and field investigations (WP4,
WP7, WP10) have been adopted to achieve the previously mentioned objectives.
4 LIMAS CONSORTIUM
The research program has been undertaken by a consortium consisting of ten member institutions:
• Technical University of Denmark, MEK, Coastal and River Engineering (formerly ISVA, Depart-
ment of Hydrodynamics and Water Resources), Building 403, 2800 Lyngby, Denmark. Contact
person: B. Mutlu Sumer, Coordinator of the research program
• UPPA, Ecole Nationale en Génie des Technologies, Industrielles Université de Pau et des Pays
de l’Adour BP 576, 64012 PAU Cédex, France. Contact person: Mathieu Mory
• LWI,Technische Universitat Braunschweig Leichtweiss Institut fur Wasserbau, Beethovenstrasse
51 a DE-38106 Braunschweig, Germany. Contact person: Hocine Oumeraci
• INPG, Laboratoire Sols, Solides, Structures Domaine Universitaire BP 53 38041 Grenoble
Cedex France. Contact person: Pierre Foray
• LIC engineering A/S, Ehlersvej 24 2900 Hellerup, Denmark. Contact person: Niels-Erik Ottesen
Hansen
• NTNU, Department of Geotechnical Engineering institutt for geoteknikk, Høgskoleringen 7
7491 Trondheim, Norway. Contact person: Rolf Sandven
• GeoDelft, Stieltjesweg 2 2628 CK Delft, The Netherlands. Contact person: Maarten B. de Groot
• HR Wallingford Ltd. Howbery Park Wallingford, Oxon OX10 8BA, United Kingdom. Contact
person: Jesper Damgaard
• Institute of Hydroengineering, Polish Academy of Sciences, Korcierska 7, 80-953 Gdansk,
Poland. Contact person: Andrzej Sawicki
• University of Cambridge, Department of Engineering, Trumpington Street, Cambridge CB2
1PZ, United Kingdom. Contact person: Andrew Palmer
5 LIMAS WORKSHOPS
Progress made in the research program has been reported in six-monthly workshops. The final
workshop, held in Pau, France, 5–6 April, 2004, has been in the form of an end-user meeting to
present state-of-the-art knowledge. The presentations made in this workshop can be found at the
following website: http://vb.mek.dtu.dk/research/limas/public/Power_Point_Presentations_End_
User_Workshop.html
The presentations include:
• Physics of liquefaction phenomena around marine structures by M.B. de Groot
• Soil liquefaction around and its implications for pipelines by J.S. Damgaard
• Liquefaction underneath wave-loaded gravity structures by M.B. de Groot
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• Seismic-induced liquefaction around marine structures by B.M. Sumer

• Mathematical modelling of soil liquefaction by S. Dunn
• Soil measurements regarding soil liquefaction (including the measurement of air/gas content)
by R. Sandven
• Observations of momentary liquefaction caused by breaking waves around a coastal structure –
Field study by M. Mory
6 LIMAS END PRODUCTS
Research reports, conference papers, journal papers, video recordings etc. summarizing the
results of more than ten sub-projects have been published during the cycle of the research pro-
gram. A complete list of LIMAS publications can be found at the website http://vb.mek.dtu.dk/
research/limas/public/LIMASpubl.htm
Additionally, A LIMAS Special Issue has been planned. This will appear in ASCE Journal of
Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Engineering. Seventeen papers are planned to be submitted to
this issue, covering the following aspects:
• Physics of liquefaction around marine structures
• Liquefaction around pipelines under waves
• Floatation of pipelines in soils liquefied by waves
• Liquefaction of soil induced by cyclic motion of a pipeline
• Stability of pipelines on liquefied seabed
• Numerical modeling of liquefaction around a pipeline
• Observation of momentary liquefaction caused by breaking waves around a coastal structure.
Field study
• Large-scale experiments on pore pressure generation underneath a caisson breakwater
• Soil reactions in saturated sand caused by impulsive loads
• A new soil sampler for measurement of gas content in soils
• Numerical modelling of liquefaction in the 1999 Turkey earthquake
• Wave scour around a pile in silt
• Review on mathematical modeling of soil liquefaction
• Test methods for evaluation of wave-induced liquefaction. Guidelines
• Liquefaction underneath marine gravity structures subjected to wave loads. Guidelines
• Wave-induced soil liquefaction around and its implications for pipelines. Guidelines
• Seismic-induced liquefaction around marine structures. Guidelines
Although the authors to the preceding contributions are, for the most part, LIMAS partic-
ipants, authors from outside LIMAS have also been invited. These include K. Zen (Kyushu
University, Japan), A. Ansal (Bosporus University, Turkey), Y. Yuksel (Yildiz University, Turkey),
A.R. Gunbak (STFA, Turkey), K.O. Cetin (METU, Turkey), C. Synolakis (University of South-
ern California, USA), A.C. Yalciner (METU, Turkey), T. Durgunoglu (ZETAS, Turkey), M. Long
(University College Dublin, Ireland), Figen Hatipoglu (ITU, Turkey) and A. Chan (University of
Birmingham, UK).
7 EXPECTED IMPACTS OF THE RESEARCH PROGRAM
It is important to design and construct marine structures in such way that reliable, economic and
environmentally compatible and well functioning coastal protection can be achieved. This requires
a comprehensive knowledge of the soil/foundation behaviour which supports them. This latter
issue is essentially what the present research program addresses. Incomplete knowledge results
in damage or failure of these structures, leading to unreliable or uneconomic protection measures
against flooding and erosion.
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K02 20/9/2004 16: 48 page 19
The benefits that will be gained from the research program may be summarized as follows: (1)
It will be ensured that the European coastal areas are protected with reliable, economic and envi-
ronmentally compatible and well functioning coastal structures, which is essential and of strategic
importance for the Community; (2) Coastal intervention options will be enhanced, an important
issue with regard to sustainability; (3) The guidelines that will be obtained from the research pro-
gram will help increase the long term integrity of the coastal structures (in addition to their safety)
which will help ménage the sustainable use of the ocean, which will in turn contribute to improving
the quality of life, health and safety; (4) Properly designed structures (by the implementation and
exploitation of the results) will protect coastal communities (including the tourist resorts) against
flooding and erosion better, and this will undoubtedly help improve the quality of life and safety
of European citizens; (5) The analysis of the risk of liquefaction around coastal structures will be
a useful tool for local communities in the preparation of plans of risk prevention, in contingency
plans such as disaster prevention plans with regard to earthquakes; (6) Failures of structures due
to soil/foundation problems will be avoided by designing the structures properly, therefore the
interruption of services will be avoided, benefiting the European Union industry and society; (7)
Upgrading of existing structures to withstand larger loads, or to alternative use, will be made on a
safer basis.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research program has been funded by the Commission of the European Communities,
Directorate-General XII for Science, Research and Development FP5 specific program “Energy,
Environment and Sustainable Development” Contract No. EVK3-CT-2000-00038, Liquefaction
Around Marine Structures LIMAS. The Scientific Officer in charge of the program was Mr. Chris-
tos Fragakis throughout the project except the last few months where Mr. Hartmut Barth has taken
over. Both Mr. Fragakis and Mr. Barth have been very supportive during the course of the program.
Their effort and time are gratefully acknowledged.
On this occasion, the author would like to take this opportunity to thank all the members of
the LIMAS Consortium for their invaluable input, very constructive comments/remarks on-line
or otherwise, particularly during the workshops. The author would also like to thank Mr. Jesper
Damgaard, the Task Leader in charge of Task 1 and Mr. Maarten B. de Groot, the Task Leader in
charge of Task 2, for their very effective/constructive cooperation.
REFERENCES
Damgaard, J.S. (2004). Soil liquefaction around and its implications for pipelines. LIMAS, End-
User Workshop to Present State-of-the-Art Knowledge, 5–6 April, 2004, Pau, France. See website
http://vb.mek.dtu.dk/research/limas/public/Power_Point_Presentations_End_User_Workshop.html
Sumer, B.M. (2004). Seismic-induced liquefaction around marine structures. LIMAS, End-User Workshop
to Present State-of-the-Art Knowledge, 5–6 April, 2004, Pau, France. See website http://vb.mek.dtu.dk/
research/limas/public/Power_Point_Presentations_End_User_Workshop.html
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chap-01 20/9/2004 16: 16 page 21
Naval architecture and ocean engineering

chap-01 20/9/2004 16: 16 page 23

Pentamaran hull for medium size fast ferries
E. Begovic, C. Bertorello, S. Caldarella & P. Cassella

Department of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
ABSTRACT: At present, medium distance marine transportation demands HSC for passengers,
cars and trucks with LWL around 110–120 m and cruising speed in the range 35–40 knots.
Designers and builders have developed proposals based on preceding experiences of smaller
ships, but the importance of the fast marine transportation for medium range calls for further
investigations aimed at developing new ship design for such routes.
Within this frame a pentamaran hull which could be suitable for medium distance routes, for
the requested general layout standards is presented in this paper. Main hull and outrigger are high
speed displacement slender hull forms. Intact stability prescriptions by IMO HSC Code have been
also verified.
Hydrodynamic characteristics and powering performances have been evaluated and optimised
by experimental tests performed with different outriggers positions. The powering performances
have been assessed and compared with those relative to a monohull ship with equivalent service
capabilities.
1 INTRODUCTION
The increasing demand for fast sea transportation has led till now to a significant growth of interest
in multi-hull ships for coastal areas, where at present the catamaran seems the leading commercial
type. Recently new unconventional larger multihull craft have been proposed. The study and the
development of such hull-forms is aimed both at reducing the high fuel consumption inevitably
linked to the higher speeds of monohull ships and at achieving the advantages of larger deck areas.
The trimaran and the pentamaran seem interesting possibilities due to the benefits given by their
very slender hull forms compared to the conventional monohull ships at medium-high speeds.
However trimaran ships have had a limited use till now and there is very little information about
pentamaran hull form and configuration. Besides, it is necessary a comparison of the performance
and the safety among this new ship type and the other different high speed vessels.
An experimental research has been carried out at Naples University towing tank by model tests of
a pentamaran hull form suitable for a ship to be used on medium distance Mediterranean routes and
equivalent to service capabilities of operative monohulls for transportation of 800–1000 passengers
and 280–300 cars at a cruising speed of 35–40 knots.
Transversal and longitudinal outrigger positions have been varied with the aim of performance
optimisation. Draught of the forward outriggers has been varied also. The resistance results are
compared with those relative to an equivalent operative mono hull ship.
Aim of this work is to give useful information on the performances of a realistic high-speed
pentamaran.
2 PENTAMARAN AND EQUIVALENT SHIP HULL FORMS
Hull design of the pentamaran has been developed on the basis of a realistic general layout. The
main hull is slender round bilge hull form from series 64 and the very slender outrigger hull forms
are from series 64 also, modified by geometrical affinity.
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chap-01 20/9/2004 16: 16 page 24
Table 1. Principal characteristics of the considered hulls in full scale.
Main hull Aft side hulls Fwd side hulls Pentamaran Mono hull
LOA (m) 107.311 21.475 21.475 107.311 89.300

LWL (m) 105.600 21.133 21.133 105.600 86.500
T (m) 4.416 0.417 0.417 4.416 3.610
B (m) 8.832 1.092 1.092 18.756 16.100
(t) 2322.0 5.96 5.96–1.98-0 2322–2340 2321.0
V max (kn) 36 36 36 36 36
CB 0.550 0.350 0.350 0.490
L/B 11.959 21.500 21.500 6.586
B/T 2.000 2.356 2.356 4.460
Fn 0.576 1.288 1.288 0.635
(a) (b)
Figure 1a. Pentamaran body plan. Figure 1b. The equivalent mono hull body
plan.
From preceding research about trimaran performance optimisation for the outrigger displacement
volume has been taken a minimum realistic value of the total volume. The considered outrigger
length is as 20% of main hull length.
Figure 1 shows the pentamaran main hull and outriggers, as well as equivalent mono hull body
plan.
Equivalent monohull is from NOVA Series, a further development of the well known NPL series.
This form is round bilge with transom also but with considerable different L/B and B/T values in
respect to the pentamaran main hull. The fuller body allows reduced main dimensions for equivalent
service capabilities.
3 EXPERIMENTAL SET UP AND MODEL TESTS
The resistance tests were conducted on the 1/30 pentamaran scale model in the Naples University
towing tank (110 m × 9 m × 4.20 m).
The isolated main hull, the isolated outriggers and the whole pentamaran hull in different
configurations were tested in calm water.
At first, in order to find the best trim of the pentamaran as regard the hydrodynamic resistance,
the main hull alone was tested for four different trim conditions (level position 0◦ , aft trim +0,5◦ ,
forward trims −0,5◦ and −1,0◦ ).
Afterwards, the outriggers alone were also tested to have indications about the interference
phenomena.
At last, the whole pentamaran hull at the best trim of the main hull was tested in the following
different configurations (Fig. 2) at the same draft and at the same longitudinal position of the after
outriggers (after end coincident with the after end of the main hull) and for three drafts of the
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chap-01 20/9/2004 16: 16 page 25
6
t = 0.0 deg R (kg)
5
t = -0.5 deg
4
t = 0.5 deg
3
t = -1.0 deg trim (τ°)
2
1
0
-1
V (m/s)
-2
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Figure 2. Investigated pentamaran hull Figure 3. Main hull resistance and dynamic trim curves
configurations. at various trim at rest.
forward outriggers, (the same and one third of the outriggers after draft and zero draft) denoted as
drafts 1, 2 and 3 respectively:
– two longitudinal positions of the forward outriggers denoted as staggers 0,37 and 0,40 (distance
of the after end of outriggers from after end of main hull, indicated as percentage of the main
hull length LWL );
– two transverse positions (distance of the centerplane of side hull from the centerplane of the
main hull) of the forward outriggers, denoted as clearances A and B, selected as percentage 1,05
and 1,22 of the main hull beam;
– two transverse positions of the after outriggers, denoted as clearances C and D, selected as
percentage 1,22 and 1,35 of the main hull beam.
4 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
The resistance results obtained by the model tests of the main hull alone show that the best con-
figuration is for the forward trim 1% in the speed range V < 3,5 m/sec, corresponding to Froude
number Fn < 0,59, but for Fn > 0,60 the most favourable trend is also for forward trim 0,50%
(Fig. 3) and all the model tests of the whole pentamaran configuration were conducted in this last
trim condition.
The analysis of the tests data was performed by the ITTC’57 correlation methodology using the
classical Froude procedure of the resistance components subdivision:
being: C(TP) = RT(P) /0,5ρ ST(P).V2 , the pentamaran total resistance coefficient by the model tests.
CR(P) , the pentamaran residual resistance coefficient.
CF , the frictional resistance coefficient according to the ITTC frictional line.
The data are given with suffix code P, M, OF, and OA which refer to whole pentamaran, main
hull, forward outriggers and after outriggers respectively.
Figures 4–6 show the comparison of CR(P) for different pentamaran model tests configurations
carried out with the draft, denoted 1, 2, and 3 of the forward outriggers. It can be noticed in any case
that we have the best resistance characteristics for stagger 0,37 and clearance 1,05 of the forward
outriggers and clearance 1,22 or 1,35 of the after outriggers.
Figure 7 shows the comparison among the best pentamaran configurations relating to the three
different drafts of the forward outriggers. The differences between the CR(P) curves relating to the
drafts 2 and 3 are very small in the considered operative speed range of the pentamaran. Therefore,
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chap-01 20/9/2004 16: 16 page 26
4.0 4.0
103 CR 103 CR
3.5 3.5
3.0 3.0 St. 0.40; Cl. B, C

St. 0.40; Cl. B, C
St. 0.37; Cl. B, C
St. 0.37; Cl. A, C
St. 0.37; Cl. A, C
2.5 St. 0.37; Cl. A, D 2.5 St. 0.37; Cl. A, D
St. 0.40; Cl. A, D St. 0.40; Cl. A, D
FN FN
2.0 2.0
0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65
Figure 4. Draft 1 of the forward outriggers. Figure 5. Draft 2 of the forward outriggers.
4.0 4.0
103 CR 103 CR
3.5 3.5
3.0 3.0
St. 0.40; Cl. B,C St. 0.37; Cl. A, C; Draft 2
St. 0.37; Cl. B,C St. 0.37; Cl. A, C; Draft 3
2.5 St. 0.37; Cl. A,C 2.5 St. 0.37; Cl. A, D; Draft 1
FN FN
2.0 2.0
0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65
Figure 6. Draft 3 of the forward outriggers. Figure 7. The best pentamaran residual resistance
coefficient at various drafts of forward outriggers.
0.6
35000 RT (kg)
PE(kW)
30000 0.5
MONOHULL
25000 PENTAMARAN 0.4
20000 RT
0.3
RT*
15000
0.2
10000
5000 0.1
V(kn) FN
0 0.0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Figure 8. Monohull and pentamaran effective power Figure 9. Outriggers measured resistance curves.
curves comparison.
the pentamaran configuration with stagger 0,37, clearance 1,05 and draft 2 of the forward outriggers
and the clearance 1,35 of the after outriggers could be preferred, by taking in account also the
stability and the seakeeping characteristics.
Figure 8 shows the comparison in the speed range V = 15 − 40 knots between the effective
horsepower of this pentamaran, evaluated by Froude procedure with ITTC ’57 methodology and
frictional line and the operative equivalent monohull ship. This Figure highlights that an operative
pentamaran could have significant lower powers in the speed range 30–40 knots being the percentage
differences in the order of 20–30%.
5 INTERFERENCE PHENOMENA
As it is well known we have two types of interferences among the hulls and the outriggers of
a multi-hull ship: the viscous interference due to the variation of the wetted surface and to the
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chap-01 20/9/2004 16: 16 page 27
7
RT (kg) 0.4
6
0.35
Righting Arm (m)
5 0.3
4 0.25
RT-MEASURED 0.2
3 f/B=0.20 ; GM=1.562
RT-NON-INTERFERENCE 0.15 f/B=0.175 ; GM=1.790
2
0.1 f/B=0.150 ; GM=1.942
1 0.05
FN Angle of Heel (deg)
0 0
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Figure 10. Pentamaran measured and calculated Figure 11. Pentamaran righting arms curves.
non-interference total resistance curves.
modification of the pressure and velocity field among the hulls and a wave interference due to the
interaction among the transverse and the divergent wave systems of the hulls. At first the effects on
the resistance of the reciprocal interference between the forward and the after outriggers has been
evaluated from the results of the model tests carried out separately for the forward outriggers, for
the after outriggers and for the four outriggers in the whole preferred pentamaran configuration.
The difference RTOU = RTOU − R∗TOU between the measured resistance RTOU in the tests carried
out with all the four outriggers and the resistance R∗TOU = RT(OA) + RT(OF) obtained by tests carried
out separately can be defined as the interference phenomenon among the forward and the after
outriggers. Figure 9 shows that this interference is positive (beneficial) for Fn < 0.45 and negative
(adverse) for Fn > 0.45 with the most beneficial interference in the range of Fn = 0.58–0.62.
The global interference phenomenon of the pentamaran is given by the difference
RT(P) = RT(P) − R∗T(P) between the total resistance obtained from the resistance model tests of
the whole pentamaran and the total non interference resistance R∗T(P) = RT(M) + 2RT(OF) + 2RT(OA) .
Figure 10 shows a global beneficial interference among the hull in the Fn range 0.30–0.55 and
an adverse interference for Fn > 0.55, very small in the range Fn 0.55–0.60, but it increases with
Froude number increasing.
6 INTACT STABILITY PERFORMANCES
To get a more complete picture about the potential of pentamaran hull configuration intact stability
has been assessed according to the present HSC IMO Code.
For three different freeboard-beam ratios, f/B = 0.15, 0.175, and 0.20, the highest possible KG/D
values (0,626, 0,644 and 0,672 respectively) complying with IMO stability requirements have been
determined.
Figure 11 shows the curves of the stability arms GZ versus heel angles and the initial stability
GM (1.562 m, 1.790 m and 1.942 m) so obtained for the three considered f/B.
Aim of this part of the work is to furnish also a preliminary evaluation of the stability character-
istics in order to verify the feasibility of the examined pentamaran ship with realistic KG values,
suitable to the layouts requested for passenger/car transportation.
From this preliminary analysis limited to intact stability the limit in the KG height for the
pentamaran seems suitable for the transport of light goods.
7 CONCLUSIONS
A pentamaran has been designed with realistic hull forms and dimensions equivalent as regard
service to a high speed monohull ship operative for Mediterranean lines. The vessel consists of a
slender instable main hull (L/B = 11.959) stabilized by four very slender outriggers (L/B = 21.20).
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chap-01 20/9/2004 16: 16 page 28
Hydrodynamic characteristics and powering performances have been evaluated and optimised
by experimental tests performed with different outriggers positions.
The results of the comparison with a service equivalent monohull allow us to consider the
pentamaran proposal as a feasible design for the considered routes. To rank this configuration as
preferable to the monohulls presently in service further investigation is needed. The better powering
performances shown in calm water have to be considered together with seakeeping behaviour as
percentage operability is the key factor for a successful design. Structural aspects and weight as well
as damage stability of such peculiar hull configuration have to be studied also. This paper provides
useful references for resistance assessment and for the design of outrigger-main hull proportions;
it gives also some information about intact stability characteristic of such hullform. The beneficial
exploitment of interference phenomena seems limited to lower speed range.
However, the results of this study are applicable only to the considered pentamaran hullform and
configuration.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was supported by the Italian Ministry of University and Scientific Research in the frame
of the 2003–2004 research plan.
REFERENCES
Bertorello C., et al. 2003. On Hydrodynamic Performance of High Speed Crafts, Proc. of the 7th International
Conference on Fast Sea Transportation FAST 2003, vol. I, pp. 101–108.
Doctors L.J. & Scarce R.J. 2003. The Optimisation of Trimaran Sidehull Position for Minimum Resistance,
Proc. of the 7th International Conference on Fast Sea Transportation FAST 2003, vol. I, pp. 1–12 (Keynote
Lecture).
Gee N. & Roy J. 2003. The effect of the Length on the Powering of Large Slender Hull Forms, Proc. of the 7th
International Conference on Fast Sea Transportation FAST 2003, vol. I, pp. 23–30 (Keynote Lecture).
Begovic E., et al. 2001. High Speed Trimarans Validation of Numerical Results by Geosim Tests, Proc. of the
6th International Conference on Fast Sea Transportation FAST 2001, vol. II, pp. 285–294.
Bertorello C., et al. 2001. Experimental Performance Investigation on different High Speed Crafts: Monohull
Catamaran and Trimaran, Proc. of HIPER 2001, pp. 107–114.
Kolmhoss A., et al. 2001. Prediction of Global Wave Induced Response for the ADX Express High-Speed
Pentamaran, Proc. of the 6th International Conference on Fast Sea Transportation FAST 2001, vol. II,
pp. 71–79.
Lahtiharju E., et al. 1991. Resistance and Seakeeping Characteristics of Fast Transom Stern Hulls with
Systematically Varied Form, SNAME Transactions, Vol. 99, pp. 85–118.
Yeh H.Y.H. 1965. Series 64 Resistance Experiments on High Speed Displacement Forms, Marine Technology,
July 1965, pp. 248–272.
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chap-02 20/9/2004 16: 16 page 29

Motions and added resistance of multihull marine vehicles at high

speed: numerical and experimental results
D. Bruzzone & P. Gualeni

Department of Naval Architecture and Marine Technologies, University of Genoa, Italy
P. Cassella
Department of Naval Architecture, University of Naples Federico II, Italy
I. Zotti
Department of Naval Architecture, Ocean and Environmental Engineering, University of Trieste, Italy
ABSTRACT: The purpose of the paper is to address the evaluation of motions and added resistance
in peculiar applications regarding monohull and multi-hull configurations, which can be charac-
terized by high speed and interaction among hulls. To this aims, experimental values regarding
vertical motions and added resistance in waves of monohulls, as well as catamarans and trimarans
were collected. A numerical method, based on 3D Rankine sources was also used. This was initially
developed to treat steady waves and then extended to deal with the problem of unsteady radiated
and diffracted waves and to compute ship motions. Recently, also the capability to compute added
resistance has been developed. The proposed paper, after a short theoretical outline of the numerical
method, will present and discuss vertical motion response amplitude operators and added resistance
values, for the case of a monohull, a catamaran and a trimaran vessel.
1 INTRODUCTION
The exploitation of multihull configurations for the design of vessel employed in passenger and
vehicles transportation is already consolidated as far as catamarans are concerned, together with
a growing appreciation and interest regarding also the trimaran configuration. A very important
aspect of such solutions is represented by the significant deck area at disposal for passenger areas
and garage decks. The other inherent important aspect is the relative high speed that can be reached.
These characteristics make the high speed multihull vehicles more and more suitable especially for
the short sea shipping applications.
The recent interest towards these hull configurations has raised the necessity to provide adequate
data relevant also to seakeeping performances, and proper numerical tools which can assess the
implications related to high speed and to hydrodynamics influences of hull interactions at several
speeds. In fact, for the peculiar operability of this kind of ships, the evaluation of comfort and accel-
erations is of outstanding importance and the innovative geometrical and dynamic configurations
of multihulls do not permit to rely on traditional design expertise.
This is true also as far as the numerical methods are concerned and the three dimensional
methodologies are gaining the interest of designers for their capability to better capture the influence
of the unsteady wave pattern interference, which permits to enhance the level of confidence in the
seakeeping results. In consideration of the operational speed range of the multihull configurations
the capability of the 3D methodologies to take into account the effects related to the body shape
and those related to the forward speed is another feature that indicates them as a more suitable tool.
Another important design issue related to the solution of the unstedy problem is the evaluation
of added resistance, a rather complex phenomena which influence the effective speed in real sea
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chap-02 20/9/2004 16: 16 page 30
B B
s
Bmax
Figure 1. Monohull body plan. Figure 2. Catamaran body plan.
Table 2. Main data for the catamaran configuration.
Table 1. Main characteristics for the monohull. Demihull
L/B B/T L/∇ 1/3 S/∇ 2/3 L/∇ 1/3 S/∇ 2/3 s/L L/B B/T
6,36 4.85 7.037 8.153 7.014 9.98 0.225 10.86 2.09
state. A numerical approach for the calculation of added resistance as the second order longitudinal
force has been developed as a further development of the above mentioned 3D methodologies.
2 HULL CHARACTERISTICS AND EXPERIMENTAL TESTS
The multihulls examined in this paper are a catamaran and a trimaran and, in order to perform a more
exhaustive investigation, also a high speed monohull has been considered. The main geometric
characteristics of the three hull configurations are summarized in the following. To carry out
a consistent comparative analysis with the final aim of assessing their relative hydrodynamic
behaviour, experimental tests and numerical calculations were carried out at the same volume
based Froude numbers.
The mono hull is a hard chine hull derived from an existing and operative vessel for passengers
transportation on short routes. In Figure 1 a sketch is reported and the main characteristics are
given in Table 1.
The catamaran configuration as well is a hard chine solution and it is derived from a operative
vessel. In Figure 2 the body plan is shown and the geometric parameters, including hull separation
s/L, are reported in Table 2.
The trimaran is a round bilge hull derived fron Series 64. The transverse separation of the side
hull to the main hull is 0.12 L, the distance from the relevant symmetry planes. As to the longitudinal
position, the midship sections of the side hulls are at 0.0675 L forward of the midship section of
the central hull.
In Figure 3 and Table 3, respectively, the body plan and the main characteristics for the trimaran
hull configuration are reported.
The experimental tests have been carried out at the University of Trieste model basin; the facility
consists of a 50 m × 3.10 m × 1.5 m towing tank equipped with plunger wave maker and of a light
weight carriage especially fitted for high speeds.
Vertical heave and pitch motions together with resistance have been measured in head regular
sea. The test details of the experimental trials are shown in Table 4 where the different values for
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chap-02 20/9/2004 16: 16 page 31
Figure 3. Body plan of the trimaran configuration.
Table 3. Trimaran main characteristics.

L/B-main B/T-main L/B-side B/T-side Lside hulls/
L/∇ 1/3 S/∇ 2/3 hull hull hulls hulls Clearance Lmain hull
9.38 9.80 14.07 2.0 22.36 2.35 0.12 LMain Hull 0.5
Table 4. Details for the experimental tests.
Model λ/L Hw/λ
Monohull 0.75–1–1.25–1.5–1.75–2–2.25 1/75 Table 5. Volumetric Froude numbers.

Catamaran 0.5–0.75–1–1.25–1.5–1.75–2 1/80
Trimaran 0.5–0.75–1–1.25–1.5–1.75–2 1/80 Fn∇ = 1.059 Fn∇ = 1.588 Fn∇ = 2.118
the non-dimensional wave lengths, together with the value of the non-dimensional wave height are
reported.
Three volumetric Froude numbers were considered for comparing the performance of the three
hull configurations.
The full scale lengths for the monohull, the catamaran and that of the main hull of the trimaran
were 37.06 m, 35.83 m and 46.94 m respectively; the ratio between the radius of gyration kyy and
the length L were 0.29, 0.22 and 0.23 respectively. The radius of gyration was directly deduced
from experimental oscillation tests.
3 THE NUMERICAL METHODOLOGY
The numerical calculations are performed by a three dimensional method, based on Rankine sources,
originally developed for wave resistance calculations and subsequently expanded for the solution of
the unsteady flow, also in case of multihull vessels. More recently, the evaluation of added resistance
has been enabled by considering time averaged values of second order terms of the longitudinal
forces. The application of a three dimensional method is in principle a more suitable tool for the
calculation of ship motions in case of multi-hull, in comparison with the well consolidated tools
based on strip theory. This is due to their ability to capture three-dimensional and speed effects as the
complex wave field caused by the interference among the radiated and the diffracted waves between
the demi-hulls. Moreover they are able to inherently consider also the speed effects on the free
surface boundary conditions. Studies on applications of three-dimensional panel methodologies
for ship motions calculations for catamarans are presented and discussed by Van’t Veer (1997) and
Bayley et al. (1999).
The solution is obtained using the linear approach for seakeeping calculations in the frequency
domain. The hydrodynamic problem is formulated within the hypothesis of the inviscid, irrotational
fluid motion that may be described by a velocity potential. For the solution of the flow, the Laplace
equation together with the suitable boundary conditions and with the adequate radiation condition
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chap-02 20/9/2004 16: 16 page 32
is solved. The total velocity potential is divided into a steady part due to the forward velocity and
in an unsteady one due the superposition of the incident wave potential, of the diffraction potential
and of six body motion potentials linearly depending on the complex amplitudes of the motions.
Decomposition of the unsteady potential enables us to study the total linearized boundary value
problem as separated problems, namely a set of radiation problems and the diffraction problem.
The above problems are solved by distributing quadrilateral panels on the hull and on a portion of
the free surface. In case of multihulls, unsymmetric side hulls may be considered as well and the free
surface is divided into several suitable zones, external or internal ones in relation with the case under
investigation. An indirect boundary element procedure is used where the influence coefficients are
computed according to Hess and Smith and the second order derivatives of the involved potentials
on the free surface via upstream finite difference operators. On the first transverse strips of the free
surface panels the radiated and diffracted wave elevations are kept null. These last two characteristics
render the method applicable for ωe U∞ /g > 0.25. More details about the numerical methodology
are referred to Bruzzone and Gualeni (2001a).
The consequent independent calculation of the unsteady pressure components allows the eval-
uation of exciting forces, added mass and damping coefficients that, together with the linear
hydrostatic restoring coefficients and with the mass matrix, permit the solution of the system of
equations for the determination of ship motions. The added resistance can be obtained considering
time averaged values of second order terms of the longitudinal forces. These may be obtained from
a perturbation expansion of the quantities related to the flow around the ship hull. In addition a
Taylor’s expansion of the pressure around the mean hull and free surface position is considered. In
synthesis, the equation for the added resistance may be expressed as:
which is composed of three second order parts, namely in quadratic terms of the dynamic pressure
(δp), quadratic terms involving variations of the unit normal vector n ≡ (n1 , n2 , n3 ) on the hull
surface due to ship motions (δn1 ), and terms involving a differential wetted surface (δS) not con-
sidered into the first order integrations of pressure forces carried out only on the mean wetted hull
surface S. After ship motions have been determined, equation (1) may be evaluated; difficulties
that arise are mainly numeric. More details of the procedure for the added resistance may be found
in Bruzzone and Gualeni (2001b) and an exhaustive theoretical description on the determination
of the added resistance by pressure integration is given by Bertram (1996).
4 CALCULATIONS AND COMPARISONS
In the following, some representative results are reported regarding vertical motions and added
resistance for the three different hull configurations. In Figures 4, 5 and 6 heave and pitch RAOs
are shown. An acceptable agreement can be noted between the experimental and numerical trends,
notwithstanding an overall overestimation of the peak values which was already evidenced in
previous cited works. It is likely that a lack of damping, inherent in the numerical method, is the
reason for this behaviour. In general it is also worth to mention the likelihood of some uncertainties
regarding both the experimental values and the standard test parameters.
In Figures 7 and 8 the added resistance values corresponding to the above considered hulls
and relevant Froude numbers are shown. The behaviour of the curves seems to be plausible even
though some discrepancies are evident. It should be noted that the added resistance is a second
order quantity dependent on ship motions and also strongly related to their phases. Therefore
numerical errors on both amplitudes and phases of the motions can reflect on the final values of
added resistance. Similarly also errors on amplitudes and phases resulting from the solutions of
the various boundary value problems can affect the final result.
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chap-02 20/9/2004 16: 16 page 33
2 2
1.5 1.5
η3/a
η5/a
1 1
experimental experimental
0.5 numerical 0.5 numerical
0 0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
λ/L λ/L
Figure 4. Non-dimensional heave and pitch motions for the monohull at Fn∇ = 1.588.
2.5 2.5
2 2
1.5 1.5
η5/ka
η3/a
1 1
0.5 numerical 0.5 numerical
0 0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
λ/L λ/L
Figure 5. Non-dimensional heave and pitch motions for catamaran vessel at Fn∇ = 1.588.
3.5 3.5
3 numerical 3 numerical
2.5 2.5
2 2
η5/ka
η3/a
1.5 1.5
1 1
0.5 0.5
0 0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
λ/L λ/L
Figure 6. Non-dimensional heave and pitch motions for the trimaran hull at Fn∇ = 2.118.
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chap-02 20/9/2004 16: 16 page 34
1
numerical numerical
0.8
Raw/(ρ*g*L*a2)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
λ/L λ/L
Figure 7. Added resistance for monohull (left) and for catamaran (right) at Fn∇ = 1.558.
1
numerical
experimental
0.8
Raw/(ρ*g*L*a2)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
λ/L
Figure 8. Added resistance for the trimaran at Fn∇ = 2.118.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The proposed three dimensional method seems to provide sufficiently satisfactory results at least
as long as their trend is concerned. In general numerical results for the motions overestimate the
peak values when compared with the corresponding experimental values. The comparative analysis
of added resistance results is far more complex to draw definite conclusions. The achievement of a
higher accuracy in the evaluation of motions, for example by introduction of a suitable evaluation
of damping coefficient could in principle also improve the behaviour of added resistance results.
A part of the future research could be addressed to examine different repetition experiments
with the same conditions to investigate the scatter interval of the experimental values and with the
refinement of the numerical method, especially for reducing the peak values.
REFERENCES
Bailey P.A., Hudson D.A., Price W.G. & Temarel P. 1999, Theoretical and Experimental Validation of the
Seakeeping Characteristics of High Speed Mono- and Multi-hulled Vessels Proc. of the 5th International
Conference on Fast Sea Transportation FAST 1999, Seattle, pp. 429–441.
34
chap-02 20/9/2004 16: 16 page 35
Bertram V. 1996, A 3-D Rankine Panel Method to Compute Added Resistance of Ships – Institut fur Schiffbau
der Universitat Hamburg – Bericht Nr. 566.
Bruzzone D. & Gualeni P. 2001, Different Three Dimensional Formulations for Evaluating Forward Speed
Effects in Seakeeping Calculations of High Speed Hulls Proc. of the 6th International Conference on Fast
Sea Transportation FAST 2001, Southampton, vol. II, pp. 235–241.
Bruzzone D. & Gualeni P. 2001, Added Resistance in Waves for Ships and High Speed Marine Vehicles 14th
Int. Conf. on Hydrodynamics in ship Design, Szczecin Miedzyzdroje, pp. 291–300.
Hess J.L. & Smith A.M.O. 1966, Calculation of Potential Flow about Arbitrary Bodies Progress in Aeronautical
Science, vol 8, pp. 1–138.
Vant’t Veer R. 1997, Analysis of Motions and Loads on a Catamaran Vessel in Waves Proc.of the 4th
International Conference on Fast Sea Transportation FAST 1997, Sydney, vol. I, pp. 439–445.
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chap-03 20/9/2004 16: 17 page 37

Experimental evaluation of high performance rudder enhanced by

Coanda effect for VLCC at low speed operation
B.J. Choi
Maritime Research Institute R&D Division, Hyundai Heavy Industries co., Ltd, Ulsan, Korea
J.M. Yang
Graduate Student, Dept. of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering, Seoul Nat’l Univ., Seoul, Korea
H.W. Park
Research Assistant, Research Institute of Marine Systems Engineering, Seoul Nat’l Univ., Seoul, Korea
J.S. Kim
Technical Assistant, Dept. of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering, Seoul Nat’l Univ., Seoul, Korea
H. Kim
Professor, Dept. of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
ABSTRACT: It is already known that a flapped rudder equipped with a water jet blowing system
can produce higher lift than an ordinary one by increasing circulation and delaying stall at large
angles of attack and named the Coanda effect (Lachmann 1961, Ahn 2003). In the present study,
based on the previous researches, a model of the rudder device was manufactured and mounted
on a model ship to evaluate the Coanda effect on the rudder performance through various tests
including free-running tests. During the tests, hydrodynamic forces acting on the Coanda rudder
system were measured and compared to those acting on a conventional rudder. Effectiveness of
new rudder system has been confirmed through the towing tested of a ship.
1 INTRODUCTION
As environmental standards become stricter, securing of maneuverability of low speed ships such
as VLCC’s require more attention especially when the ship is operated in a harbor speed. It has
been found in previous studies that the Coanda effect induces extra lift force by delaying stall and
reinforcing circulation especially when the angles of attack are large. By exploiting the Coanda
effect, a new rudder system for a VLCC has been developed in this study.
The conventional rudder has been designed by empirical formula of DNV which converted into
a Becker system and enhanced by Coanda effect. A rudder is supposed to operate in a wake field
and the effect should be evaluated to understand the performances. The open water tests were done
in the Towing Tank of Seoul National University and the results showed that the Coanda effect
induced by water jet apparently improves the rudder efficiencies.
At the rear of a ship, the flow will be considerably retarded by the hull and cause unfavorable
effect on the rudder performance. In this study, the interference between hull and rudder has been
identified by comparing the rudder forces in an open water condition and in a behind-ship condition.
On the contrary, the flow around a rudder will be accelerated by the propeller in a self-propulsion
condition and eventually cause improvement in the rudder performance. Hence, interaction among
propeller, rudder and hull has investigated also at the various conditions.
Performances of the conventional non-flapped rudder system and the Becker rudder system were
measured with three-component load cell. The performances of the flapped rudder system were
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chap-03 20/9/2004 16: 17 page 38
measured similarly for various operating conditions to evaluate the influence of the water jet on the
hydrodynamic forces acting on VLCC model, i.e. Coanda effect at speed of 0.5 m/s, low enough
to simulate the effectiveness of the Coanda rudder system devised.
2 PREPARATION OF EXPERIMENT
The projected lateral area of the rudder for the VLCC was determined using the empirical formu-
lae of DNV in the preliminary design stage. The detailed geometries of the rudder system were
determined by referring to the lines and the stern profile. In the process the machining accessibility
also take account in determining the final size of the rudder model, especially for accommodation
of a water jet generator inside the rudder. Then, the size of the model ship was adjusted to the
dimensions of the rudder model.
2.1 Model ship and propeller

The model of the 300 K class VLCC was made of Fiber Reinforced Plastics and the scale ratio was
chosen to be 1/60. The model ship was large enough to accommodate all the measuring instruments
for free running tests being mounted even with a test pilot on boarded. The principal particulars of
model ship and propeller are introduced Tables 1 and 2.
Table 1. Principal particulars of the model.
Design speed LWL LBP B D T WSA Volume

(m/s) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m2 ) (m3 ) CB
0.498 5.425 5.333 0.967 0.517 0.347 7.718 1.455 0.814
Table 2. Principal characteristics of the model propeller.
D Blade Scale (P/D)ROOT (P/D)0.7R (P/D)TIP (P/D)MEAN

(mm) No. ratio AE /AO RH /R (C/D)0.7R (T0 /D)0.7R
170 4 60 0.5765 0.7212 0.6510 0.6896

0.4250 0.1550 0.2338 0.0156
Table 3. Principal particulars of the rudder.
Section Type : NACA0021 Position of flap hinge : 24.6% c from T.E.

Mail foil chord (mm) : 103 Maximum thickness : 21% c
Flap chord (mm) : 42 Geometrical aspect ratio : 1.6
Span (mm) : 224 Rudder area : 0.0336 m2
Figure 1. Rudder force measuring multi components load cell and section arrangement.
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chap-03 20/9/2004 16: 17 page 39
2.2 Rudder device

The principal dimensions of the rudder model were determined, as shown in Table 3, by taking
account the conveniences in machining (Justin E. Kerwin et al. 1972, Millard J. Bamber 1929, Ira
H. Abbott, Albert E. von Dohenhoff 1959). The flap of the rudder system was designed to operate
with the link system devised by Becker (Capt. Dipl-Ing. J. Brix 1992). The flap angle variations
were mechanically interlocked to amplify the angle of the main wing with the given amplification
ratio. At the same time, the flap motion was linked to a saddle type valve to guide the jet flow to
the suction side (Paul K. Clang 1976).
When the rudder system is exposed in flow stream, the hydrodynamic forces, Fx, Fy and Mz,
are generated on this rudder system as shown in Figure 1. A three-component load cell has been
exclusively designed to measure the hydrodynamic rudder forces acting on rudder stoke. The
assembled rudder force measuring system is also shown in Figure 1.
3 EXPERIMENTS AND RESULTS
3.1 Open water characteristics of rudder

3.1.1 Non-dimensional expression
The hydrodynamic forces exerted by the rudder system were measured by the three components
load cell during towing tank test. The hydrodynamic lift (L), drag (D), and moment (M) act-
ing on rudderstock were measured in accordance with the coordinate system in a given attack
angle and flap angle as shown in Figure 1 (Michael B. Wilson, Christian von Kerczek 1979). The
interlocking condition between wing and flap was selected as δ/α = 1 in the towing tests of the
rudder model.
In various jet flow conditions, hydrodynamic forces were measured and expressed in terms of
the following dimensionless parameters:
where ρ is the density of the fluid (kg/m3 ), S is the plan form area (span × chord, m2 ), c is the
chord length of the rudder (m), and U ∞ is the inflow velocity (m/s). The inflow velocity was set
to be 0.5 m/s and Reynolds number based on chord length of the rudder was 0.69 × 105 .
To the suction side of the rudder system, a water jet was blown through the gap between the
main wing and flap of the rudder. The effect of the jet flow rate was investigated by alternating the
jet momentum coefficient (C j ) defined by equation (2) where h is the gap width between the wing
and flap and V j is the jet velocity (Rameswar Bhattacharyya 1978).
Hydrodynamic force components acting on flapped rudder system were measured at the ampli-
fication conditions of δ/α = 1. In this measurement, the rudder angles were varied from −35 degree
to +35 degree and five different jet momentum coefficients C j (0, 0.02, 0.04, 0.08, 0.16) were
applied for experiments.
3.1.2 Open water characteristics of rudders

The forces acting on the conventional rudder in uniform flow were measured from the rudder model
with locked in zero flap angle. The lift force exerted by the rudder system increased linearly until
the attack angle reached 15 degrees where the stall phenomena occur. The hydrodynamic drag
force reached minimum at the zero attack angle and increased with the increase of the attack angle.
Relatively small rudder moment was observed since the rudderstock was placed near the moment
center of the section (Sighard F. Hoerner, Henry V. Borst 1975).
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chap-03 20/9/2004 16: 17 page 40
The conventional rudder system (δ/α = 0, Cj = 0) to Becker rudder system (δ/α = 1, C j = 0)

and finally the rudder system converted to survey the effect of Coanda jet injected from the gap
between wing and flap with various jet momentum coefficients C j (0, 0.02, 0.04, 0.08, 0.16). The
lift forces obtained through these test condition at various attack angle in open water condition
were presented in Figure 2-a. The data set for each test condition was line-fitted by the least square
method in the pre-stall region as given in Figure 2-b.
The slope of each line was compared with that of the conventional solid rudder. The incremental
percentages increased with jet flow rate. The mean slope of the measured lift force of the con-
ventional solid rudder was increased by 49% when the flap is linked with the amplification ratio
δ/α = 1.
From this standpoint, the lift force which is most important for maneuvering a ship could be
improved by applying a flapped rudder. The influences of the jet momentum coefficients on the
increasing hydrodynamic lift forces are shown in Figure 2. In this case, lift forces were increased
with the increase of the flow rate due to the circulation reinforcing effect of jet flow around the
flapped rudder system.
3.2 Interaction between rudder and hull

3.2.1 Experimental setup for behind ship condition
Hydrodynamic performances of rudder model in the behind ship condition were investigated as
shown in Figure 3-a. In this experimental setup, the rudder is installed in the disturbed wake region
of the model. Thus, the rudder system is exposed in the retarded flow field, and this exposure
degrades the rudder performance. Such a performance change is known as the interaction between
the rudder and hull.
This experimental setup is converted into self-propulsion condition simply adding the propeller
on the arrangement as shown in Figure 3-b.
250
5
Lift (CL)
4
200
3
2
150
∆CL (%)
0
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 0 10 20 30 40 100
Port Starboard
-1
Rudder Angle α
-2 δ/α = 0&Cj=0 50
δ/α = 1&Cj=0 δ/α = 1 in Uniform flow
-3 δ/α = 1&Cj=0.02 δ/α = 1/2 in Uniform flow
δ/α = 1&Cj=0.04
-4 δ/α = 1&Cj=0.08 0
δ/α = 1&Cj=0.16 0 0.05 0.1 0.15
-5 Cj
(2-a) lift force (2-b) increase of the slope of lift curve
Figure 2. Rudder performances in open water ship condition.
(3-a) behind ship condition (3-b) self-propulsion condition
Figure 3. Experimental setup for rudder performance evaluation.
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chap-03 20/9/2004 16: 17 page 41
The link system for flap operation was interlocked to give flap motion of δ/α = 1. The experi-
ments were carried out for various jet momentum coefficients. The measured hydrodynamic force
components were normalized by equation (1). A model test was carried out at the speed of 0.5 m/s
to obtain performance data of the rudder at low speed. This speed is equivalent to the Reynolds
number 0.69 × 105 based on the chord length of the rudder.
3.2.2 Rudder performances in the behind ship condition

The lift force of the rudder (δ/α = 0, C j = 0) in the behind ship condition was greatly reduced when
compared with the lift force measured in open water condition due to the retarded flow velocity
in the wake region. It also means that the reduction in the performance curves can be recovered,
if we use the retarded wake velocity in normalizing the measured hydrodynamic forces. The stall
phenomena were observed in open water condition when the attack angle exceeded 15 degree,
however, the stall delayed to 30 degree in behind ship condition. The major reason behind this
delay in stall could be explained as the effect of the retarded wake flow velocity as before. The
slow wake velocity reduces the hydrodynamic force, and instead, the ship speed, which is greater
than the wake velocity, is used in normalizing the measured hydrodynamic forces.
The identical experimental investigations on flapped rudder (δ/α = 1, C j = 0) were carried out
in the behind ship condition. The mean slope of the lift curve of flapped rudder in behind ship
condition appeared to have increased 63% from that of the conventional rudder. It seems that the
flapped rudder is effective even in the behind ship condition. To investigate the effect of the jet
injection, the hydrodynamic force components acting on flapped rudder were measured when the
rudder was in the operating region of attack angle in the range of −35 ∼ +35 degree. The interlock
conditions, δ/α = 1, were selected for experimental investigation as before and the various jet
momentum coefficients, C j (0, 0.02, 0.04, 0.08, 0.16) were applied for each attack angles.
Figure 4 clearly shows that the increase of the jet momentum coefficient is effective in improving
the lift force of the flapped rudder. In this behind ship condition, the increase rate of the lift force
relative to those of the conventional rudder was greatly enhanced Coanda effect by jet injection. It
is believed that the retardation of the inflow velocity of the rudder in the wake region also amplifies
the increase of the lift force exerted by the jet injection.
3.3 Model ship test in the self-propulsion condition

3.3.1 Experimental setup for self-propulsion condition
Finally the performance of rudder model was evaluated in the self-propulsion condition by mea-
suring the hydrodynamic forces components with the experimental setup shown in Figure 3. As a
previous experiments, measuring forces acting on the rudder at the conditions of δ/α = 1 and of
various jet momentum coefficients in the downstream of propeller. The propeller revolution rate
250
5
Lift(CL)
4
200
3
2
150
∆CL(%)
0
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 100
Port Starboard
-1 Rudder Angle α
-2 δ/α = 0 & Cj=0
δ/α = 1 & Cj=0 50
-3 δ/α = 1 & Cj=0.02 δ/α = 1 in Behind ship condition
δ/α = 1 & Cj=0.04 δ/α = 1/2 in Behind ship condition
-4 δ/α = 1 & Cj=0.08
δ/α = 1 & Cj=0.16 0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15
-5 Cj
Figure 4. Rudder performances in behind ship condition.
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chap-03 20/9/2004 16: 17 page 42
was adjusted to 242 rpm, which was corresponds to the model speed of 0.5 m/s which is equivalent
to the 50% of design speed (15 knots) of ship.
3.3.2 Performances of rudder in the self-propulsion condition

The performance of the rudder (δ/α = 0, C j = 0) in the self-propulsion condition was noticeably
improved due to the slipstream generated by the propeller. In the self-propulsion condition, phe-
nomena such as recovery of the hydrodynamic force, delay of the stall and the shift of the zero
lift angles to the starboard side are apparent and considered to be the interaction among rudder,
propeller and hull. The rotating propeller slip-stream enables the rudder overcome the drop of
the performance in the ship wake zone. The experiments were extended to Becker rudder system
(δ/α = 1, C j = 0) and jet effect also investigated with the jet momentum coefficients C j (0, 0.02,
0.04, 0.08, 0.16) in the region from −35 degree to +35 degree as given in Figure 5.
The influences of jet momentum coefficients on hydrodynamic lift forces are appeared that the
mean slope of the measured lift force of the solid rudder could be increased by 64% when the
Becker rudder of δ/α = 1 is adopted. The lift forces were increased with the flow rate due to jet
effect in strengthening the circulation around the flapped rudder system.
3.3.3 Free running model test and turning circle simulation

Free running test with has been performed with the 300 K VLCC model at the boat racing area
connected to canoe game complex constructed in 1988 Seoul Olympic. The captured loci of ship’s
maneuver are compared with numerically simulated turning circle as shown in Figure 6. The use
of the flapped rudder reduced tactical diameter and with additional injection of water jet to the
suction side of the flapped rudder further reduced the tactical diameter.
250
5
Lift(CL)
4
200
3
2
150
∆CL(%)
0
100
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
Port -1 Starboard
RudderAngle α
-2 δ/α = 0 & Cj=0 50 δ/α = 1 in Self-propulsion condition
δ/α = 1/2 & Cj=0
-3 δ/α = 1/2 & Cj=0.02 δ/α = 1/2 in Self-propulsion condition
δ/α = 1/2 & Cj=0.04
-4 δ/α = 1/2 & Cj=0.08 0
δ/α = 1/2 & Cj=0.16 0 0.05 0.1 0.15
-5 Cj
Figure 5. Rudder performances in self-propulsion condition.
(6-a) Becker rudder system (6-b) lift enhanced rudder with Coanda effect
Figure 6. Comparison of rudder effect on ship’s maneuver.
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4 CONCLUDING REMARK
The high-lifting rudder system was designed by utilizing the Coanda effect. The basic concept of
this device is that the jet injected to the suction side of the rudder through the gap between main wing
and the flap could induce the Coanda effect, which would be effective in delaying the separation
phenomenon and increasing the circulation. In a model scale, the rudder system was designed and
manufactured to investigate the hydrodynamic performances by towing test. The performances of
the devised rudder in a uniform flow field were evaluated by a series of towing tests. The rudder
in the behind ship condition was also tested to evaluate the interaction between the rudder and
hull. And finally, the hydrodynamic forces transmitted to the model ship from rudderstock were
measured in a self-propulsion condition. In these series of experiments, the performances of the
rudder were evaluated at various angles of attack and flap angles with different jet momentum
coefficients of the water jet.
The free running test results obtained with 300 K VLCC model showed not only qualitative but
also good quantitative agreement with numerical simulation. Thus the Coanda rudder device would
be effective in improving the maneuverability of the ship. It is believed that further experimental
investigation such as a turning circle test, zigzag tests, and initial turning tests etc. should be carried
out to evaluate the improvement in maneuverability of the ship with implementation of the Coanda
flapped rudder.
REFERENCES
Capt. Dipl-Ing. J. Brix 1992, Manoeuvring Technical Manual, Seehafen Verlag

G.V. Lachmann 1961, Boundary Layer and Flow Control – principles and application, Pergamon press
Haeseong Ahn 2003, An Experimental Study of the Coanda Effect on Flapped Control Surfaces, PhD. Thesis,
Dept. of Naval Architecture and Ocean Eng., College of Eng., Seoul Nat’l Univ., Seoul, Korea
Ira H. Abbott and Albert E. von Dohenhoff 1959, Theory of Wing Sections, Dover Publications
Justin E. Kerwin, Philip Mandel and S. Dean Lewis 1972, An Experimental Study of a Series of Flapped
Rudder, Journal of Ship Research
Michael B. Wilson and Christian von Kerczek 1979, An Inventory of Some Force Producers for Use in Marine
Vehicle Control, DTNSRDC report DTNSRDC-79/097
Millard J. Bamber 1929, Wind Tunnel Tests on Airfoil Boundary Layer Control Using a Backward Opening
Slot, NACA TN No. 323
Paul K. Clang 1976, Control of Flow Separation, Hemisphere Publishing Corporation
Rameswar Bhattacharyya 1978, Dynamics of Marine Vehicles, John Wiley & Sons Inc
Sighard F. Hoerner and Henry V. Borst 1975, Fluid Dynamic Lift, Hoerner Fluid Dynamics
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chap-04 20/9/2004 16: 17 page 45

On the roll reduction by using a hydrodynamic model with

rudder control
Ming-Chung Fang, Ming-Ling Lee & Jhih-Hong Luo

Department of Systems and Naval Mechatronic Engineering, National Cheng Kung University,
Tainan, Taiwan, ROC
ABSTRACT: A simplified six degrees of freedom (DOF) mathematical model encompassing

calm water maneuvering and traditional seakeeping theories is developed here to simulate the ship
maneuvering in regular waves. The sliding mode controller with the line-of-sight (LOS) guidance is
adopted for the rudder control to steer the ship in waves with the functions of track keeping and roll
reduction. The nonlinear mathematical model developed here has been proved to be successful by
simulating the motion responses of a container ship steering in waves, and the roll response is indeed
reduced by the present sliding mode controller. The present results reveal that the hydrodynamic
model and roll reduction technique developed here can be regard as an efficient tool for naval
architects to analyze the ship maneuvering behavior with roll reduction by rudder control in waves
at the preliminary design stage.
1 INTRODUCTION
When the ship sails in a seaway, wave forces may play a vital role in the ship maneuvering charac-
teristics. However, in past years, most of the literatures assume external factors can be neglected
and only investigate the autopilot ability of the ship sailing in calm water. In fact, the wave effect
is unavoidable while the ship is sailing in a seaway and the ship will behave differently from that in
calm water because the wave effect on the ship motion is significant, especially on the roll response.
Consequently the track keeping ability of the ship may also be affected if the roll response is large.
Therefore, the wave effect must be taken into consideration while the mathematical model is estab-
lished for simulating the ship maneuvering in a seaway. Besides, it will be more helpful if the
technique of roll reduction can be incorporated.
The mathematical model for simulating a ship steering in calm water was developed by some
authors and some valuable information about the ship maneuvering has been found, e.g. Hirano
(1980), Inoue et al. (1981). In order to simulate the ship maneuvering in waves, the compact
mathematical model must include the related hydrodynamic effects caused from seakeeping and
maneuvering. Several authors have already developed the mathematical models for predicting the
ship maneuvering in waves using the simplified way. For example, Hamamoto et al. (1993, 1994)
used a six degrees of freedom model including both maneuvering and seakeeping characteristics
to simulate the turning circle and zig-zag trial of a ship sailing in waves. Bailey (1999) proposed
a unified mathematical model to simulate the ship steering behavior in waves, which considered
the relationships between maneuvering derivatives and seakeeping coefficients with encounter
frequency variations. This model seems more rigorous but very complicated due to the coupling
effect of maneuvering derivatives and seakeeping coefficients.
In order to reduce the roll response, some devices have been well employed on board, e.g. bilge
keels, anti-rolling tanks, gyroscopic stabilizers and stabilizing fins. However, they usually need
additional devices and external power, which leads to the cost increase, weight increase and space
decrease on the ship. Therefore it will be more advantageous if an economic way can be applied. As
we know, while we operate the ship to navigate in the commanded course by altering the deflection
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chap-04 20/9/2004 16: 17 page 46
of the rudder, some roll motions due to the rudder action will not be avoidable even without wave
action. It seems to be disadvantageous for the ship, but the rudder can then be regarded as a roll
reduction device conversely. Therefore the concept of roll reduction using the rudder control may
be well applied for a ship sailing in the seaway. Since the rudder is the required equipment on board,
using the rudder control to reduce the roll motion may be an economic way if the suitable control
can be incorporated. The roll reduction using the rudder control technique has been proposed by
some authors, either for two ships doing underway replenishment (Fang 1991) or for a single ship
sailing in waves (Jerrold & Michael 1999). The results indicate using suitable rudder control to
reduce roll response seems works.
Several controllers have been applied for ship autopilot system. For example, the PD controller
with fixed design parameters is a conventional autopilot system for ship steering to the desired
path, which can be set to work well for particular operating conditions. But its performance will
become weak if the conditions vary. The reason is that ship dynamics changes with the ship velocity,
loading condition and external disturbances (e.g. wave, wind, current etc.). Manual adjustments
of the design parameters are necessary in several cases. In order to derive a suitable controller to
integrate tracking and roll reduction control, the sliding mode control law (Healey & Lienard 1993,
McGookin et al. 2000) is chosen here, which is known to provide good performance robustness.
This type controller is based on switching control that provides additional control action when the
dynamics of the system varies due to nonlinearities.
In the paper, a 6 DOF mathematical model is developed to simulate the ship maneuvering
in waves and try to control the ship to sail in the desired path with the less roll response. The
sliding mode controller integrated with the LOS guidance system is used here for track keeping
and roll reduction. In the following sections, the sliding mode control system incorporated into the
mathematical model for ship maneuvering in waves is described.
2 MATHEMATICAL MODEL
A 6 DOF mathematical model is adopted in the present paper and described by using three coordinate
systems. The coordinate system O - X0 Y0 Z0 fixed on the calm water surface is used to describe the
incident wave. The body coordinate system G - xyz with its origin at the ship’s center of gravity is
moving with the ship motion. The horizontal body coordinate system G - x y z is also fixed at the
ship’s center of gravity, but Gx y plane is always parallel to OX0 Y0 plane.
The horizontal body coordinate system is used to describe equations of motions and the cor-
responding forces. Based on the mathematical model used by Hamamoto et al. (1993, 1994), an
extensive nonlinear 6 DOF model combining maneuvering and seakeeping for the ship moving in
waves is developed and combining with the engine torque equation simultaneously shown as below,
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where m and I are ship mass and mass moment of inertia respectively. X , Y and Z are external
forces with respect to surge, sway and heave whereas K, M and N are external moment with respect
to roll, pitch and yaw. Surge, sway and heave velocities are represented by u, v and w, respectively,
whereas roll, pitch and yaw displacements are represented by φ, θ, and ψ, respectively. T is
propeller thrust, R is ship resistance, and tp is the thrust deduction coefficient. In equations (3) and
(5), the corresponding hydrodynamic coefficients with respect to heave and pitch can be referred
to Kim et al. (1980), which can be calculated by Frank close-fit method. mx , my , and mz represent
the added masses with respect to x, y and z axes respectively, whereas Jxx , Jyy and Jzz represent the
added moments of inertia with respect to x, y and z axes respectively. The roll damping coefficient
Kφ̇ can be computed from the empirical formula derived by Takahashi (1969). The corresponding
nonlinear terms for maneuvering derivatives can be referred to Hirano & Takashina (1980) and
Inoue et al. (1981). The terms IPP , QR , QP , n in equation (7) represent the moment of inertia of
propeller-shafting system, the propeller torque, the main engine torque, and the rpm of propeller,
respectively. Subscripts FK, DF, RF represent Froude-Krylov forces (Hamamoto et al. 1993),
diffraction forces (Hamamoto et al. 1994), and rudder forces (Hirano 1980) respectively. Since the
strip theory is applied, the wave diffraction for surge, XDF , can not be calculated. However, it is
generally small due to the slenderness of the ship and can be neglected. xH is the x- coordinate of
midship and zH is z- coordinate of the point which lateral force acts.
3 CONTROL SYSTEM
In this section, the autopilot controller is incorporated in equations (1)–(7) to simulate the ship
course tracking which is assumed to consist of several waypoints. The LOS guidance (McGookin
et al. 2000) is introduced to guide the ship to sail to commanded waypoints. The desired heading
angle of ship directs to the following waypoint position and each waypoint has its own acceptable
radius that is typically around one to three ship lengths. If the distance between the ship position
and waypoint is smaller than this acceptable radius, next waypoint will be acquired to guide the
ship to sail to next position.
The sliding mode controller is applied here because of its good performance robustness. This
control theory has a switching action, which provides a robustness to match uncertainties. For
simplicity, the rudder controller can be written as
where δyaw is used to maintain the track of the ship and δroll is used to reduce the ship roll response.
In order to simplify the calculation, the above rudder control is separated two parts, i.e. one
is for tracking control with sway and yaw coupling effect, and the other is for roll reduction
control considering the roll response only. Therefore a single-input-multiple-states model (Healey
& Lienard 1993, Fossen 1994) for the yaw control δyaw is linearized from equations (2) and (6) and
can be derived as below
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chap-04 20/9/2004 16: 17 page 48
where Yδ and Nδ are the rudder coefficients of linearized rudder force and moment respectively.
Equation (9)–(11) can be present as a matrix form:
Using the derivation given by Fossen (1994), the following sliding model control equation is
obtained for the track keeping control:
where k is the feedback gain vector, h is right eigenvector, xhd is the desired heading state vector,
ηh is heading switch gain, σh is the sliding surface and φh is boundary layer thickness.
The one degree of freedom of equation for roll response can then be simplified from the equation
(4) by neglecting the other coupling motion and shown as
Using the same derivation process as stated above, the sliding mode control for roll reduction δroll
is obtained by
Figure 1. The simulation of track-keeping and roll reduction using sliding mode controller in beam wave
(initial heading angle = 90◦ ).
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4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In this paper, the simulation of the ship maneuvering in regular waves with autopilot control
system is investigated. The straight line course is adopted here to guide the ship sailing in waves
with different headings. A container ship model is selected for numerical calculation in this study
and its initial velocity is set to be 11.97 m/s. The maximum rudder deflection is 35◦ and the rate
limit is set to be 3.5◦ /sec. For simplification, the water depth is assumed to be infinitely deep. The
time interval of the numerical integration is set to be 0.2 second here. The 4th order Runge-Kutta
numerical integration method is adopted for doing the time domain simulation. The ratio of wave
length to ship length is 3.5 and the wave height is 3 m.
Figure 1 is the simulation for the ship sailing in beam wave with initial heading angle 90◦ .
The dash line in the results means the roll reduction function is not included (i.e. δ = δyaw ) while
the solid line includes both functions (i.e. δ = δyaw + δroll ). The key design parameters in equation
(13) are tuned by using genetic algorithms (McGookin et al. 2000), and the fist closed-loop pole,
second closed-loop pole, heading switch gain and boundary layer thickness are found to be −0.0934,
−1.418, 5.559, and 231.2 respectively. The roll switch gain and boundary layer thickness in equation
(15) are 0.899 and 0.1 which are tuned by hand for simplification. From the results, the track keeping
is achieved in both controllers and roll reduction effect is significant using the complete control with
two functions, i.e. about 20%. The heading error and rudder usage increase while the roll reduction
command is applied. The rudder usage is larger if the roll reduction command is included because
the rudder needs larger deflection to counteract the wave effect to decrease roll response.
Figure 2 is the simulation for the ship sailing in astern quartering sea with initial heading angle
45◦ . From the comparison, about 10% roll reduction is acquired with the rudder control command
Figure 2. The simulation of track-keeping and roll reduction using sliding mode controller in astern quartering
wave (initial heading angle = 45◦ ).
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chap-04 20/9/2004 16: 17 page 50
Figure 3. The simulation of track-keeping and roll reduction using sliding mode controller in bow quartering
wave (initial heading angle = 135◦ ).
from δroll during the whole navigation process. But the effect of the roll reduction on the rudder
usage and heading error are different from those in figure 1. In the results, it is interesting to
observe that the heading error and rudder usage are generally improved if the rudder control δroll is
included, especially for rudder usage. It means that the rudder control commands using δyaw is not
optimal and cause some extra the rudder usage and heading errors which are corrected by adding
the rudder control command δroll . But he results of the heading error response show that the sliding
model controller can steadily maintain the ship on the desired course, either with or without the
roll reduction function.
The ship maneuvering in bow quartering wave is also investigated and shown in figure 3, and
the initial heading angle is set to be 135◦ . The results show that the motion responses become
smaller than those shown in figures 1 and 2. The phenomena of simulation result are the same as
those in beam wave. The roll response is reduced about 15% with the roll reduction command, and
the heading error and rudder usage increase but not significant. In this condition, the ship motion
response decreases because the encounter frequency becomes higher. Therefore, the tracking effect
is more accurate and the rudder usage is acted with smaller deflection as we can see in figure 3.
5 CONCLUDING REMARK
In this paper, the simulation method with autopilot control system for a ship maneuvering in waves
is developed which can investigate the track keeping and roll reduction abilities by using the rudder
control. The control system includes the LOS guidance and the sliding mode controller and proper
design parameters have been tuned for simulation calculation.
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The present results show that the rudder indeed can be regarded as a useful device with the
function of roll reduction and track keeping in regular waves using the proper controller. The optimal
design parameters decided according to the beam wave are adopted to investigate all tracks here,
which make the fewer rudder usage in astern quartering sea. It means that there should be another
optimal design parameters with respect to different wave headings. However, we must keep in mind
that the drag force due to the rudder action will decrease the ship’s speed, therefore the large and
too frequent rudder motion should be avoided as possible. The present paper has been successful
to construct a simplified and practical hydrodynamic model with maneuvering and seakeeping
characteristics, which will be helpful for the naval architects to analyze the corresponding behavior
of a ship maneuvering in waves. The present mathematical model can be easily and more practically
extended to the simulation in random waves.
REFERENCES
Bailey, P. A. 1999. Maneuvering of a ship in a seaway. PhD dissertation, University of Southampton, UK.
Fang, M. C. 1991. Roll reduction by rudder control for two ships during underway replenishment. Journal of
Ship Research 35: 141–150.
Fossen, T. I. 1994. Guidance and control of ocean vehicles. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Hamamoto, M. & Kim, Y. S. 1993. A new coordinate system and the equations describing maneuvering motion
of a ship in waves (in Japanese). Journal of The Society of Naval Architects of Japan 173: 209–220.
Hamamoto, M., Matsuda, A. & Ise, Y. 1994. Ship motion and the dangerous zone of a ship in severe following
seas (in Japanese). Journal of The Society of Naval Architects of Japan 175: 69–78.
Healey, A. J. & Lienard, D. 1993. Multivariable sliding mode control for autonomous diving and steering of
unmanned underwater vehicles. IEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering 18: 327–339.
Hirano, M. 1980. On the calculation method of ship maneuvering motion at initial design phase (in Japanese).
Journal of The Society of Naval Architects of Japan 147: 144–153.
Hirano, M. & Takashina J. 1980. A calculation of ship turning motion taking coupling effect due to heel into
consideration. Transaction of the West-Japan Society of Naval Architects 59: 71–81.
Inoue, S., Hirano, M. & Kijima, K. 1981. Hydrodynamic derivatives on ship manoeuvring. International
Shipbuilding Progress 28: 112–125.
Inoue S., Hirano, M., Kijima, K. & Takashina J. 1981. A practical calculation method of ship maneuvering
motion. International Shipbuilding Progress 28: 207–222.
Jerrold, N. S. & Michael, G. P. 1999. Rudder/fin roll stabilization of the USCG WMEC 901 class vessel.
Marine Technology and SNAME news 36: 157–170.
Kim, C. H., Chou, F. S. & Tien, D. 1980. Motions and hydrodynamic of a ship advancing in oblique waves.
Transactions of the Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers 88: 225–256.
McGookin, E. W., Murray-Smith, D. J., Li, Y. & Fossen, T. I. 2000. Ship steering control system optimization
using genetic algorithms. Control Engineering Practice 8: 429–443.
Takahashi, T. 1969 Mechanism of rolling and application (in Japanese). Report of Mitsubishi Heavy Industry
Nagasaki Technical Institute 2842.
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Hydrodynamic performance of marine propeller in cavitating flow
H. Ghassemi
Faculty of Marine Technology, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran-Iran
ABSTRACT: This paper is presented a boundary element method (BEM) for the calculation of
hydrodynamic performance of marine propeller in cavitating flow condition. The effectiveness of
the method is demonstrated with results for a partially cavitating a marine propeller. The method
employs source and dipole singularities, which give an integral equation on body and cavity sur-
faces, to obtain the cavity shape and hydrodynamic characteristics of the cavitating propeller. A
nonlinear formula of the dynamic boundary condition was applied for determining the potential
on the cavity surface. The effect of the cross-flow was considered when calculating the velocity on
the cavity surface.
The method is able to find a good solution for the hydrodynamic characteristics of the marine
propeller in cavitating condition. We found propeller model SRI123 to compare with the present
computational results. The calculated hydrodynamic characteristics in a cavitating condition are
relatively in good agreement with experimental data.
1 INTRODUCTION
One of the main objectives of the present research was to find the hydrodynamic characteristics and
flow field analysis around the cavitating marine propellers. Cavitation may occur anywhere in a
liquid where the velocity increases and the pressure diminishes below the vapor pressure. Designers
of marine systems often try to avoid cavitation because of its detrimental effect on hydrofoil boats,
marine propellers, pumps and turbines. Cavitation can be useful in other areas, such as medical,
physical and biological applications.
Among computational tools was the BEM, which is powerful for the analysis of configur-
ation problems with good accuracy and low computational time. As a result, many researchers
have applied this method and as a result, it has become optimized for particular problems. The
first three-dimensional application for cavitation was done by Lee (1980) for the modeling of the
flow around the propeller with lifting surface method. Kinnas and Fine (1993) used the potential
based BEM applied to 2- and 3-dimensional partially cavitating hydrofoils with a closed type
model of the sheet cavity. They found the pressure discontinuity at the cavity trailing edge with a
closed type model. Ando et al. (1999) used SQCM (simplified surface panel method) for three-
dimensional steady cavitating hydrofoil. The author (2003) also employed the potential-based panel
method to two- and three-dimensional cavitating hydrofoils by using a closed type model at cavity
trailing edge.
Using Green’s third identify the perturbation velocity potential at any point in the flow field
can be written by an integral equation in terms of source and dipole singularities. The dynamic
boundary condition on the cavity surface should be applied simultaneously with Green’s formula to
obtain the exact nonlinear solution of potential flow on the body and cavity surfaces. However, we
face the usual problem that the position of cavity surface is unknown. As a first iteration towards
the fully nonlinear solution, we may assume the initial cavity length and calculate the potential and
source strength on the cavity and body (non-cavity) surfaces.
At each iterative process the body and cavity surfaces are re-paneled based on the updated cavity
shape which was computed at the end of the previous iteration.
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The method was employed to predict the cavity shape and hydrodynamic characteristics of a
marine propeller. Experimental data for a propeller, including cavitation are very scarce. We found
propeller model SRI123 to compare with the present computational results (1978). The calculated
hydrodynamic characteristics in a cavitating condition are presented and compared with available
experimental data.
2 MATHEMATICAL FORMULATIONS
2.1 Basic equation and boundary conditions

In order to proceed with BEM, the total velocity potential and the perturbation velocity potential
φ are related as follows:
where, VI and x are the inflow velocity and the position vector, respectively.
Restricting our study to the case, where the perturbation flow is inviscid (high Reynolds number),
irrotational and incompressible, the flow field around a body is represented by a perturbation
velocity potential φ, which satisfies the Laplace’s equation:
A boundary value problem can be constructed by specifying boundary conditions on the surfaces
of the cavity and body as follows:
• The kinematic boundary condition (KBC):
• On the wake surface, there is no flow or velocity jump across the wake surface while the potential
jump is allowed across the wake and equal to the circulation around the body. It is expressed
in the perturbation potential as,
where indexes B and F mean back and face sides of the body, receptively.
• Kutta condition at the trailing edge (TE):
• Dynamic boundary condition (DBC) on the cavity surface:
The cavity surface is not known in advance, and hence we assume initially an approximate cavity
shape where the singularities are to be positioned. For this approximate shape, the tangential flow
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boundary condition (3) will not be satisfied. Our problem is therefore to displace the approximate
surface in such a way that the requirement (3) be met through iterations.
Given the pressure distribution from DBC (7), we determine the interacted tangential velocity,
VT , by assuming the existence of the cross-flow velocity component (the component which is
perpendicular to chordwise flow component) which will effect the total velocity potential especially
at the tip of the hydrofoil or propeller blade. Therefore, it is important, in three-dimensional
problems, to take the deviation of velocity in the spanwise direction into account.
Considering a non-perpendicular coordinate system which s and v denote chordwise and span-
wise directions, respectively. This coordinate system is at the cavity surface starting from the point,
ld . Then, chordwise and cross-flow velocities are computed as follows:
where ∂/∂v and ∂/∂s are the spanwise and chordwise velocity, respectively and θ is the angle
between them.
The gradient of the potential on the cavity can be expressed as:
On the other hand, the absolute value of the gradient of total potential is the total tangential
velocity Vc :
From equations (10) and (11), after substituting and simplification the following solution for the
interacted tangential velocity, VT , on the cavity surface Sc obtain as:
where, Vc is a known operating condition as follows:
where σ is the cavitation number. The general formula for cavitation number may be expressed as
follows:
Cavitation number depends on the local inflow velocity for each element. Here, it can be expressed
for propeller as follows:
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z
Z cavity
Foil
o x
O X
Figure 1. Coordinate system and schematic drawing of cavity model.
Knowing the velocity on cavity surface, we then compute the total potential on the cavity surface
Sc as follows:
Discretization of the equation (16) affords the following equation,
(ld ) is the total potential on the cavity starting point and it is known from the ‘without cavity’
condition. One may consider the cavity starts from leading edge, ld = 0. Then, the perturbation
potential is calculated from φ(Sc ) = (Sc ) − VI xc . The coordinate system and schematic of open
type model of the cavity on hydrofoil is shown in Figure 1.
A boundary panel formulation is obtained by applying Green’s theorem to solve Laplace’s
equation:
where R(p; q) is the distance from the field point p to the boundary point q. This equation may be
regarded as a representation of the velocity potential in terms of a normal dipole distribution of
strength φ(p) on the body surface SB , a source distribution of strength ∂φ(q)
∂n
on SB , and a normal
dipole distribution of strength φ on the wake surface SW .
Discretization of equation (18) leads to a linear system of algebraic equation for the unknown φ:
where Cij , Wijl (constant dipole distributions on body and wake surfaces) and Sij (constant source
distribution
on body) are influence coefficients on panel j acting on the control point of panel
i. ∂φ
∂n j
is known from boundary condition (i) on the body surface but unknown on the cavity
surface.
2.2 Iteration scheme for the cavity surface

An open type model of sheet cavity is assumed with a prescribed cavity length and located relative
on the body at the first iteration. The open type model in the potential theory is a method to recover
the pressure jump or stagnation point at the cavity trailing edge. However, it does imply that there
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is a pressure jump at the cavity trailing edge and in fact the pressure jump may exist due to the
collapsing of the bubble.
The next step is to calculate the cavity shape. From equations (17) and (19), the potential on the
body and source on the cavity surfaces may be determined.
The computed source strength Qc (or normal derivative of the potential) on the cavity surface
is not usually equal to the value prescribed in equation (3) from KBC. Therefore, an iterative
procedure is required to converge the Qc as described in equation (20). The cavity thickness must
be readjusted to make the flow on the cavity surface tangential to it.
The cavity thickness, tc , can be calculated by integrating Qc /Vc over the cavity surface.
After integrating the above equation, we get cavity thickness along the surface up to the specified
gap at the cavity trailing edge.
At each iteration, the body and cavity surfaces are re-paneled based on the updated cavity
surface, which was computed at the end of the previous iteration. In the next iteration, the new
matrix element of equations (17) and (19) are created based on source and dipole singularities, then
new potential on the body and source on the cavity surfaces are determined. Again from source
strength the new cavity thickness is obtained from equation (22). This process is repeated to obtain
the correct cavity shape. The present method and its iteration does not exceed 2–3 times and in
most cases, our experience shows that on the first and second times of iteration, we reach to the
final solution of cavity shape.
2.3 Hydrodynamic characteristics of the propeller

The hydrodynamic characteristics of the propeller are obtained as given below.
All variables are described in the Nomenclature.
3 NUMERICAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
In this paper, a propeller model of SRI123 was found in Kodai (1978). The propeller is a 0.250 [m]
diameter and 6-bladed with 1.264 pitch ratio (at 0.7R).
Main dimensions and cavitation test condition of the propeller are shown in Table 1 and 2,
respectively. The propeller is also discretized by M = 12 panels in radial and N + Nc = 15 panels
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Table 1. Main dimensions of the propellers. Table 2. Experimental test condition of the
SRI123.
Propeller type SRI123
Cavitation
Diameter [m] 0.250 J V (m/s) n (rps) number, σ
Exp. area ratio 0.80
Pitch ratio at 0.7R 1.264 0.5 2.5 20.0 0.43 0.58
Boss ratio 0.18 0.7 3.5 20.0 0.30
No. of blades 6
Rake angle [deg] 7.50
Skew angle [deg.] 12.5
Blade section SRI-a
Figure 2. Panel arrangement of SRI123 propeller.
-1.5 Non-Cavitating (Computed) -1.5 Non-Cavitating (Computed) -1 Non-Cavitating BS (Computed)

J=0.5, r/R=0.55, J=0.5, r/R=0.55, Computed J=0.7, r/R=0.55,
Computed Computed, FS
Cp
cavitation no.=0.43 cavitation no.=0.58 Cavitating, Comp. (Sigma=0.58)

Cp
-1 cavitation no.=0.30
Cp
Cavitating, Comp. (Sigma=0.58) Cavitating, Comp. ,BS (Sigma=0.30)

-1
-0.5 -0.5
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
-0.5 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0.5 0
0 Fraction of chord
1 Fraction of chord
Fraction of chord
0.5 1.5 0.5
Non-Cavitating (Computed) Non-Cavitating BS (Computed)
-1.5 Non-Cavitating (Computed) -1 Computed, FS
J=0.5, r/R=0.7, Computed -1.5 Computed Cavitating, Comp. ,BS (Sigma=0.30)
Cp
J=0.7, r/R=0.7,
cavitation no.=0.43 Cavitating, Comp. (Sigma=0.43)
Cp
J=0.5, r/R=0.7, Cavitating, Comp. (Sigma=0.58) cavitation no.=0.30 Exp. BS (Sigma=0.30)

Exp. (Sigma=0.43) cavitation no.=0.58 Exp. (Sigma=0.58) Exp. FS
-1 Exp.(Face Side) -1 Exp.(Face Side) -0.5
-0.5
-0.5 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0
0 0
Fraction of chord
Fraction of chord
0.5 0.5 0.5
-1 Non-Cavitating (Computed) Non-Cavitating (Computed) -1 Non-Cavitating (Computed)
J=0.5, r/R=0.9, Computed
-1 Computed J=0.7, r/R=0.9, Computed
Cp
cavitation no.=0.43 J=0.5, r/R=0.9, cavitation no.=0.30

Cp
Cavitating, Comp. (Sigma=0.43) cavitation no.=0.58 Cavitating, Comp. (Sigma=0.58) Cavitating, Comp. (Sigma=0.30)
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0 0 0
Fraction of chord
Fraction of chord
0.5 0.5 0.5
Figure 3. Pressure distribution on SRI123 cavitating propeller model.
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Kt (Non-Cvaitating, Computed)
10Kq (Non-Cvaitating, Computed)
1.2 Kt (Non-Cavitating, Exp.)
10Kq (Non-Cavitating, Exp.)
Kt (Cavitating, Sigma=0.58, Computed)
10Kq (Cavitating, Sigma=0.58, Computed)
1 Kt (Cavitating, Sigma=0.43, Computed)
Kt (Cavitating, Sigma=0.30, Computed)
0.8
Kt, 10Kq 0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5
J
Figure 4. Open water characteristics of SRI123 propeller model at cavitating and non-cavitating conditions.
Kt (Computed)
1 10Kq (Computed)
Kt (Exp.)
10Kq (Exp.)
0.8
Kt, 10Kq
0.6
Non-cavitaing condition
(# sigma>1.0)
0.4
0.2
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Cavitation number
Figure 5. Thrust and Torque coefficients with variation of cavitation number for SRI123 propeller at J = 0.7.
in chordwise. Then, total numbers of panels become 360 per blade and plus hub by 60 panels per
segment. Figure 2 shows the panel arrangement of the SRI123 propeller.
4 CONCLUSIONS
The present method is developed to predict the formation of a three-dimensional sheet cavity
on a marine propeller. The approach is based on BEM taking into account the hydrodynamic
characteristics.
It may be said that the method is able to find a good solution for the hydrodynamic characteristics
of the marine propeller in cavitating condition. Further investigation of the cavity separation point
and cavity trailing edge and refinement of some boundary conditions should be developed in
order to achieve an exact cavity area, which is very important for hydrodynamic performance and
cavitation prediction.
REFERENCES
Takasugi N., Yamaguchi H., Kato H. and Maeda M., 1992. An Experiment of Cavitating Flow Around a Finite
Span Hydrofoil, Journal of Society of Naval Architects of Japan, Vol. 172, 257–265.
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Laberteaux K. and Ceccio S., 1998. Partial Attached Cavitation on Two and Three-Dimensional Hydrofoils.
22nd Symposium on Naval Hydrodynamics.
Kai H. and Ikehata M., 1998. Numerical Simulation of Cavitation on 3-Dimensional Wings and Marine
Propeller by a Surface Vortex Lattice Method. Proceedings of Third International Symposium on Cavitation,
Grenoble, France.
Kinnas S.A. and Fine N.F., 1993. A Numerical Nonlinear Analysis of the Flow Around Two- and Three-
Dimensional Partially Cavitating Hydrofoils. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 245, 151–181.
Kadoi H., Kokubo Y., Koyama K. and Okamoto M., 1978. Systematic Tests on the SRI-a Propeller. Report of
Ship Research Institute of Japan, Vol. 15(2), 43–68.
Ohkusu M., 1996. Advances in Marine Hydrodynamics, Chapter 5, Cavitation, Computational Mechanics
Publications, 233–278.
Rowe A. and Blottiaux, 1993. Aspects of Modeling Partially Cavitating Flows, Journal of Ship Research, Vol.
37, 34–48.
Kinnas S.A., 1998. The Prediction of Unsteady Sheet Cavitation. Proceedings of Third International
Symposium on Cavitation, Grenoble, France.
Lee C.S., 1980. Prediction of the Transition Cavitation on Marine Propeller by Numerical Lifting Surface
Method, Proceeding of the 13th Symposium on Naval Hydrodynamics, Tokyo.
Ando J., Matsumoto D., Maita S., Ohashi K. and Nakatake K., 1999. Calculation of Three-Dimensional Steady
Cavitation by a Simple Surface Panel Method. Journal of Society of Naval Architects of Japan, Vol. 186,
1999, 17–27.
Ghassemi H., 2003. Boundary Element Method Applied to the Cavitating Hydrofoil and Marine Propeller.
Journal of Oceanic Engineering International of Canada, Vol. 7(2).
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A generalized propeller blade design method based on NURBS
C.-Y. Hsin, K.-T. Lien & C.-L. Wu

Department of System Engineering and Naval Architecture, National Taiwan Ocean University,
Keelung, Taiwan
ABSTRACT: A generalized blade design method for both conventional and unconventional
propellers is presented in this paper. In this method, the lifting surface method is used for the
computations of blade geometry, and the blade geometry is described by a NURBS surface.
B-spline control points, instead of blade geometry itself, are adjusted to update the blade geometry
to satisfy the design condition during the computations. The blade geometry is defined on a gen-
eralized coordinate system, where the blade sections are aligned to stream surfaces. Design cases
of conventional propellers and unconventional propellers are demonstrated in the paper.
1 INTRODUCTION
For the past twenty years, numerical methods have been widely applied to the design of marine
propellers. In most cases, the lifting line method is used to determine the optimum loading distri-
bution, and lifting surface method is then used to design the blade geometry. The propeller blade
geometry is typically defined on the cylindrical coordinate system. The propeller blade geometry
can be considered as a group of two-dimensional sections at different propeller radii connected by
a centerline, and this centerline is defined by the rake and skew distributions. Once the optimized
radial loading distribution is obtained, the blade geometry design program is used to determine the
pitch and camber distributions of each section.
In most lifting surface programs such as MIT-PBD-10 (Greeley & Kerwin 1982), the blade
sections are aligned with constant-radius lines, and each section is assumed to be on the same
stream surface. Therefore, the hydrodynamic characteristics of the two-dimensional section are
assumed to be valid. Since the stream surfaces are assumed to be aligned with the cylindrical
surfaces, the thickness and the camber of a section are defined on the cylindrical surface with
the same radius. The pitch angle (angle of attack) is defined in the same way on the cylindrical
coordinate system. However, for propellers used on submarines, torpedoes, or a podded propulsor,
geometry of the body part to install the propeller is often like a cone. The inflow of the propeller
thus aligns with the cone shape geometry. Therefore, if we still define blade geometries on the
cylindrical coordinate system, the assumption that each section on the same stream surface can no
longer be true. In the present paper, the propeller blade geometry is defined on a conical coordinate
system or a generalized stream surfaces instead of the cylindrical coordinate system.
Since NURBS (Non-Uniform Rational B-Splines) geometric description has been used by almost
every CAD/CAM system, propeller blade geometry is described by a NURBS surface in the present
method. The advantages of using B-spline surfaces are not only the blade geometry is guaranteed
to be smooth and can be directly transferred to CAD/CAM systems, but also the blade geometry
can be easily defined on different coordinate systems.
2 DESIGN METHOD
The generalized coordinate system has been described by Kerwin (Kerwin et. al. 1994) and Hsin
(Hsin et. al. 2002), and details will not be described in this paper. We will emphasize on the design
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chap-06 20/9/2004 16: 18 page 62
Figure 1. A Propeller blade (left) and a two-dimensional section (right) defined by NURBS.
method based on NURBS. In the present method, both sectional geometry and blade geometry are
defined by NURBS, and both of them are also designed based on NURBS.
2.1 Design of two-dimensional section

When marine propellers designed for special purpose, or for better cavitation conditions, a special
section geometry is necessary to be designed. Two-dimensional section, or airfoil, designs have
been studied by various researchers for different purposes, such as Lighthill (Lighthill 1945) and
Eppler (Eppler & Somers 1979). A similar idea is also applied to marine propellers (Kehr 1999).
A two-dimensional section design method developed by Hsin (Hsin 1994) is used for the section
design. In this method, a perturbation potential based boundary element method is adopted, and
the section geometry is designed to meet a given pressure distribution. The section geometry is
defined by B-splines (Fig. 1):
where u is the B-spline parameter, xv and yv are B-spline control points, Nv is the number of
B-spline control points, and Bi4 is the B-spline basis functions of order 4 (degree 3). We first
perturb the B-spline control points one by one (except two control points defined at the trailing
edge) to obtain different section shapes, and compute the pressure distribution of each section shape
by the boundary element method. The pressure distribution thus can be established as a function
of the B-spline control points:
X is the array of the B-spline control point. By comparing to the initial section shape, we can obtain
the Jacobian relates the variation of the B-spline control points and the difference of the pressure
distribution:
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In Equation 3, (δCP )i is the difference of the pressure coefficients between the perturbed geometry
and that of the initial geometry at node i, and (δX )j is the variation of the jth B-spline control points
from the initial geometry. Define δCP∗ as the difference between the pressure distribution on the
designed (calculated) section and the desired pressure distribution, the desired section shape can
be obtained if the following equation is solved:
Equation 4 is a nonlinear equation, and can be solved iteratively by using the Newton-Raphson
method. With the Jacobian defined in Equation 3, we can get the following equation:
where the superscript k is the iteration number. We solve Equation 5 to get the magnitude of moving
the B-spline control points, and then update the section geometry. A new pressure distribution is
obtained, and a new Jacobian can then be evaluated. The final design geometry can be obtained
by this iterative solution procedure. A modified Newton-Raphson method is actually used such
that the Jacobian is only calculated once at the beginning. Though the modified Newton-Raphson
method converges slower than the Newton-Raphson method, it still takes far less computational
time than the Newton-Raphson method since the Jacobian is calculated only once.
2.2 Design of blade geometry

For marine propeller designs, the radial loading distribution has to be determined first. Usually, a
lifting line program is used for this purpose. In the present method, we used a recently developed
lifting line program (Kehr, pers. comm.), where the arrangement of discrete points representing
the loading distributions are not based to the radial positions, but on the distances. Details of this
method are also presented by Andersen (Andersen 1997). The advantage of using this method is
that both conventional and non-planar propellers such as tip-fin propellers, banded propellers, and
Kappel propellers can be designed by this method.
Once the section geometry and radial loading distribution are determined, the present method
will base on these two loading distributions to design the blade geometry. The blade geometry is
defined on the generalized coordinate system, and is described by B-spline control points (Fig. 1).
That is, the blade geometry, S, is defined as:
In Equation 6, wi,j is the weighting function, and other symbols are defined in Equation 1.
The designed sectional geometry can be incorporated into the blade geometry design by two
different ways:
(1) Since the lifting surface method cannot include the thickness effect correctly, we can describe
the camber distribution by B-splines and adjust the camber ratio;
(2) Similar to MIT-PBD-10, we can express the loading distribution of the section as a weighting
function.
It is found that it is difficult to obtain a converged solution using the first method, and the second
method is thus adopted. We use the weighting function, w(sn ), to distribute the chord-wise loading
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distribution; it is defined as:
where si represents the chord-wise position, and CP (si ) is the corresponding pressure jump at
that location. CP (si ) can be obtained from the pressure distribution of a designed section.
The governing equation of the design problem is the solid body boundary condition:
Vinf is the inflow velocity, and ṽ is the induced velocity. The induced velocities are contributed
by the loadings, therefore, are updated as the geometry and loadings change. n is the unit normal
vector of the propeller surface, and can be expressed by the B-spline surface describing the blade
as in Equation 6.
where,
In order to satisfy Equation 8, B-spline control points defining the blade geometry are moved
to get a new geometry, and thus a new loading distribution. Equation 8 thus becomes a nonlinear
equation to solve, and the Newton-Raphson method is used for the solution. First, the Jacobian is
defined as:
where δPn is the amount of perturbation of B-spline control points, Vn is the normal velocity, or
V · n, and δVn is the variation of normal velocity. Since the objective function is V · n = 0, the
right-hand-side of the Newton-Raphson method is thus δVnk = −Vnk :
Vnk is the normal velocity of the kth iteration, and zero normal velocity is the goal of computations.
In the present method, the convergent solution is measured by the variations of the B-spline control
points between iterations. That is, a convergent solution is obtained as the maximum variation of
the B-spline control points, ε, is less than a specified amount.
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chap-06 20/9/2004 16: 18 page 65
Figure 2. A podded propulsor and its streamlines.
3A 3B
Figure 3. 3A shows the designed propeller on the x-r surface, and 3B shows the designed propeller on the
podded propulsor.
3 NUMERICAL EXAMPLES
Two numerical examples are demonstrated here. The first one is a propeller designed for a podded
propulsor. Figure 2 shows a podded propulsor and its streamlines, and a propeller defined on
these streamline surfaces for the generalized coordinate system is designed. Figure 3A shows the
designed propeller on the x-r surface (side view), and notice that the sections are aligned with
the streamlines. Figure 3B shows the designed propeller on the podded propulsor. The second
example is a Kappel propeller. The loading distribution is determined by the lifting line program
described earlier, and it is shown in Figure 4A. Notice that the loading distribution is different from
conventional propellers near the tip. Based on this loading distribution, a propeller is designed as
in Figure 4B, and the blade tip is banded toward the suction side.
4 CONCLUSIONS
In the present paper, we have demonstrated a generalized blade design method for both conventional
and unconventional propellers. In this method, the lifting surface method is used for the computa-
tions of blade geometry, and the blade geometry is described by a NURBS surface. B-spline control
points, instead of blade geometry itself, are adjusted to update the blade geometry to satisfy the
design condition during the computations. In contrast to traditionally used cylindrical coordinate
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chap-06 20/9/2004 16: 18 page 66
4A 4B
Figure 4. 4A shows the loading distribution determined by the lifting line program, 4B shows the designed
propeller.
system, blade geometry is defined on a generalized coordinate system, in which the blade sections
are aligned to stream surfaces rather than surfaces with constant radii. By such a definition, not
only the inflow velocities on the propeller plane can be used as inflow in the design, but also
the total flow field around a propeller can be used as the inflow. Because the blade geometry is
described by NURBS, blade description is not necessary restricted by geometrical parameters at
each radius, and some unconventional propellers thus can be designed by this method. Since the
flow field can be used as the inflow, this method can be used for wake adapted propeller designs
and multi-component propeller designs. Furthermore, the blade design can be integrated into the
flow filed computations by using this method.
REFERENCES
Andersen, P. 1997, A Comparative Study of Conventional and Tip-Fin Propeller Performance, Proc. 21st
Symposium on Naval Hydrodynamics, Washington, D.C.
Eppler, R. and Somers, D.M. 1979, Low Speed Airfoil Design and Analysis, Advanced Technology Airfoil
Research – Volume I, NASA CP-2045, Part 1: 73–99.
Greeley, D.S. and Kerwin, J.E. 1982, Numerical Methods for Propeller Design and Analysis in Steady Flow,
SNAME Trans., 90: 415–453.
Hsin, C.-Y. 1994, Application of the panel method to the design of two-dimensional foil sections, J. of Chinese
Society of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineers, 13(2): 1–11.
Hsin, C.Y., Chou, S.K. and Chen, W.C. 2002, A New Propeller Design Method for the POD Propulsion System,
Proc. 24th Symposium on Naval Hydrodynamics, Fukuoka, Japan.
Kerwin, J.E., Keenan, D.P. and Black, S.D.K. 1994, A coupled viscous/potential flow design method for
wake-adapted, multi-stage, ducted propulsors using generalized geometry, SNAME Trans., 102: 23–56.
Kehr, Y.Z. 1999, On the Development of a New–series Propeller for High-Speed Crafts, Fifth International
Conference on Fast Sea Transportation, Seattle Washington, U.S.A.
Lighthill, M.J. 1945, A new method of two-dimensional aerodynamic design, RAND technical report
M2112, ARC.
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chap-07 20/9/2004 16: 18 page 67

A numerical calculation of wave pattern generated by a seagoing ship
Yoshiyuki Inoue & Md. Kamruzzaman

Yokohama National University, Yokohama, Japan
ABSTRACT: This paper deals with the numerical calculations of wave pattern around an advanc-
ing ship in waves. The hydrodynamic problem of a ship moving in waves at constant forward speed
is analysed using 3-D sink–source method. The contours of wave patterns around moving surface
ships are calculated. The numerical validation of the computer code is firstly checked by calculating
the wave patterns due to a pulsating unit source with forward speed. And the code is further checked
by calculating the wave patterns generated by a Wigley hull form moving with forward speed. The
numerical results of this code are compared with the experimental ones. Computed results are also
compared with the results obtained by the method of Slender Ship Theory (SST). The bulb effect
on wave pattern of Wigley hull form is investigated by comparing the wave patterns. Finally, some
discussions are made based on these numerical results.
1 INTRODUCTION
Ships sailing in rough seas are subject to high wave impacts, mainly caused by two phenomena:
Green water and Bow flare slamming. When the bow becomes fully submerged, green water may
flow over the fore deck. A jet of water travels aft can damage the deck equipment and the front
wall of the superstructure. Hatch covers of forward cargo spaces may also be damaged which
could lead to water ingress into the cargo holds. 76th Maritime Safety Committee of IMO (Dec.,
2002) has adopted new regulations for bulk carrier safety considering these wave loads. Since
both phenomena are caused by ship motions, an accurate prediction of motion amplitude and wave
elevation is essential.
In order to predict the ship motions in waves, the ship is usually regarded as a rigid floating body
having six degrees of freedom, and the fluid loading is estimated from linearized potential flow.
Even after such linearized potential have been introduced, the solution of the resulting equation
is still not easy to obtain. One of the major difficulties arises from the complicated free surface
condition. Further difficulty is associated with the fact that for a practical ship its shape is usually
described by the coordinates of discrete points rather than by a simple mathematical function. As
a result, the solution can be only obtained numerically.
The hydrodynamic problem with free surface effect can be solved numerically by boundary
integral equations using Green function. In this paper, Kelvin singularity with translating and,
pulsating Green function presented by Inglis & Price (1981) has been used. Stock’s theorem has
been used to transfer the surface integration into a contour one. A numerical code is developed to
solve such a problem. The numerical accuracy of the computer code is firstly checked by calculating
the free surface wave patterns of a translating, pulsating unit source with arbitrary frequency and
forward speed. And the code is then checked by calculating the free surface wave patterns generated
by a Wigley hull form moving with forward speed in calm sea. The numerical results of this code
are validated by comparing the calculated results with the experimental ones. Computed results
are also compared with the results obtained by the method of Slender Ship Theory (SST). Free
surface wave patterns generated by a Wigley hull form moving with forward speed in regular sea
are presented and effect of bulb on the wave elevation is analyzed by comparing the wave pattern
generated by a Wigley hull form with bulb.
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Figure 1. Coordinate system.
2 MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION
Let (x, y, z) be the right-hand Cartesian coordinate system with z directed vertically upwards and
origin at the water line of the center plane of the ship. Let there be uniform current U in the negative
x direction while ship is at zero speed of advance. Thus the ship is moving in the x direction with
forward speed U. It is oscillating with encountering frequency ωe in wave with frequency of ω and
is making wave attack angle of χ.
The corresponding potential field φT is the sum of two velocity potential fields: a time indepen-
dent potential field φ0 due to ship steady forward motion, and a periodic potential field φ due to
the ship’s oscillatory motions. The governing equation can be written as
The periodic potential φ can be separated into contributions from all modes of motion and from
the incident and diffracted wave fields:
the incident wave potential φw can be expressed as,
where ζA = is the amplitude of incident wave; φ7 = diffraction potential; φj = the radiation potential
due to the j-th mode of motion; ωe = the frequency of encounter and Xj = complex motion amplitude
in j-th mode.
2.1 Boundary conditions

Here it is assumed that the fluid is inviscid and incompressible, the flow is irrotational and both
incoming wave elevation and body oscillation are small. The velocity potential therefore satisfies
the Laplace equation and the corresponding boundary condition is imposed on the mean position
of the fluid boundary as follows:
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where (n1 , n2 , n3 ) = N̄ are the components of normal vector, (n4 , n5 , n6 ) = (r̄ − r¯g ) × N̄ are the
components of normal vector with respect to rotational motion (r̄ − r¯g ), r̄ = distance from the hull
boundary surface of the ship, r̄g = distance from the C.G of the ship, ωe = ω − kU cos χ, frequency
of encounter, k = ω2 /g, wave number; g = gravitational acceleration.
2.2 Velocity potential

The potential function φ can be obtained by introducing a singularity distribution over the hull
boundary surface. This singularity can be expressed by Green’s theorem that satisfies the Equation
4–6. The Green function of the translating and pulsating source can be written as:
where
(x0 , y0 , z0 ) = the position of singularity; β = U ω/g; γ = 0 if β < 0.25 and γ = arccos (1/4β); if
β ≥ 0.25
If σj (Q) is considered as the strength of source distributed over the hull boundary surface at point
Q then the potential at any point P inside the fluid can be expressed as:
where contour integral is over the intersection of the hull surface SH and the free surface.
Taking the normal derivative of Equation 9 and considering P approaches to Q, then the Equation
9 becomes
For the numerical calculation of σj (Q), Hess & Smith (1964) method is used. For this purpose the
body surface is divided by N quadrilateral elements and source density is assumed to be constant
on each element. Then Equation 10 can be rewritten as:
when the source density σj on each element is obtained by solving the Equation 11, the velocity
potential φj (Pl )(l = 1 − N, j = 0,7) can be calculated by using Equation 9.
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2.3 Hydrodynamic coefficients and forces

After determining the velocity potential φj (Pl ) on each element by the body surface boundary
conditions, the radiation forces (i = 1, 2, 3) and moments (i = 4, 5, 6) due to the j-th mode can be
obtained by:
From radiation forces and moments added mass and damping coefficients are obtained as
Wave exciting forces and moments Fi can be obtained by
2.4 Equation of motion

The motion equation can be expressed by
where Mij = inertia matrix and cij = hydrostatic stiffness matrix. Amplitude of motions, Xj , can be
found by solving the above equation and thus total velocity potential φ can be obtained by putting
these values into Equation 2.
2.5 Free surface elevation

The velocity potential for a point situated on the free surface due to source located on the body
surface can be obtained by the numerical treatment described above. While the velocity potential
and its derivatives are known, the free surface elevation can be calculated by using the Bernoulli’s
equation. The free surface elevation around a moving hull due to the steady state potential can be
calculated by
3 NUMERICAL RESULTS
To check the results of the computations, at first free surface elevations for a submerged translating
and pulsating source were calculated. The source situated at a position (0.0, 0.0, −1.0) pulsates
with frequency ω and moves with a velocity U . Figures 2a, 3a, 4a and 5a show various wave
patterns for this source for different forward speeds with Froude number ranging from Fn ≈ 0.24
to 0.72 whilst the frequency of oscillation remains constant at ω = 3 rad/sec. From these patterns
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Figure 2a. kd = 0.918, β = 0.229, Fn = 0.238. Figure 2b. Fn = 0.64, β = 0.23, kd = 0.129.
Figure 3a. kd = 0.918, β = 0.260, Fn = 0.2713. Figure 3b. Fn = 0.64, β = 0.265, kd = 0.171.
Figure 4a. kd = 918, β = 0.498, Fn = 0.5196. Figure 4b. Fn = 0.64, β = 0.499, kd = 0.608.
it is evident that some circular waves found for β < 0.25 and these circular waves at the upstream
disappear for β slightly greater than 0.25, giving an almost flat free surface. For β > 0.3, these
waves appear only in the down stream sector. Figures 2b, 3b, 4b and 5b show patterns for the same
values of Fn = 0.64 but obtained with at various frequencies. Theses graphs show more clearly the
disappearance of upstream waves for β > 0.25. The wave patterns obtained here agree well with
those of Ba & Guilbaud (1995), at various values of β.
To investigate the wave pattern around a ship, the numerical procedure has been tested for the
Wigley hull. The equation of this hull surface is determined by:
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Figure 5a. kd = 918, β = 0.691, Fn = 0.72. Figure 5b. Fn = 0.64, β = 0.691, kd = 1.159.
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
Figure 6. Wave contours for a Wigley hull at Fn = 0.267 in steady motion.
Figure 7. Comparison between computed and measured wave pattern.
where L, B, D are the length, breadth and draft of the hull respectively. A model of dimen-
sions L = 2.00 m, Breadth = 0.20 m, D = 0.125 was employed for the experiments in the towing
tank of Yokohama National University (Song, 1991). The panel division used for calculations is
50(length) × 5(draft) for the half body.
Calm sea condition is considered first. In this case, it is considered that the body is moving with
forward velocity with almost zero frequency of oscillation that is, ω → 0. After determining the
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Figure 8. Comparison between the wave patterns calculated by Slender Ship Theory (SST) method (Song,
1991).
Figure 9. Mesh arrangements for Wigley hull form with bulb.
Figure 10a. Wave pattern for Fn = 0.2 and ω = 1.5.
source densities distributed over the body surface, velocity potential for the body is calculated by
using Equation 9. Free surface elevation for a particular point is obtained by using Equation 17.
Wave contours made by a Wigley hull moving at Fn = 0.267 are computed and shown in Figure 6.
The wave pattern has been compared with the model test results measured by Song (1991) which
shown in Figure 7. A fairly good agreement observed between the measured results by Song (1991)
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1.0
without bulb
0.8
with bulb
0.6
0.4
2ζ/L
0.2
0.0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
2X/L
Figure 10b. Wave profile for Fn = 0.2 and ω = 1.5.
1.0
0.8 without bulb

with bulb
0.6
0.4
2ζ/L
0.2
0.0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
2X/L
and present computed ones. Wave pattern has been also compared with the wave pattern obtained
by Slender Ship Theory (SST) method (Mauro & Song, 1990) and shown in Figure 8.
Free surface wave patterns for Wigley hull moving with Fn = 0.20 and oscillating with different
values of frequency of oscillation ω are calculated. These wave patterns are shown in the upper
half portion of Figures 10a, 11a and 12a. A bulb is added to this Wigley hull form as shown in the
Figure 9 to analyze the effect of bulb on the free surface wave elevation. The volume of the bulb is
tentatively set as 5% of the main hull displacement .The same Froude number and oscillations are
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1.0
0.8 without bulb

with bulb
0.6
0.4
2ζ/L
0.2
0.0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
2X/L
used to calculate wave elevations generated due to the hull form with bulb. Wave patterns generated
due to the hull form with bulb are shown in the lower half portion of Figures 10a, 11a and 12a. Wave
profiles around the Wigley hull are shown on Figures 10b, 11b and 12b. From these wave patterns
it can be seen that at the lower range of frequency the wave profile around the bow has changed
sharply and the oscillatory behavior has increased as the frequency of oscillation increased. It might
be due to the resonance associated with the main hull and the bulb.
4 CONCLUSIONS
3-D source singularities that satisfy the body boundary condition at its mean position have been
applied for the computations of wave patterns generated by a sea going ship in waves. A computer
program has been developed and used to calculate the free surface wave patterns around a Wigley
hull for the steady and unsteady motions. The results of present calculations are compared to that
of the previous calculations as well as with the experimental ones. Numerical results show that free
surface wave patterns calculated by the present calculation techniques agree well the experimental
ones. Wave profiles around the bow can rise sharply due to the resonance effect associated with
the main hull and bulb. The present techniques can be used to check the wave profiles at the early
stage of designing a ship.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research is supported by the grant-in-aid for Scientific Research of Japan Society for the
Promotion of Science.
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REFERENCES
Hess, J.L. & Smith, A.M.O. 1964. Calculation of nonlifting potential flow about arbitrary three dimensional
bodies, Journal of Ship Research, Vol 8, No. 2, pp 22–44.
Inglis, R.B. & Price, W.G. 1980. Calculation of velocity potential of a translating, pulsating source, Trans.
RINA, Vol 123, pp 163–175.
Malick, B. & Gulibaud, M. 1995. A fast method of evaluation for the translating and pulsating Green’s function,
Ship Technology Research, Vol 42, pp 68–80.
Maruo, H. & Song, W.S. 1990. Numerical appraisal of the new slender ship formulation in steady motion,
Proc. 18th Symposium on Naval Hydrodynamics, Michigan, pp 239–255.
Song, W.S. 1991. Study on wave-making hydrodynamics forces on a ship and wave pattern in the neighborhood
of the hull by new slender ship theory, PhD thesis, Dept. of NAOE, Yokohama National University, Japan.
Wehausen, J.Y. & Laitone, E.V. 1960. Surface waves, Hundbuck der Physic, Vol 9, Springer, pp 446–778.
WU, G.X. & Taylor, E.R. 1987. A Green function form for ship motions at forward speed, International
Shipbuilding Progress, Vol 34, pp 189–196.
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Fast evaluation of ship responses in waves
Jørgen Juncher Jensen

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark
ABSTRACT: The aim of the present paper is to provide a rational and efficient procedure able
to predict the design wave-induced motions, accelerations and loads with sufficient engineering
accuracy in the conceptual design phase and in risk assessment. The procedure relies only on the
following main parameters of the ship: Length, breadth, draught, block coefficient and water plane
area together with the operational profile. The formulas are semi-analytical and the calculations
can be easily done using a standard spreadsheet program.
1 INTRODUCTION
In the design of ships the wave-induced motions and accelerations are important in the assessment
of the comfort of the crew and the passengers and to the scantlings of securing devices like lashing
for container stacks. Similarly, the wave-induced vertical bending moment is required for a direct
evaluation of the requirement to the hull girder strength. Usually, the design values are taken
from the classification society rules where explicit formulas are given. These formulas depend
only on the main dimensions of the ship: Length, breadth, block coefficient and forward speed.
The operational profile is not included explicitly in these expressions. The formulas are of an
empirical nature relying strongly on good engineering judgment on the pertinent parameters. Since
the formulas do not depend on the operational profile the naval architect cannot use them to assess
the influence of e.g. a weather routing system or speed reduction in heavy sea.
Direct calculation of the maximum wave-induced motions, accelerations and loads a ship may
encounter during its operational lifetime can be performed by taking into account the hull form,
the mass distribution and the operational profile. A linear analysis is fairly straightforward using
either two- or three-dimensional hydrodynamic procedures based on potential theory. However,
such direct calculation procedures are not very useful in the conceptual design phase, because of
lack of detailed data for the ship and because significant expertise and time are required to do
the calculations. For risk assessment involving thousands of different combinations of sea state
and operational parameters even linear strip theory calculations might be too time-consuming for
routine applications.
In the present paper a rational and efficient procedure able to predict the design wave-induced
motions, accelerations and loads with sufficient engineering accuracy is presented. A useful appli-
cation could be the conceptual design phase and in risk assessment procedures to account for
the behavior of the ship in waves. The present procedure relies only on the following main para-
meters: Length, breadth, draught, block coefficient, water plane area together with the long-term
operational profile. The formulas are semi-analytical so that the calculations can be done using a
standard spreadsheet program.
2 FREQUENCY RESPONSE FUNCTIONS FOR SHIP MOTIONS AND WAVE LOADS
For a box shaped vessel sailing in regular waves very simple analytical expressions can be derived
for the linear heave, pitch and roll motions and for the vertical wave bending moment using a strip
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theory approach. To apply these results to design calculations for monohull displacement vessels
modifications have to be made to account for the shape of the vessel. Recent examples are given
in Jensen et al. (2004) for ship motions and in Jensen & Mansour (2002) for the wave bending
moment. The block coefficient is in these papers used as the main parameter describing the hull
form, but for roll also the water plane area enters the results.
Even if the basis approach is based on first principles the approximations taken require validations
by model test results and/or more elaborated numerical calculations before the formulas can be
use with reasonable confidence in the conceptual design phase. The formulas and some of the
validations are presented below. More details can be found in the two papers cited above.
2.1 Heave and pitch

The frequency response functions w , θ for heave (w) and pitch (θ), for the vertical wave-induced
motions of a homogeneously loaded box-shaped vessel (L × B × T ) can be derived analytically by
linear strip theory. Neglecting the coupling terms between heave and pitch and assuming a constant
sectional added mass equal to the displaced water, the frequency response functions for heave and
pitch become, Jensen et al. (2004):
with
where ke = |k cos β| is the effective wave number. The Smith correction factor κ is approximated by
The sectional hydrodynamic damping is modeled by the dimensionless ratio A between the
incoming and diffracted waves through the approximation, Yamamoto et al. (1986):

where α is related to the encounter frequency , the wave number k, the wave frequency ω = kg,
the ship speed V and the heading angle β through
For the block coefficient CB less than one, the breadth B is replaced by BCB .
The heave and pitch motions together with the associated vertical acceleration have been com-
pared with model tests and more elaborated numerical calculations for four vessels in Jensen et al.
(2004). The frequency response functions for corresponding accelerations are obtained by mul-
tiplication with 2 . Generally a reasonable accuracy is obtained even for high speed ferries, see
Figure 1. Notable deviations are that (i) heave is too small for wave lengths greater than ship length,
(ii) pitch shows too large resonance for Froude numbers Fn > 0.2.
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7 7
6 SGN 6 SGN
180° 150°
Shipmo Shipmo
5 5
Simple Simple
4 Exp. 4 Exp.
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
ω [rad/s] ω [rad/s]
7 7
6 SGN 6 SGN
120° 90°
Shipmo Shipmo
5 5 Simple
Simple
Exp. Exp.
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
ω [rad/s] ω [rad/s]
Figure 1. Vertical acceleration [(m/s2 )/m] at forward perpendicular for a high speed monohull ferry as function
of wave frequency for different headings. Fn = 0.59. Squares represent results from model tests, whereas
Shipmo and SGN are different linear strip theory results, Folsø (2002). The curve ‘simple’ are from Equations
(2.1)–(2.5). Jensen et al. (2004).
2.2 Roll
The frequency response function for roll ϕ is written
where TN is the roll period and
where is the displacement, GMT the transverse metacentric height, δ a shape factor (0.6 for
container vessels, 0.7 for high speed monohulls), b44,0 the roll sectional damping coefficient
at amidships and κ̃2 the ratio between the roll sectional damping of the forward section and at
amidships. Approximate values for b44,0 and κ̃ are given in Jensen et al. (2004).
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In addition to the frequency response functions also the phase angle between the heave, pitch
and roll are needed in order to determine the resulting inertia load at an arbitrary position in the
ship. These phase angles can be found in Mansour et al. (2004). The location of the roll axis can
be estimated as suggested by Balcer (2004) using the same main parameters as in the formulas
presented here.
No simple corrections for non-linear roll motions have been considered due to its strong
dependence on a more detailed description of the hull geometry including appendages.
2.3 Vertical wave-induced bending moment amidships

An expression for frequency response function M for the wave-induced vertical bending moment
amidships has been derived and validated in Jensen & Mansour (2002). In the present notation it
reads:
The correction factor for the block coefficient is taken from Jensen and Mansour (2002):
as also the speed correction factor (validated for Froude’s numbers Fn < 0.3, only):
It should be noted that contrary to the vertical wave-induced ship motions the vertical bending
moment exhibits significant non-linearities so that the frequency response function does not give
sufficient information for a proper stochastic extreme value analysis. Inclusion of the non-linearities
is dealt with in Jensen & Mansour (2002) and extended in Jensen & Mansour (2003) to include
whipping vibrations based on the simplified formulas, Equations (2.1)–(2.5)for the relative motion
and velocity.
3 STOCHASTIC PREDICTIONS
The standard deviation sR of a linear wave-induced response R (e.g. motions, accelerations, wave
bending moment) is given as:
where a wave spectrum S(ω) formulated in the wave frequency ω, the significant wave height HS ,
the mean period TS usually is sufficient (e.g. Pierson-Moskowitch or JONSWAP).
Long-term predictions covering the life-time of the vessel can be obtained using an operational
profile reflecting the operational ocean area, speed reduction and course change in heavy sea and,
the effect of weather routing services provided by various metrological institutes. The probabil-
ity distribution function for the individual peak responses r is often approximated by a Weibull
distribution:
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where the coefficients a, c are found by least-square with respect to the numerical distribution
obtained from the short-term Rayleigh distribution weighted by the operational profile. Thereafter,
the probability distribution function max F(rmax ) of the largest peak response max rmax among N
peaks can be modeled by the Gumbel distribution:
In a First Order Reliability Method (FORM) reliability assessment the Hasofer-Lind Safety
Index βHL is needed. Thereby load r must be modeled by a Normal distributed variable z:
If the failure criteria corresponds to the load r exceeds the strength s then the failure surface is
and, provided the strength s is Normal distributed the Hasofer-Lind Safety Index βHL becomes
representing (in the FORM analysis) an invariant measure of the probability of failure Pf :
Thereby a set of formulas describing the dominating ship motions and sea loads and their
associated statistical distributions have been given and it is straightforward to implement these
formulas into various design and risk evaluation procedures. Examples are the draft dependence
of the vertical wave bending moment, Jensen & Mansour (2002), the effect of slamming-induced
whipping on the vertical wave bending moment, Jensen & Mansour (2003), the effect of weather
routing on the risk of container failure in lashed container stacks stored on deck, Mansour et al.
(2004) and, the risk of cargo shift in RoRo vessels, Hussein (2004).
4 CONCLUSION
A simplified procedure for the estimation of ship motion and sea load in a confused seaway has
been outlined. The input to the calculation is solely the main particulars of the vessel together
with its operational profile. The procedure makes it possible in the conceptual design phase and
in reliability calculations to quantify especially the influence of the operational profile on the
behavior of the ship in waves. For ships in restricted waters as e.g. high speed ferries information
can be obtained regarding the fatigue and extreme loads to be expected and on the expected
downtime due to seasickness and cargo shift. This possibility has been applied in the EU FP5 project
‘Safety at Speed’. Such results cannot be extracted from current regulations as they implicitly
assume a stipulated operational profile, common for all such vessel. Another application has
been in a decision support system, currently under development in the Danish project ‘SeaSense’
(http://www.videnskabsministeriet.dk).
It should of course be stressed that the accuracy of the present formulas is less that what can be
achieved if the hull form and actual loading condition are available. In such cases model tests and/or
detailed numerical predictions using state-of-the-art strip theories or 3D panel methods should be
performed.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The support from the Danish EFS project SeaSense (2000-603/4001-40), the EUREKA E!2097
MONITUS project and the EU FP5 project ‘Safety at Speed’ (G3RD-CT-2001-00331) is greatly
appreciated.
REFERENCES
Balcer, L. 2004. Location of ship rolling axis. Polish Maritime Research (1):3–7.
Folsø, R. 2002. Comparison between Sea-keeping Model Test and Calculations. MONITUS research project
(EUREKA E!2097), Report No. D1.5.1.01, Registro Italiano Navale, Italy.
Hussein, E. 2004. Cargo Shifting and Damage Stability for RoRo Ships. MSc Thesis, Dept. Mechanical
Engineering, Technical University of Denmark.
Jensen, J.J. & Mansour, A.E. 2002. Estimation of the Long-term Wave-induced Bending Moment in Ships
using Closed-Form Expressions. Trans. RINA: 41–55.
Jensen, J.J. & Mansour, A.E. (2003). Estimation of the Effect of Green Water and Bow Flare Slamming
on the Wave-Induced Vertical Bending Moment Using Closed-Form Expressions. Proc. 3rd International
Conference on Hydroelasticity in Maritime Technology, September, Oxford, UK.
Jensen, J.J., Mansour, A.E. & Olsen, A.S. 2004. Estimation of Ship Motions using Closed-Form Expressions.
Ocean Engineering 31: 61–85.
Mansour, A.E., Jensen, J.J. & Olsen, A.S. 2004. Fast Evaluation of the Reliability of Container Securing
Arrangements. To appear in Proc. PRADS’2004, Travemünde, September, Germany.
Yamamoto et al. 1986. Wave Loads and Response of Ships and Offshore Structures from the Viewpoint of
Hydroelasticity. Proc. Int. Conf. on Advances in Marine Structures, Admiralty Research Establishment,
Dunfermline, Scotland.
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RANS computations of hydrodynamic forces and moments

acting on a submarine
J. Kim, I.-R. Park & S.-H. Van

Korea Research Institute of Ships & Ocean Engineering, KORDI, Korea
ABSTRACT: The finite volume based multi-block RANS code is used to simulate the turbulent
flows around a submarine with the realizable k-ε turbulence model. RANS methods are verified
and validated at the level of validation uncertainty 1.54% of the stagnation pressure coefficient
for the solution of the turbulent flows around a submarine model without appendages. Another
submarine configuration including stern appendages is also validated with the experimental data
of the nominal wake and hydrodynamic forces and moments. The hydrodynamic coefficients
acting on a submarine model are predicted at several drift angles. The computed results are in good
agreement with experimental data. Furthermore, it is noteworthy that all the computations were
carried out in a PC and the CPU time required for 2.8 million grids was about 20 hours to get the
fully converged solution. The current study shows that CFD can be a very useful and cost effective
tool for the prediction of the hydrodynamic performance of a submarine.
1 INTRODUCTION
It is a common practice to perform model tests to evaluate the hydrodynamic performance of a sub-
marine in the basic design stage. However, the model test is usually expensive and time-consuming.
Recently CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) techniques are utilized in many fluid engineering
fields including ship design. Flow information around a hull and appendages, as well as integral
quantities like force and moment, is very useful for the shape design of a submarine. If the CFD
simulation is utilized for the evaluation of hydrodynamic performance prediction, it can help the
submarine designer to produce the hull and appendage shape with the better performance. CFD
can save a lot of efforts in measuring the global quantities and detailed flow information at the
towing tank or in the wind tunnel, although the computed results can’t give the exactly same value
as in the experiment.
The experimental measurements of the flow field from the DARPA SUBOFF submarine model
were made in the Naval Surface Warfare Center Carderock Division (NSWCCD) (Groves et al.,
1989; Huang et al., 1989; Ward & Growing, 1990; Liu et al., 1990; Blanton et al., 1990; Growing,
1990). A number of submarine configurations, ranging from axisymmetric body to a fully appended
submarine, were constructed in order to provide CFD validation data. Several RANS simulations for
these configurations were reported for the validation of their computation (Sheng et al., 1995; Bull,
1996). The present study covers the flow over the axisymmetric body at zero angle of attack and drift
(designated as AFF-1-*) and axisymmetric body with four identical stern appendages (designated
as AFF-3-*) at the level flight and several angle of attack for the validation of the RANS method.
2 COMPUTATIONAL METHODS
The governing equations for turbulent flow in the present study are the Reynolds-averaged Navier–
Stokes equations for momentum transport and the continuity equation for mass conservation. The
Cartesian coordinates are used, where (x,y,z) denotes downstream, starboard, and upward direction,
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respectively. The origin of the coordinates is located at the midship and the center of pressure hull.
All the quantities are non-dimensionalized by the speed (U∞ ) and the length (L) of a submarine,
and fluid density (ρ).
The three-dimensional incompressible RANS code, WAVIS developed at KRISO/KORDI, is
used for the present study. This code has been validated for an application to flow around the
practical ship hull forms (Kim & Van, 2000; Kim et al., 2002)
For turbulence closure, the realizable k-ε model (Shih et al., 1995) is employed. It is advisory to
use a near-wall turbulence model to resolve boundary layer up to the wall, however, the number of
grid should be almost doubled. For the present study the so-called Launder and Spalding (1974)’s
wall function is utilized to bridge the fully turbulent region and the wall. The first grid point in the
wall function approach is approximately 100 times off the wall compared to that in the near wall
turbulence model. It provides the economy and robustness to a viscous flow calculation method as
a design tool. The cell-centered finite-volume method is utilized to discretize governing equations,
as discussed in Kim et al. (2002). Convection terms are discretized using QUICK scheme of the
third order, and central difference scheme is utilized for diffusion terms. To ensure divergence-free
velocity field, the SIMPLEC method is employed. The details of the present numerical methods
can be found in (Kim et al., 2002).
3 RANS SOLUTIONS FOR SUBOFF
3.1 SUBOFF experiments

The Submarine Technology Program (STP) Office of DARPA funded a concerted and coordinated
CFD program to assist in the development of advanced submarines for the future. The SUBOFF
project provides a forum for the CFD community to compare the numerical predictions of the flow
field over an axisymmetric hull model with and without various typical appendage components
with experimental data. The detail available data sets are well summarized by Liu & Huang (1998).
Two SUBOFF models, DTRC model No. 5470 and 5471, were used. The two models differ only in
the location of the surface pressure taps. Model 5470 was designed for the towing tank and Model
5471 for the wind tunnel. The details of the model configurations are described in Groves et al.
(1989).
Most measurements related to the level flights were performed at the wind tunnel with Model
5471. Figure 1 shows the dimensions of the wind tunnel and layout of the model. The flow was
0.3
Measured
Corrected
0.2 Coarse Grid
Medium Grid
Fine Grid
0.1
0
Cp
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
x/L
Figure 1. Schematic view of experimental setup Figure 2. The grid convergence of the pressure
for SUBOFF model in the wind tunnel. coefficient profile along the full surface.
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measured at the Reynolds number of 1.2 × 107 . Eight basic model configurations (AFF-1 thorough
8) were tested at the wind tunnel. The measurement of the hydrodynamic forces and moments at
various drift angles were conducted in the David Taylor Model Basin on a towing carriage utilizing
a planar motion mechanism (PMM) with Model 5470 (Roddy, 1990). All experiments in the towing
tank were carried out at the Reynolds number of 1.4 × 107 .
For the wind tunnel tests of each configuration, the pressure and wall shear stresses are measured
on the hull surface. The measurement of the flow quantities are also performed along an axisym-
metric body. They were the three components of mean velocities and their turbulence intensities,
two Reynolds stresses, boundary layer surveys along the upper meridian at five locations, and wake
survey. The uncertainty of the measurements was 2.5% of U∞ for the mean velocity components
and 0.2% for the Reynolds stresses, where U∞ is the free stream inlet velocity. The uncertainty of
the pressure and skin friction coefficients are ±0.015 and ±0.0002 for their values respectively.
For the towing tank test with PMM, the axial force coefficients are more difficult to measure
accurately than the other coefficients and the experimental axial force coefficient data have 10%
uncertainty. On the other experimental coefficients (vertical force and pitching moments) 5% of
data uncertainty exist.
The present study covers the flow over the configuration AFF-1-*, the axisymmetric body of
revolution and the configuration AFF-3-*, axisymmetric body with four identical stern appendages.
3.2 Verification & Validation(V&V) analysis and RANS solution for AFF-1 configuration
An assessment of the quality of the CFD result is imperative, which has accelerated progress on
development of V&V methodology and procedure for estimating numerical and modeling errors
and uncertainties in CFD simulations. However, in spite of progress, the various viewpoints have not
yet fully converged and current methodology and procedure are not standardized. Here, however,
the recommended V&V procedure are used, which is provided by Stern et al. (2001).
In order to verify the RANS solution for the SUBOFF barehull (AFF-1-* configuration),√ three
systematically refined grids are required. Non-integer grid refinement ratio rG = 2 is selected
in the present study. The fine grid is generated at first. Removing every second point in the fine
grid can generate the coarse grid and the medium grid is generated by an interpolation method.
The number of grids are 121 × 61 × 3 for the fine grid, 87 × 43 × 3 for the medium grid, and
61 × 31 × 3 for the coarse grid in the axial, radial and circumferential respectively. The number of
grids in the circumferential direction is reduced to 3 by using symmetry condition. The realizable
k-ε turbulence model is employed for the case of V&V analysis. Since the wall function is used,
the distance of the first adjacent grid from the hull surface was adjusted to y+ = 30–130 for the
fine grid, 30–180 for the medium grid, and 30–250 for the coarse grid.
2
The pressure coefficient along the hull surface defined as CP = 2p/ρU∞ is selected as a point
variable. The grid convergence for the pressure distribution along the hull surface is shown in Fig. 2,
including comparison with experimental data (Huang et al., 1990). In their experiments, the effect
of tunnel blockage is notified. The square symbols imply their original measurements and the circle
symbols are correction of the blockage effect. Based on the recommended procedures by Stern et al.
(2001), the estimated grid uncertainty is 0.36% of the stagnation pressure coefficient (CP = 1.0),
which is less than the experimental data uncertainty, 1.5% of the stagnation pressure coefficient.
From the definition of the validation uncertainty, 1.54% of the stagnation pressure coefficient is
obtained. Distributions of the error and validation uncertainty, (E, ±UV ) are calculated similarly
based on the local solution changes at the each axial point of the experimental data. Figure 3 shows
the resulting distributions. When E is within ±UV , the solutions are validated at the levels of UV .
Figure 4 shows the comparisons between the measured and computed skin friction coefficient,
where computed results are performed with the fine grid. The measured data is given as symbols
including the error bar representing the data uncertainty (±0.0002). The computed results are
in good agreement with the experiment. The computed mean velocity profiles at different axial
locations, x/L = 0.904 and 0.978 are compared with the experiment data including the error bar
representing the data uncertainty (±0.025) in Figs 5 and 6.
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10
0.006
8 E=D-S
UV Experiment
6 Computation
0.005
4
2 0.004
E,UV (%)
0
0.003
Cf
-2
-4 0.002
-6
0.001
-8
-10 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
x/L x/L
Figure 3. Error and validation uncertainty. Figure 4. Comparisons of skin friction coefficients.
2.5 2.5
Experiment Experiment
Computation Computation
2 vr /U␣ ux /U␣ 2 vr /U␣ ux /U␣
1.5 1.5
(r-ro)/Rmax
(r-ro)/Rmax
1 1
0.5 0.5
0 0
-0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Mean Velocities (ux,vr) MeanVelocities (ux,vr)
Figure 5. Comparisons of mean velocity profiles at Figure 6. Comparisons of mean velocity profiles at
x/L = 0.904. x/L = 0.97.
3.3 RANS solution for AFF-3 configuration

The turbulent flows around the axisymmetric body with four identical stern appendages (AFF-3-*
configuration) at zero angle of attack are simulated with RANS method. The one side of y = 0
plane is computed to reduce the number of grid using the symmetry condition. The number of grid
in the axial direction is similarly kept with validated fine grid system for the previous barehull
(AFF-1 configuration) solution.
Comparisons of measured and computed circumferential variation of axial velocities at
x/L = 0.978 and r/Rmax = 0.3 and 0.5 are shown in Fig. 7. In the inner stern boundary layer
(r/Rmax = 0.3), the axial velocities behind the appendages are clarified to be higher than those
to each side of the appendage both in computation and measurement.
For the validation of the hydrodynamic coefficient predictions, the towing tank test (Model 5470)
with PMM is simulated at the Reynolds number of 1.4 × 107 with zero, +/− 4◦ , 8◦ , 12◦ , 16◦ of the
angle of attack (α) in vertical plane. Figures 8 and 9 show the comparisons of the axial, vertical
forces and pitching moment coefficients with experimental data. Pitching moment is computed
at LCB of the barehull (x/L = 0.4621) and the force and moments are non-dimensionalized by
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1 1
0.9 r/Rmax=0.5 0.9 r/Rmax=0.3
0.8 0.8
0.7 0.7
ux/Uref
ux/Uref
0.6 0.6
0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
-90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90 -90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90
Figure 7. Wake survey comparisons at x/L = 0.978.
15 5
Experiment 4 Experiment
Computation Computation
10
3
2
5
1
M*1.0e-3
Z*1.0e-3
0 0
-1
-5
-2
-3
-10
-4
-15 -5
-20 -16 -12 -8 -4 0 4 8 12 16 20 -20 -16 -12 -8 -4 0 4 8 12 16 20
α α
Figure 8. The vertical force coefficients. Figure 9. The pitching moments coefficients.
0.5ρL2 and 0.5ρL3 respectively. The computed results are in extremely good agreement with
experimental data.
4 CONCLUSIONS
The finite volume based multi-block RANS code, WAVIS developed at KRISO, is applied to the
turbulent flows around a submarine configuration. RANS methods are verified and validated at
the level of validation uncertainty 1.54% of the stagnation pressure coefficient for the solution of
the turbulent flows around SUBOFF model without appendages. Another SUBOFF configuration,
axisymmetric body with four identical stern appendages, is also computed and validated with the
experimental data of the nominal wake and hydrodynamic coefficients. The computed results are
in extremely good agreement with experimental data.
It is noteworthy that all the computations at the present study were carried out in a PC and the
CPU time required for 2.8 million grids was about 20 hours to get fully converged solution. The
cost and the level of flow details provided by CFD tools are drawing much attention for the shape
design of hull forms and control plates. It is quite certain that CFD can be a very useful tool for
the hydrodynamic performance prediction of submarine in the basic design stage.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was sponsored by the Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST), Korea under
the dual use technology project(PN00530) and also supported by the basic research project at
KRISO/KORDI (PE00840).
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REFERENCES
Blanton, J. N., Forlini, T. J., and Purtell, L. P., “Hot-film velocity measurement uncertainty for DARPA
SUBOFF experiments,” Report DTRC/SHD-1298-05, 1990.
Bull, P., “The validation of CFD predictions of nominal wake for the SUBOFF fully appended geometry,” 21st
Symposium on Naval Hydrodynamics, Trondheim, Norway, Aug. 1996.
Groves, N. C., Huang, T. T., and Chang, M. S., “Geometric characteristics of DARPA SUBOFF models,”
Report DTRC/SHD-1298-01, 1989.
Growing, S., “Pressure and shear stress measurement uncertainty for DARPA SUBOFF experiment,” Report
DTRC/SHD-1298-06, 1990.
Huang, T. T., Liu, H. L., and Groves, N. C., “Experiments of DARPA SUBOFF Program,” Report DTRC/SHD-
1298-02, 1989.
Huang, T. T., Liu, H.-L., Groves, N., Forlini, T., Blanton, J., and Growing, S., “Measurements of flows over an
axisymmetric body with various appendages in a wind tunnel: the DARPA Suboff experimental program,”
19th Symposium on Naval Hydrodynamics, Washington, D. C., USA, 1994.
Kim, W. J., Kim, D. H., and Van, S.-H., “Computational study on turbulent flows around modern tanker hull
forms,” International Journal for Numerical Methods in Fluids, Vol. 38, No. 4, 2002, pp. 377–406.
Kim, W. J., and Van, S.-H., “Comparisons of turbulent flows around two modern VLCC hull forms”, Proc. of
a Workshop on Numerical Ship Hydrodynamics: Gothenburg 2000, Gothenburg, Sweden, 2000.
Launder, B.E., and Spalding, D.B., “The numerical computation of turbulent flows,” Comp. Meth. Appl. Mech.
Eng., Vol. 3, 1974, pp. 269–289.
Liu, H. L., Jiang, C. W., Fry, D. J., and Chang, M. S., “Installation and pretest analysis of DARPA SUBOFF
model in the DTRC anechoic wind tunnel,” Report DTRC/SHD-1298-04, 1990.
Liu, H.-L., and Huang, T. T., “Summary of DARPA Suboff experimental program data,” Report
CRDKNSWC/HD-1298-11, July 1998.
Roddy, R. F., “Investigation of the stability and control characteristics of several configurations of the DARPA
SUBOFF model (DTRC Model 5470) from captive model experiments,” David Taylor Research Center
Report DTRC/SHD-1298-08, 1990.
Sheng, C., Taylor, L. K., and Whitfield, D. L., “Multiblock multigrid solution of three-dimensional incom-
pressible turbulent flow about appended submarine configurations,” AIAA Paper No. 95-0203, AIAA 33rd
Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit, Reno, NV, January 9–12, 1995.
Shih, T.-H., Liou, W.W., Shabir, A., and Zhu, J., “A new eddy viscosity model for high Reynolds number
turbulent flows – model development and validation,” Computers and Fluids, Vol. 24, 1995, pp. 227–238.
Stern, F., Wilson, R. V., Coleman, H., and Paterson, E. G., “Comprehensive Approach to Verification and
Validation of CFD Simulations – Part 1: Methodology and Procedure.” ASME J. Fluids Engineering,
Vol. 123, No. 4, 2001, pp. 793–802.
Ward, K. C., and Growing, S., “Hardware and instrumentation of the DARPA SUBOFF experiments,” Report
DTRC/SHD-1298-03, 1990.
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An experimental study on the design of skeg for barge type stern form
K.J. Lee
Professor, Chosun University Gwangju, Korea
K.H. Kim
Post-graduate student, Chosun University Gwangju, Korea
ABSTRACT: An experimental study on the effect of various kinds of anti-yawing skegs to the
course keeping stability and added resistance caused by them. The tests were carried out in the
circulating water channel (CWC) at Chosun University (CU). Course keeping stability tests for
four different sizes of skegs, resistance tests for six different angles of skeg and three different
shapes of skeg were carried out.
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 The skeg of barge

A slight deflection of course of barge by wind, wave, or current may set up a condition of unbalance,
moving the barge sideways. This condition often shall induce an oscillating motion called Yaw. In
case of small amplitude of yaw, it may not affect the safety and performance, however it would be
dangerous and inefficient at larger amplitudes.
A criterion of yaw amplitude in a path may be established by non-dimensionalizing the value
with respect to length or breadth of barge for the evaluation of capsizing.
Despite the fact that various devices have been developed and applied to stabilize the yaw motion,
the superiority of twin or triple skegs over other equi-functional appendages has been recognized
so far. In many cases, these skegs were installed with insufficient study and analysis for design,
and these lead to the worse performance due to increased resistance than calculated.
1.2 Barge hull form

Ship shaped bows are frequently adopted for ocean going and coastal barges to improve sea keep-
ing performance for resisting slamming and to increase speed by reducing the inefficient energy
loss. Moreover, raked or spoon type bows are a common trend in river barges aimed at smaller
yaw amplitude by allowing transverse flow near the bow. In many cases the barge type stern
form is advantageous from the resistance performance point of view by allowing the straight flow
underneath the aft-body.
Ship shaped stern form is not recommendable to the barge form, even in ocean going barges as
the interaction between skegs and propellers are unpredictable that will require larger skegs with
consequent loss in speed.
Box type stern barge without rake may have enough side drag to keep yaw motion within safety
range without the aid of skegs, but it will show considerably lower speed than the raked stern with
skegs.
2 TEST FACILITIES
The main characteristics of CWC at Chosun University (CU) are as follows, and an outline is shown
in Figure 1.
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3 MODEL BARGE AND SKEGS
The model was made of wood scale 1/57.3. In order to generate turbulent flow, studs were provided
at station 19 and 19 1/2 for model CU001 with full spoon bow. The studs measured 1.6 mm in
diameter and 2 mm in height and they are fitted at 10 mm spacing. The principal geometrical
particulars of model are listed in Table 1, and a rough sketch of skegs is shown in Figure 2.
Type: 2 impellers, vertical type

L × B × D(whole body): 14.8 m × 1.8 m × 3.7 m
L × B × D(measuring body): 5.0 m ×
1.2 m × 0.9 m
Velocity range: 0.4∼1.8 m/sec
Standing wave: 0.8 mm at 1.0 m/sec
Surge wave: ±1.0 mm at 1.0 m/sec
Water surface inclination: 1/4000 at 1.0 m/sec
(1) Surface Flow Accelerator (2) Wave Maker
(3) Measuring Section (4) Motor A.C. 22 kw
(5) Impeller
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of CWC.
Table 1. Geometric characteristics of CU001.

Particulars Model Particulars Model PARTICULARS OF SKEGS (Model)
(CU001) (CU001) Length : 0.12 m
Area : 0.0046 m2
LBP (m) 1.5 D (m) 0.32
Aspect ratio : 0.426
LPL (m) 1.55 CB 0.6791
B (m) 0.3 LCB (%) +0.4
LINES OF BARGE (Model)
SQUARE TYPE SKEG MARINER TYPE SKEG
DEFORMED TYPE SKEG
Figure 2. Configuration of skegs.
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4 RESISTANCE TEST
The resistance tests for six different skeg angles with square type skeg were carried out and the
results are shown in Figure 3, Figure 4 and Table 2. As shown in Figure 3, the range of angle
−1◦ ∼ − 7◦ would be preferable and hence −3◦ (inward ending) were selected for further study.
The results shown in Figure 3 were obtained from the model tests carried out at the design speed
of 13.5 knots.
Additional studies on the skegs with different shape as shown in Figure 2 were carried out, and
the results are represented by a quantity RR as shown in the equation (1). Analyzing Figure 5,
performance of deformed type skeg is most efficient.
Hence,
Figure 3. Comparison of RTM for various skeg

angles. Figure 4. Skeg angles vs. RTM at 3 different speeds.
Table 2. RTM ratio in percentage between bare hull and skegs hulls.
Fn 0.2303 0.2391 0.2480

Skeg angle Without skeg 100 100 100
−7 102 103 104
−5 102 102 103
−3 101 102 103
−1 103 105 105
4 108 110 112
7 110 114 116
Skeg type Square 101 102 103
Mariner 100 101 102
Deformed 106 106 106
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Figure 5. Comparison of RTM for various skeg forms.
Table 3. Variation of lc and RTM for different skeg area (Note: lc = center of lateral
area from a midship (+: forward)).
Skeg area
Items (m2 ) Without skeg 8(SK I) 10(SK II) 12(SK III) 14(SK IV)
RR(%) 100 105 110 112 114

(lc/LBP ) × 100 10.0 9.1 8.9 8.6 8.4
5 COURSE KEEPING TEST
Position of center of pressure is one of the most important factors for good course stability. Moving
the centre of pressure to the aft of the ship can increase the course stability (i.e. to increase the
rudder area or to attach the skeg).
As we have insufficient knowledge to prevent excessive yaw motion at initial design stage, it is
not an easy task to design a proper skeg or other anti yawing devices. In most cases, model tests are
preformed to predict appropriate forms and required sizes of appendages for stable course keeping.
If the appendages are designed based on a personal judgment, in some case it may yield good
solution, but in many cases it affects adversely resulting in either excessive resistance or insufficient
stability. It is acknowledged that yawing characteristics of a model are identical to full size barge
and in most cases the device developed by model test for the correction of excessive yaw motion
have proven successful on the full scale barge [2]. It is presumed that the accumulated model test
to eliminate the need for routine model tests since the hull form and the main characteristics are
not so much varied in barge form case.
Two simplified empirical criteria are established to evaluate course-keeping performance for
barge at CWC. The breadth of oscillation (YB )-yawing amplitude – should be in the limit of barge
breadth that is the first criteria. In addition, the barge should remain in the directionally stable zone
as first criteria within two cycles when it is forced to move up to one or two times the breadth of
the barge from the mean track line. That recovery cycle is defined as the second criterion.
The simplified course keeping tests were carried out at Fn = 0.248 with deformed type (−3◦ )
skeg on the base of above mentioned criteria, and the results are summarized in Fig 6 referring Table
3, yaw amplitude increases with time for bare hull cases, which means divergently unstable, the
yaw angle oscillates about its mean track with increasing amplitude for the SK I case which means
increasing deviation from the original leading with increasing time, and the yaw angle oscillates
about mean track with decreasing amplitude for SK II, SK III and SK IV cases which means
dynamically stable. If the second criterion is applied, SK III and SK IV are desirable from the course
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Figure 6. Variation of maximum yaw amplitude. Figure 7. Yaw amplitude vs. center of lateral area.
• TEST PREPARATION
(1) Draft Check
(2) Skeg and Flap Angle Setting
• RESISTANCE TEST
At Various Flap Angle
• STABILITY (COURSE) TEST
(1) Criteria # 1 Check
(2) Criteria # 2 Check
Push laterally to make force and
check Criteria # 2 by Eye Measuring
• CONCLUSIONS & ANALYSIS
(1) Comparison the Flap Angle Compromising
Resistance & Course Stability
Figure 8. Model test procedure in CWC.
keeping stability point of view. And if we consider the resistance and course keeping performance
simultaneously as shown in Fig 7, SK I case is most desirable for this type of hip shaped barge form.
Position of skeg is determined by the flow(paint) test, and the procedure of the test is shown in
Figure 8.
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6 CONCLUSIONS
(1) This study may be devoted to minimize or to deduce the need for routine model tests for
the design of skegs on ship shaped barge due to their similarity of the hull form and main
characteristics.
(2) Despite the prediction of resistance are questionable quantitatively, the qualitative model tests
for the comparison of some proposed skegs might be used with confidence.
(3) The form of incinerating vessel should be ship shaped barge as this form is advantageous for
both of workability and performance.
NOMENCLATURE
L: Length of Barge (m) CTM : Total Resistance Coefficient

B: Breadth of Barge (m) CFM : Frictional Resistance Coefficient
D: Depth of Barge (m) RR: Ratio of Resistance
RTM : Total Resistance (N) YB : Amplitude of Yaw (m)
REFERENCES
[1] Lee, Kwi-Joo and Joa, Soon Won, 850 Car Carrying Coastwise Barge Design, International CWC
Symposium Proceeding, Nov.1986.
[2] Latorre, Robert and Ashcroft, Frederick, Recent Developments in Barge Design, Towing, and Pushing,
Marine Technology, Vol. 18, No. 1, pp. 10–21, Jan. 1981.
[3] Inoue, S. et al., On Course Stability of a Barge, Trans. West Japan Society of Naval Architects, No. 54,
Aug. 1977 [in Japanese], English Translation.
[4] Tahekawa, M. et al., Course Stability, of Towed Large Barge, Journal of the Society of Naval Architects
of Japan, Vol.137, June 1975 [in Japanese].
[5] Eda, H., Course Stability, Turning Performance, and Connection Force of Barge Systems in Coastal
Seaways, Trans. SNAME, Vol. 80, 1972.
[6] Brix, J.E., Lighters and Seagoing Barges and the Design of Yaw Controlling Units, Proceedings, 2nd
International Tug Conference, London, Oct.1971.
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Wave resistance of a boxlike ship by a modified Dawson’s method
Quanming Miao, Xiaofeng Kuang

China Ship Scientific Research Center, Wuxi, China
Jinzhu Xia
Australia Maritime College, Launceston, Australia
ABSTRACT: Wave resistance of a boxlike ship is investigated by a modified Dawson’s method.

Because of the extremely blunt bow, the flow around the ship differs much from that around normal
ships. In the present numerical study, the free surface will be divided into several domains. Free
surface condition in each domain is dealt with separately by using a one-side, upstream, four-point,
finite difference operator. The results on wave resistance of the ship at two draughts show good
agreement with those obtained by experiments carried out in a towing tank. The advantage in
simplicity and CPU of this method makes it practical in engineering application.
1 INTRODUCTION
Ship wave problems have been studied for more than one hundred years. However, because of its
importance and complexity, they still attract a lot of attention from scientists and engineers.
Numerical methods that can solve viscous flow problems have recently been developed with
great stride. By directly solving the N-S equation and satisfying the related boundary conditions,
we may obtain the flow solutions rather realistically. There are now many commercial software
packages such as FLUENT and CFX that may be used for ship resistance problems. However, such
methods will need a lot of expertise and computing resources and are inconvenient in day-to-day
engineering practice. Therefore, potential flow theories still have significant advantages in practical
engineering application.
Since Dawson (1977) first proposed the modified Rankine panel method, the applications pub-
lished so far have shown significant advantage of this method in simplicity and generality. For
fine hull forms such as Wigley hulls with wedge bow and stern shapes, Dawson’s method (1977)
can be used to give agreeable results with experimental measurements in most cases. For ships
with transom stern and extremely blunt bow, however, Dawson’s method cannot be directly used
to give satisfactory results. Modifications or special treatments should be made for abnormal hull
forms.
The Dawson’s method (1977) is adopted and modified in this paper to solve the wave resistance
problem of a boxlike ship with transom stern and extremely blunt bow. Special emphasis is placed
on the discretization of the free surface. The free surface around the ship is divided into three
domains. The first domain is ahead of the ship bow; the second is beside the hull; and the third is
behind the stern. The free surface meshes in different domains are generated independently. This is
proven critical in obtaining stable and reasonable numerical results for ship waves and wave making
resistance. In what follows, the potential flow theory and the numerical techniques are introduced
and the numerical results are compared with towing tank measurements of a boxlike ship.
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2 POTENTIAL FLOW FORMULATION
2.1 Governing equations

Let us consider a ship-fixed Cartesian coordinate system oxyz (Figure 1) with origin o at the
intersection of the mid-ship section, the longitudinal central plane and the undisturbed free surface,
the x-axis towards the ship stern and the z-axis vertically upwards. Under the assumption of an
incompressible and inviscid fluid as well as irrotational motion, the fluid field can be defined in
terms of a velocity potential φ(x, y, z) which satisfies the following conditions (Dawson 1977):
In the fluid
on the body surface
dynamic free surface condition,
kinetic free surface condition,
where n is the unit normal vector toward the fluid; subscript x in nx indicates the vector component
in the x-direction, otherwise, subscripts x and y denote partial differentiation; U is the incoming
flow velocity or vessel speed and η is the free-surface elevation. An appropriate radiation condition
should be satisfied in the up and down streams.
The free surface conditions (3) and (4) can be linearized through the use of the double-model
velocity potential (x, y, z) (Dawson 1977) as
where l is the streamline direction of the double-model solution on the undisturbed free
surface z = 0.
z
U y
o x
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Equations (1), (2) and (5) are solved by distributing Rankine sources on the free surface, the
body surface and its image about the free surface. The total control surface is denoted by S. The
velocity potential φ(x, y, z) at a field point x = (x, y, z) is represented as:
where σ is the source density and r the distance from the integration point x = (x , y , z ) on S to
the field point x = (x, y, z).
The form of φ(x, y, z) shown in Equation (6) automatically satisfies Equation (1). Thus the
source density σ can be obtained from satisfying the boundary conditions on S. Once the values of
source density σ on all panels have been obtained, the velocity components on each panel can be
obtained and other parameters such as the pressure, hydrodynamic forces and wave elevation can
be calculated.
2.2 Free-surface mesh generation

For a ship with fine body-lines such as a Wigley hull, we can always obtain satisfactory results
from Dawson’s method not only on the wave resistance but also on the wave elevation as long as
the mesh distribution over the free surface and ship body surface is reasonable. Even if the mesh
distribution is coarse we may still obtain stable results. For full hull forms, especially for ships with
transom stern, however, modification or special treatment should be made to obtain reasonable and
stable results.
For a boxlike ship, the meshes over the free surface generated according to the streamlines of the
double model solution is not sufficient due to the blunt bow and stern. In Figure 2, we can see that
the meshes in front of the ship bow and behind the ship stern generated according to the streamlines
are very sparse in the y-direction. With such mesh distribution, Dawson’s method does not provide
satisfactory results and the results are unstable. In order to obtain stable and satisfactory results,
we have to regenerate the free-surface meshes.
In this paper, the free surface around the boxlike ship is divided into three domains (see Figure 3):
Domain 1, in front of the ship bow, Domain 2, behind the ship stern and Domain3, the domain of
other free surface.
In Domain 1 and 2, the free surface meshes are generated manually. In Domain 3, the mesh is
generated using the streamlines of the double model solution as in the Dawson’s method. The free
surface condition may be satisfied in each domain. The radiation condition is satisfied by the use
of a one-side, upstream, four-point finite difference operator for the free surface condition.
The free surface meshes generated in this study can be seen in Figure 4. The main difference
between the mesh distribution in Figure 2 and Figure 4 is in Domain 1 and Domain 2. The meshes
Figure 2. Meshes over free surface generated according to the streamlines of double-model solutions.
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o x
Domain 1 Ship Domain 2
Domain 3
Figure 3. Indication of different free surface domains.
Figure 4. Free-surface meshes generated with 3 domains.
in Figure 2 are generated directly from the streamlines of the double model solution and are very
sparse in Domain 1 and Domain 2 due to the blunt bow and transom stern. This is obviously
unreasonable and the computational results confirm that the meshes in Figure 2 cannot be used to
give stable solutions. In Figure 4, the free surface is divided three parts according to the streamlines
and waterlines of the boxlike ship. The meshes in Domain 1 and Domain 2 are densified. Our
calculations show that the results obtained in this way are stable and reasonable.
3 NUMERICAL RESULTS
The numerical results presented here are obtained for a boxlike ship model with the principal
parameters given as: ship length LPP = 3.83 m and beam B = 1.03 m.
In all calculations, the solution domain is from −0.5Lpp to 2.0Lpp in the x-direction and from −5B
to 5B in the y-direction. Due to the symmetry of the boxlike ship about the longitudinal central
plane, only half of the solution domain is considered in the calculations. The numbers of mesh
points on the wetted body surface in x, y and z directions are 41, 21 and 7 respectively.
For a boxlike ship, there is no effective method to predict full-scale ship resistance. The (1 + k)
method is adopted here and is believed to be more reasonable than the method recommended by
ITTC resistance committee in 1957. In order to compare with the experimental results, the total
resistance coefficient CR in this paper is calculated by (Shao et al. 1992)
Where Cw is the ship wave resistance coefficient that can be obtained from this study; Cf is the
friction resistance coefficient calculated from the formulation recommended by ITTC resistance
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Table 1. Ship-wave resistance of the boxlike Table 2. Ship-wave resistance of the boxlike
ship at D/B = 0.0224. ship at D/B = 0.0523.
Dimensionless wave resistance, Dimensionless wave resistance,
Rw /(0.5ρV 2 2/3 ) Rw /(0.5ρV 2 2/3 )
Fn (a)* (b)** Fn (a)* (b)**

0.032 0.0001 0.0010 0.063 0.0000 0.0002
0.063 0.0002 0.0046 0.095 −0.0006 0.0092
0.095 −0.0002 0.0115 0.127 −0.0023 0.0193
0.127 −0.0010 0.0228 0.159 −0.0024 0.0286
0.159 0.0283 0.0271 0.174 0.0179 0.0317
0.190 −0.0441 0.0303 0.190 −0.0453 0.0346
0.222 −0.0487 0.0316 0.222 −0.0428 0.0390
0.254 −0.0567 0.0314
* Free surface mesh was generated directly
* Free surface mesh was generated directly from the streamlines of the double solutions.
from the streamlines of the double solutions. ** Free surface mesh was generated from the
** Free surface mesh was generated from the method proposed in this paper.
method proposed in this paper.
0.20
RT /(0.5ρV 2∆ ) RT /(0.5ρV 2∆ )
2 2
3
0.20 3
0.18 Calculation by this paper 0.18 Calculation by this paper

Experimental results Experimental results
0.16 0.16
0.14 0.14
0.12
0.12
0.10
0.10
0.08
0.08
0.06
0.06 0.04
0.04 0.02
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
Fn Fn
Figure 5. Comparison of total resistance at Figure 6. Comparison of total resistance at

D/B = 0.0224. D/B = 0.0523.
committee in 1957 (ITTC 1957); k is the form factor. Needless to say, the frictional resistance
depends on the wetted ship hull surface and the results of ship wave resistance will directly affect the
total resistance. In our calculation, two draft-beam ratios (D/B = 0.0224 and 0.0523) are considered.
Table 1 presents the results of dimensionless wave resistance, Rw /(0.5ρV 2 2/3 ), from different
numerical calculations at D/B = 0.0224, where ρ is the water density, V the ship speed and the
displacement volume. It shows that the numerical results are very unstable when the free-surface
meshes are generated directly according to the streamlines of the double model solution. These
results are not comparable with those from measurements. The results obtained from the mesh
generation method proposed in this study, however, are much more stable.
Table 2 provides the results of wave resistance from different numerical calculations at
D/B = 0.0523. Similar conclusions may be reached as for the case of a different draft presented
above.
Figures 5 and 6 compare the numerically predicted and experimentally obtained total resistance
of the full-scale boxlike ship at D/B = 0.0224 and 0.0523. The vertical axis represents dimensionless
total wave resistance of the ship, RT /(0.5ρV 2 2/3 ). The solid line represents the calculated results
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Figure 7. 3-D view of ship waves of the boxlike ship at Fn = 0.22.
based on this study and the dashed line indicates the results converted from the model tests carried
out in a towing tank (Ji 2000). It shows that the results obtained by this study agree well with those
by the experimental method except at very low ship speed where there may be large error in tank
test measurement.
Figure 7 provides a 3D view of the ship waves of the boxlike ship at Fn = 0.22. It can be observed
that there is much difference in bow and stern waves comparing with those of usual ships.
4 CONCLUDING REMARKS
It is found that the ordinary Dawson’s method fails to provide stable numerical results for boxlike
ships due to unsatisfactory free surface mesh generation. A domain decomposition technique
was developed in this paper to refine the free surface meshes. The numerical results on ship wave
resistance show that the mesh generation method proposed in this paper gives stable and satisfactory
results for boxlike ships and, therefore, provides a practical solution in engineering applications.
REFERENCES
Dawson, C.W. 1977. A practical computer method for solving ship-wave problems. 2nd International
Conference on Numerical Ship Hydrodynamics, Berkeley, USA.
ITTC, 1957, Report of the 17th ITTC Resistance Committee.
Ji, H. 2002. Model test report for a boxlike ship. CSSRC Technical Report.
Shao S.M., Zhao L.E. & Zhu N.C. 1992. Ship Resistance. China Defense Industry Publishing Co.
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Speed effects on the motions of high-speed crafts
F. Pérez
Towing tank of the Naval Architecture School, Politechnical University of Madrid (UPM), Spain
J.A. Clemente
IZAR San Fernando Shipyard, Cádiz, Spain
ABSTRACT: The motions of a high speed craft are highly influenced by speed and dynamical
forces that begin to be important for high Froude numbers. Classical ship motions theories and
some seakeeping programs do not include the effect of these dynamic forces that affect mainly
to the damping of vertical motions, and have to be corrected to model high speed crafts. In any
other way, the use of this theories or programs would be unrealistic. In this paper, some theories
that can be used to predict the seakeeping behavior of high speed crafts, considering dynamic
forces, are studied and validated against seakeeping tests of some fast monohulls models. Tests and
results are focused in vertical motions in head seas, which are the most severe for these fast crafts.
Experimental results of vertical motions are compared with numerical calculations and conclusions
about the range of application of the presented theories are obtained.
1 INTRODUCTION
In the operation and design of high speed crafts, seakeeping performance is an important task
because it is proved that large motions and accelerations can degrade the operational capabilities of
the ship. The naval architect has nowadays some numerical tools to study the seakeeping behavior
of a design, but these tools have to be used carefully, as far as most of them are limited due to the
theoretical assumptions made. Among these tools, the so-called “Strip theory” has the advantage
of being relatively simple, robust and accurate. Modern Strip theory began with the works of
Salvensen et al. In 1970 and Kroukovsky and Jacobs in 1957, and it has been modified and updated
until now thanks to the mentioned qualities.
Due to its basic assumptions of linearity, slender hull form and moderate forward speed, the
original strip theory has not been considered a reliable tool for seakeeping predictions of fast
crafts, though some studies (Block and Beukelman, 1984, Frandoli et al. 2000) shows that a strip
theory can still give accurate enough results even at high Froude Numbers. In addition, many
computer programs based on the strip theory are actively used in practice.
To address the shortcomings of this theory, a considerable amount of work is being carried out at
many research institutions to develop a fully 3D numerical solution for the problem of ship motions
at forward speed, both in frequency and time domains. In spite of progresses made and good results
obtained, these 3D methods are hard to use in the day to day practice of a shipyard, where fast
modelisation and calculations are required, and modifications to the design are quite common at
the preliminary design stage.
Seakeeping tests in a towing tank are the most preferable option, but can be expensive and limited
by the dimensions of the tank and the speed of the carriage. The quality of the tests is determined
by the model scale and by the number of oscillations that the model experience in the test length.
Open water tests in irregular waves have the limitation, on the other hand, of obtaining an accurate
measurement of the sea state, in order to obtain the transfer functions of the motions. Thus, strip
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theories are pushed to their limits of applicability, in order to obtain a reliable tool to predict the
seakeeping characteristics of high speed vessels at the design stage.
In this paper, several additions to the original strip theories are applied to the heave and pitch
motions of some models of fast crafts at moderate and high Froude numbers, trying to asses the
accuracy and speed range of applicability of the assumptions made.
2 ABOUT STRIP THEORIES: TRAMSOM AND VISCOUS EFFECTS
In a strip theory, the total hydromehanic force and moment on the ship hull are obtained by inte-
grating the sectional force the ship length. Wave exciting forces and moment are added to the
hydromechanic forces and moments respectively, and with Newton’s second law we obtain the
equations of motion. The hydromechanic forces and moments give the hydrodynamic and hydro-
static restoring coefficients of the left hand side in the equations of motions, which for coupled
heave and pitch can be expressed as:
The coefficients Aij , Bij and Cij are the added mass, damping and restoring terms respectively.
Indices 3 and 5 refer to heave and pitch motions. Once the potentials that model the ship hull
have been obtained according (Rodriguez 71), damping (B) and added masses (A) matrices can be
obtained. Up to now, the influence of the speed has not been taken into account. We are going to
see that this is the main difference between the original and modified theories.
In the original strip theory, the speed influence is taken into account only for the derivative of the
sectional added mass (A) with respect to the ship length. In such a way, only terms are introduced
with V · d(A)/dx. The modified theory also takes into account the speed influence related to
the derivative of the damping (B) with respect to ship length, and so, terms are introduced with
V · d(A)/dx and V · d(B)/dx.
End terms can be added or disregarded to both theories. Considering the end terms, the main
difference between the original and the modified theories is that the modified includes both the
damping and added mass of the aftermost section, while the original theory only considers end
terms related with the added mass of the aftermost section. Additional differences are in the pitch
added inertia A55 , pitch damping B55 and cross coupling A53 coefficients. In the original theory, the
added mass cross coupling coefficients do not satisfy the Timman-Newman symmetry relationship
(Lahtiharju et al. 1991) of equal forward speed terms but with opposite sign. This can be used only
for ships with fore and aft symmetry.
No mention of the right hand side of Eq. (1) and (2) have done so far. In this case, the expressions
used follow (Lewis 1983) and consider exciting forces from the regular waves and diffraction forces.
No viscous effects (lift and drag) are considered in these expressions.
Fast ships have transom sterns. The main reason is that for Fn between 0.40 and 0.45, the second
wave crest produced by the hull is beyond the stern and only the wave crest at the bow “supports”
the ship. That is the reason of the wide transom stern, which produces some lift and reduces the bow
trim. As lift increases with speed, the sinkage begins to decrease at these speeds in broad transom
ships. Regarding seakeeping, at the transom stern the flow should leave the transom tangentially in
the downstream direction so that there is atmospheric pressure at the last section (Faltinsen 1993).
Strip theory is not able to predict this value. Even 3D theories cannot because what is happening
at a section is only influenced by upstream effects.
The inability to describe properly the transom stern flow will have an influence on the prediction
of the vertical motions, and that is the reason because artificial transom effects are included in some
theories. With these corrections, the pressure at the transom stern is supposed to be atmospheric.
Once again, there is no theoretical justification for doing this in the whole last station, and this
is only to illustrate the implications of considering transom sterns when studying ship motions.
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Table 1. Main dimensions of the tested models.

Model 5 Model 1 Model 5 Model 1
Lpp (m) 5 2 KG (m) 0.169 0.12

B (m) 0.625 0.3 Lpp/B ( ) 8.0 6.7
T (m) 0.157 0.09 B/T ( ) 4.0 3.3
Ryy (%Lpp) 25 25 Cb ( ) 0.40 0.45
Fn ( ) 0.57, 1.14 0.29, 0.57, 0.86
The corrections used in this paper are those from (Salvensen et al., 1970) and are obtained as a
function of speed and of the damping and added mass of the aftermost section.
For the vertical motion prediction of conventional ship types where the wave damping is the
predominant damping mechanism, hydrodynamic coefficients obtained from potential theory are
satisfactory. When speed increases and dynamic forces (lift and drag) begin to grow, wave damping
is not predominant in the overall damping and viscous effects of the fluid have to be taken into
account for studying the motions study. This is clearly shown in fast crafts designed for planing
speeds. To consider the viscous effects, these steps are followed:
– Left hand sides of Eq. (1) and (2) are obtained with one of the mentioned strip theories (original
or modified).
– An extra force is added at the right hand side of (1) and (2) to consider the lift and drag effects.
This force is obtained by an empirical method derived from cross flow approach to a slender
body at a moderate angle of incidence and uniform flow.
According to (Twaites 1960), for a harmonically oscillating body at a constant forward speed U
in regular waves, the fluid force due to viscous effects, Lift and cross flow Drag, could be written as:
where Aj is the projected area of the body in the jth direction; α is the viscous lift coefficient; Aj
is the angle of attack to uniform flow; CD is the viscous drag coefficient; vj is the relative fluid
velocity in the jth direction and U is the ship speed.
According to (Thwaites 1960), coefficients CD and α depend on the geometrical characteristics
of the body, type of motion and encounter frequency. In the recent reference (Begovich et al. 2002),
sets a value for fast ships of a = 0.035 and CD = 0.25 and these values will be used in this paper.
So, complex expression (3) can be implement to the equation system formed with (1) and (2) and
through an iterative procedure the complex vertical motions can be obtained.
3 TESTED MODELS
Different hulls corresponding to fast crafts were tested although due to the extension of this paper,
only the results of two of them (Table 1 and Fig. 1) are presented. The first one corresponds to
literature: Model 5 from (Blok and Beukelman 1984) and corresponds to systematic series of
fast crafts developed by the authors. The other one was tested in the Towing Tank of the Naval
Architecture School in Madrid and corresponds to a private company.
4 RESULTS
Once the vertical motions were obtained, well from the literature or from the towing tank tests,
the strip theories explained before can be validated. Six different modifications of the strip theory
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2.5
4.0
2.0
3.0
1.5
2.0
1.0
1.0
0.5
0.0 0.0
4.0 -3.0 -2.0 -1.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Figure 1. Model 5 (left) and Model 1 (right).
1.40 Test
Heave Fn = 0.57 1.40 Test
1.20 Strip1 Pitch Fn = 0.57
1.20 Strip1
1.00 Strip2
1.00 Strip2
Strip3 Strip3
0.80 0.80
Strip4 Strip4
0.60 0.60
0.40 0.40
0.20 0.20
0.00 0.00
0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00
0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00
2.50 2.00
Heave Fn = 1.14 Pitch Fn = 1.14
Test Test
2.00
Strip1 1.50 Strip1
1.50 Strip2 Strip2
Strip3 1.00 Strip3

1.00 Strip4 Strip4
0.50
0.50
0.00 0.00
0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00
1.20 1.20
Heave Fn = 0.57 Pitch Fn = 0.57
Test 1.00 Test
1.00
Strip5 Strip5
0.80 0.80
Strip6 Strip6
0.60 0.60
0.40 0.40
0.20 0.20
0.00 0.00
0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00
1.50 2.00
Heave Fn= 1.14 Pitch Fn = 1.14
Test 1.50 Test

1.00 Strip5
Strip5
Strip6 1.00 Strip6
0.50
0.50
0.00 0.00
0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00
Figure 2. Model 5 results without viscous effects (Strip 1 to 4) and with viscous effects (Strip 5 and 6).
have been evaluated and explained in the paper:
– Without viscous effects: Strip 1: Modified Strip Theory, from (Salvensen et al. in 1970), without
the transom effects described in section 3. Strip 2: Modified Strip Theory, from (Salvensen et al.
in 1970), including the transom effects described in section 3. Strip 3: Original Strip Theory,
from (Kroukovsky and Jacobs in 1957), including the transom effects described in section 3.
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1.50 1.50
HeaveFn = 0.29 Pitch Fn =0.29
1.00 1.00
Test Test
Strip1 Strip1
0.50 0.50
Strip2 Strip2
Strip3 Strip3
Strip4 0.00 Strip4

0.00
0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00
2.00
Test Heave Fn =0.57 2.00
Strip1 Test Pitch Fn= 0.57
1.50
Strip2 1.50 Strip1
Strip3 Strip2
1.00
Strip4 1.00 Strip3
Strip4
0.50
0.50
0.00
0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 0.00
0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00
3.00 2.50
Heave Fn= 0.86 Test Pitch Fn = 0.86
Test
2.50 2.00 Strip1
Strip1
2.00 Strip2
Strip2 1.50
Strip3
1.50 Strip3
1.00 Strip4
Strip4
1.00
0.50
0.50
0.00 0.00
0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00
1.50 1.50
Test Heave Fn = 0.29 Test Pitch Fn = 0.29
Strip5 Strip5
1.00 Strip6 1.00 Strip6
0.50 0.50
0.00 0.00
0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00
1.50 Test 2.00

Strip5 Heave Fn =0.57 Pitch Fn = 0.57
Strip6 1.50 Test
1.00 Strip5
1.00 Strip6
0.50
0.50
0.00 0.00
0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00
2.00 2.50
Test Heave Fn = 0.86 Test Pitch Fn = 0.86
Strip5 2.00 Strip5
1.50
Strip6 Strip6
1.50
1.00
1.00
0.50 0.50
0.00 0.00
0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00
Figure 3. Model 1 results without viscous effects (Strip 1 to 4) and with viscous effects (Strip 5 and 6).
Strip 4: Original Strip Theory, from (Kroukovsky and Jacobs in 1957), without the transom
effects described in section 3.
– With viscous effects: Strip 5: Modified Strip Theory, from (Salvensen et al. in 1970), without
the transom effects described in section 3, and including the viscous effects described in section
5. Strip 6: Modified Strip Theory, from (Salvensen et al. in 1970), including the transom effects
described in section 3, and including the viscous effects described in section 5.
The modified Strip theory shows better results for high Froude numbers, and thus was the
only theory chosen to implement the viscous effects. For the following figures, the tests results
are plotted with dots, while the numerical theories are plotted with continuous lines. The vertical
motions of the four models have been presented in a non dimensional way, dividing heave amplitude
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by wave amplitude, and dividing pitch amplitude by wave slope. These non dimensional functions
have been plotted versus the ratio wave length divided by ship length (l/Lpp). In order to clarify the
large amount of data that have been generated for this research, the results are separated in models,
Froude (Fn) numbers and if they include or not the viscous effects. Fn values and type of motion
can be seen inside each Figure.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Different forms of the linear strip theory have been presented and discussed in this paper. Some
versions include the transom effect that is presented in the fast crafts and has an important effect
in the damping of the vertical motions. A way to include the effect of lift and drag has been
also presented. Viscous forces are important in the range of Froude numbers where fast crafts are
designed to operate.
For low Fn numbers (Fn < 0.4), where the ship is acting as a displacement vessel, transom
effects produce too much damping and both the original and modified theory give good results,
though the modified theory fits pitch better than the original one. The inclusion of viscous forces
in the calculations does not improve the results. For medium Fn values (0.4 < Fn < 0.5), fast ships
are in the hump region of the wavemaking resistance curve. The ship is not planning but dynamic
forces begin to be important. In the studied models, there a lack of information for this range of Fn
values, but it seems that the modified theory without transom effects should work accurate enough.
After Fn ≈ 0.5, the ship starts planing. From the tested theories for 0.5 < Fn < 0.7, the ordinary
strip theory without transom effects, gives fair results for heave, but no for pitch specially in long
waves (l/Lpp > 2). Modified theory without transom effects over predicts motions. The inclusion
of transom effects in the modified theory gives slightly more damping in the motions, and for long
waves (l/Lpp > 1.5), computed motions are quite lower than the real ones. Inclusion of viscous
forces without transom effects improves the results of both motions for short and long waves,
although pitch is again a little bit over predicted. Transom effects added to viscous forces damp
too much. For Fn > 0.7, spray phenomena and flow separation appear, and the dynamic trim angle
is important. If the ship is well designed, the transom should remain dry. Viscous forces are more
important than the hydrostatic ones. Without considering viscous effects, the modified theory with
transom effects, makes the better predictions up to l/Lpp ≈ 2. Over this value both motions are
under predicted. Again Inclusion of viscous forces improves the results of both motions for short
and long waves, although both motions are a little bit over predicted. Transom effects added to
viscous forces damp too much.
For Fn > 1, the ship is fully planing. Spray and flow separation are important, and unconsidered
in the strip theories. There is only one model at this range, and theories with transom effects works
better, especially the modified theory.
As can be seen, strip theories, with its limitations to high frequencies (that sets the limitations
for long waves) can be used in practice, considering in an appropriate way the specific aspects of
fast craft: transom effects and viscous forces. If you are using a commercial seakeeping program,
consider the described limitations and applications as a function of the Fn number.
Strip theory also has the limitation of not considering ship flare and other not wetted parts.
Although experimental corrections can be added, the entrance of ship flare in the water affects
pitch and that the reason because pitch value is over predicted. Time domain seakeeping should
address this problem. Better results using the theory with viscous forces are expected, just by tuning
coefficients CD and a based on towing tank test with similar models. In this paper, the mean value
proposed at (Begovic et al., 2002) have been used with good results.
From the practical point of view: a strip theory, linear or not, with pulsating or translating source
distribution, is easy to use. It is not time consuming what is important from the shipyard point of
view, pre-process of the ship hull is simple as far as it work with ship stations, and changes in the hull
design are easy to introduce. Together with the transfer function theory, different seakeeping criteria
in irregular sea states are easy and fast to obtain. Strip theories are expected to have a long life.
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chap-12 20/9/2004 16: 19 page 107
REFERENCES
Begovic E., Boccadamo G., Zotti I. 2002. On the viscous forces on the motions of high speed hulls, HIPER
02 Conference, Bergen, Norway.
Blok J., Beukelman W. 1984. The high speed displacement ship systematic series hull forms – Seakeeping
characteristics. SNAME Transactions, Vol. 92.
Faltinsen O. “On seakeeping of conventional and high speed vessels”. Journal of Ship research, Vol. 37, no 2,
June 1993.
Frandoli P., Merola L., Pino E., Sebastiani L. 2000. The role of seakeeping calculations at the preliminary
design stage. NAV 2000 Conference, Venice, Italy.
Korvin-Kroukowski, B., Jacobs W. 1957. Pitching and Heaving motions of ships in regular waves. SNAME
Transactions, Vol. 65.
Lahtiharju E., Karpinnen T., Hellevaraara M., Aitta T. Resistance and Seakeeping characteristics of fast transom
stern hulls with systematically varied form. SNAME Transactions, Vol. 99, 1991.
Lewis E. (Editor) 1989. Principles of Naval Architecture Vol. 3, Chapter VIII. Ed. SNAME.
Rodriguez A. 1971. Calculo numérico de los movimientos del buque y de las cargas hidrodinámicas. Ph.D.
Thesis ETSI Navales.
Salvensen N., Tuck E., Faltinsen O. 1970. Ship motions and sea loads, SNAME Transactions, Vol. 78.
Thwaites B.1960. Incompressible Aerodynamics. Ed. Oxford University Press.
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chap-13 20/9/2004 16: 20 page 109

Evaluation of resistance performance of a power boat using

unmanned high-speed towing carriage
J.I. Shin, J.M. Yang, H.W. Park, J.S. Kim & H. Kim
Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
S.H. Lee
Advanced Marine Technology Co., Ltd., Seoul, Korea
S.H. Van
Korea Research Institute of Ship and Ocean Engineering, Daejeon, Korea
ABSTRACT: To meet the increasing demand for more purchase of a marine leisure boat, recently a
high-speed powerboat for family use has been developed with the financial supports of the Ministry
of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries of Korea. The resistance characteristics of the boat were exper-
imentally evaluated in the towing tank at the Seoul National University. A light-weight cantilever
type towing carriage was devised and installed in the towing tank. Wireless measurement devices
were also provided for appropriate data acquisition during high-speed towing tests. With the new
carriage system, a series of model tests have been performed to investigate the hydrodynamic char-
acteristics of the powerboat and the model test results were compared to the sea trial results. Design
alternative for hull form of the family boat has been proposed, and hydrodynamic performances
have been evaluated experimentally.
1 INTRODUCTION
Adoption of the five-day work week and steady growth in the Korean economy in recent decades
has nourished the popularity of the marine leisure business. Now, it is generally believed that marine
leisure activities in Korea will rapidly grow, and the total number of Korean marine leisure fleet
will include more than 50 thousand vessels by the year 2010, creating a new market size of 1.2
billion US dollars annually.
Recently, the Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries of Korea developed a family motorboat
to promote the spread of domestic marine leisure activities. Group of 4 or 5 family members can
charter the boat and enjoy a variety of activities including fishing, presently popular in Korea. Prin-
cipal particulars of the boat have been chosen to reflect the popularity of the fishing style in Korea.
The maximum speed of the towing carriage at SNU (Seoul National University) is 3.5 m/sec, and
the standard model size is 3 m for displacement type vessels. Under these limited test conditions,
the model length of a high-speed motor boat has to be reduced far below the recommendable model
size or the towing speed has to be increased up to hardly accessible high speed to reach the required
Froude number. To accommodate the requirement for the high speed model test, a new unmanned
high-speed towing carriage with remote measuring technique was devised and installed in the SNU
towing tank.
The proto type of the leisure boat was constructed using fiber reinforced plastic and was evaluated
through a sea trial on the west coast of Korea. Based on the careful investigation of the sea
trial results, a new design alternative was also proposed so that the power boat could give better
performances in sea condition. The resistance performances of the proposed power boat are reported
in this work.
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2 HIGH-SPEED TOWING CARRIAGE AND EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
2.1 High-speed towing carriage

The speed limitation of the towing carriage makes the model impractically small for keeping the
equality of Froude number in the desired test condition, and sometimes it is hard to get reliable
measurements on hull attitudes and hydrodynamic forces, especially for tests of a planing hull in
the high speed region. The light-weight high-speed towing carriage could be a solution for such
problems in experimental evaluation of high-speed vehicles.
A light-weight cantilever type towing carriage system has been considered in the design stage
appropriate for acceleration applicable for the SNU towing tank. The schematic diagram of the
high-speed carriage installed in the towing tank is shown in Figure 1. Extruded aluminum profiles,
A6NO1S-T5, have been used as major structural members of the carriage to reduce weight and to
make manufacturing easier.
The speed of the carriage was measured during acceleration, constant speed operation, and
deceleration of the carriage. The measured time history of carriage operations is shown in Figure 2.
In this time history, the velocity measured from the accelerometer is expressed by a dotted line in
figure. The surge velocity with 250 mm/sec amplitude and 0.8 sec period are overlaid on prescribed
control speed of towing carriage with gradual reduction of oscillation components. This surge
velocity may be caused by the springing elastic deformation of the driving wire rope for carriage.
The slight phase shift in the solid line and dotted line may be due to the elastic deformation of the
towing carriage itself during the test. Comparison of the deviations shows that the speed fluctuation
is more important for maintaining accuracies in carriage speeds than structural deformations. From
Figure 2, the measurement, taken in the range where the carriage speed is stabilized through
damping, can be averaged to yield reliable results.
2.2 Experimental setup

The forces acting on the model are measured by the multi components load cell. The accuracy of
the load cell exclusively designed for the model test can be further enhanced by decomposing the
interferences among force components from the influence matrix obtained through calibration tests.
The signals from the load cell, encoder, accelerometer, etc. are collected with a data acquisition
system. Amplifiers are specifically designed to be housed in a limited space and as light as pos-
sible. The signals from the amplifiers are digitized through an AD/DA board installed in a laptop
computer with a system controller. The controller is connected to the host computer in the main
control room through wireless LAN cards. The total system is operable with rechargeable DC power
sources on the carriage. The system enables real time monitoring of measured signals such as force
components Fx , Fz , My and Mz ; vertical displacement, speed and acceleration of the carriage; and
trim angle, etc. by the host computer system, where the data are statistically processed in real time.
10
Speed (encoder)
9 Speed (accelerometer)
8
7
Speed (m/sec)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Time (sec)
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of towing carriage system. Figure 2. Time history of carriage speed.
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3 RESISTANCE TESTS FOR HIGH-SPEED BOAT
3.1 Test procedures

To ensure measuring time necessary for reliable data collection, the towing carriage has to be
maintained at a constant speed long enough after reaching the set speed. It is, however, not always
possible since the remaining travel distances may not always be sufficient, especially if the carriage
has to run fast. In such situation, the attitude of the model may not converge to the steady state
before reaching the end of the towing tank.
In the captive model test, the forces acting on the model fixed on the carriage are measured.
The measured data are utilized in predicting improved hull attitude by compensating the unbalance
between the lift and bending moment. The procedure is repeated until the hull attitude converges.
This time-consuming experimental procedure has been used to evaluate the resistance performance
of a small model of a high-speed marine vehicle.
Hayashita (1995) proposed a two-rod-system to measure hydrodynamic forces acting on a high-
speed vessel. In the system, the rod installed on the bow side rises by a stepping motor if a vertical
force component is detected by the two component load cell located between the model and the
rod. The rod installed on the stern side behaves alike in the vertical direction while it allows lateral
displacement with freely sliding gimbals. However, this two rod system requires careful alignment
to avoid mechanical interference between the rods and hence a new measuring system in which a
single rod installed at the center of a model to avoid the interference was devised in the present
research.
The force acting on a planing boat at the free running condition can be schematically shown in
Figure 3.
In Figure 3, T , D, L and W are thrust, drag, lift and weight, respectively. The forces satisfy the
equilibrium condition both in the lateral and vertical directions as given in the following relation
while the moment is balanced at the center of gravity G.
In the captive test, the forces acting on a model satisfies the equilibrium condition with the measured
forces at the load cell as shown in Figure 4.
In Figure 4, L is the lift acting on the model, D is the drag while W is the displacement of
the model. The following force equilibrium condition should be satisfied in lateral and vertical
directions along with the moment balance about G.
Figure 3. Free running condition. Figure 4. Captive model test condition.
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Table 1. Principal particulars of model

ship.
Model Family boat I
Scale 1/5
Design Speed 25 knots
LBP (m) 1.13
Breadth (m) 0.50
Draft (Design) (m) 0.05
Volume (m3 ) 0.01
WSA (m2 ) 0.44
Displacement (kgf) 9.53 Figure 5. Body plan of developed motor boat.
If a boat is propelled steadily as shown in Figure 3, the hydrodynamic force acting on the boat must
be identical to those shown in Figure 4, and hence the force components have to satisfy following
relations.
The force components Fx , Fz , My can be measured by a four-component load cell in a captive

condition. The trim angle (θ) and sinkage are prefixed as an installation condition of the model to
the measuring device. Thus, the measured hydrodynamic forces should be equivalent to the force
required for maintaining the captive condition, determined from the previous iterative test. With
the measured force components, free running condition of the model can be better estimated and
this information can be used as a better approximation of hull attitude for the next iterative test.
Usually, three or four iterative tests suffice for the convergence of the hull attitude and resistance.
3.2 Resistance characteristics of the leisure boat

For validation of the new wireless measuring technique, a series of captive model tests was con-
ducted for a semi-planing hull form on the unmanned high-speed towing carriage. The hull form
was chosen since it was a test model in a cooperative research program of KTTC, the Korea Towing
Tank Conference (1995). The validation test results confidently suggested the application of the
present method of wireless measuring technique using unmanned high-speed towing carriage for
the towing tests of high-speed marine vehicles (Shin et al. 2004).
Since the reliability of the present test facility was proven by validation, the high-speed motor
boat for marine leisure can be tested at the unmanned high-speed towing carriage with the proposed
wireless measuring technique. The principal particulars of the designed hull are given in Table 1,
and the body plan is shown in Figure 5. The design speed of the leisure boat is 25 knots, and the
towing tests were performed in speeds equivalent to 5, 7.5, 10, 15, 20, 22.5, 25, 27.5, 30, 32.5 and
35 knots.
The measured total resistance coefficients are shown in Figure 6, trim in free running condition
in Figure 7, the sinkage in Figure 8, and EHP in Figure 9. The total resistance coefficient, CT ,
has its maximum value around Fn = 0.5 and decreases with increase in speed. The model tended
to trim by the bow at the low speed ranges, but reversed to trim by the stern as speeds went up.
The trim angle reaches the maximum near Fn = 1.0 and decreases for Fn above 1.0. The attitude
of the leisure boat in the low speed range is negative (sunken) as shown in Figure 8 but it reverses
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5
0.03
4.5 Family boat I
Family boat I Family boat II
Family boat II 4
0.025
3.5
Trim angle (degree)

0.02 3
2.5
CT
0.015 2
1.5
0.01 1
0.5
0.005
0
-0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Fn Fn
Figure 6. Curves of resistance coefficients. Figure 7. Curves of trim.
0.5 120
110 model test
Family boat I sea trial
Family boat II 100
0.4
90
0.3 80
sinkage/D
70
EHP(HP)
0.2 60
50
0.1 40
30
0 20
10
-0.1 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 0 10 20 30 40
Fn Vs(knots)
Figure 8. Curves of sinkage. Figure 9. Curves of EHP.
when the speed reaches Fn = 0.5 and increases with the increase of the speed until it converges
asymptotically to a saturated value when Fn is about 1.5.
The tendency of the present test results is similar to that found in Series 62 and qualitatively
coincides with other experimental results for the planing hull. Although the present captive model
test technique with unmanned high-speed towing carriage was confirmed to be qualitatively accu-
rate by a validation procedure, the model test was repeated at the ordinary towing tank, in a low
speed range, to confirm quantitative accuracy of the method.
3.3 Sea trial

The effective horse power estimated from model tests was used to select the main propulsion
engine for the leisure boat. Based on the propulsive coefficient recommended by the field experts
on planing ships, an outboard engine of 68 kw was selected as the main engine. The propeller for
the engine was selected among the stock propellers of the engine supplier.
The sea trial of the leisure boat took place near a fishing harbor at the west coast of the Korean
peninsula. In the trials, the engine throttle was adjusted to maintain prefixed engine revolutions.
After the engine rpm and the speed of the leisure boat reach steady state, the advancing speed of
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the leisure boat was measured by a GPS system. The influence from the current was removed by
repeated measurements of the speeds in alternating directions.
The SHP of the engine in a given rpm can be found by the performance curve supplied by the
engine maker. The thrust of the propeller in an operating condition can also be estimated with the
propeller open-water characteristics of the stock propeller. By utilizing these data, sea trial results
were plotted on the EHP curve obtained by the model tests as shown in Figure 9. The method
suggested in Mori (1998) was used for the analysis of the sea trial.
From the result of the sea trial, it is apparent that the design speed can be successfully attained
with the selected outboard engine and propeller, and the overall performance of the leisure boat
shows a good agreement with the results of the towing test. However, inconveniences caused by
the excessive attitude change and the lack of accommodation spaces were reported related to the
general overall performances as a leisure boat. To improve these inconveniencies, the mid part of
the prototype hull was lengthened by inserting a 0.9 m (14.4% of LWL) parallel middle body, and
the performance of the modified hull named Family boat II was evaluated and compared in the
previous figures.
After the Seoul Olympics in 1988, the coast of the nation was gradually opened to the public
beginning from strategically insensitive area. Recent rapid growth of the national economy also
contributed to the introduction of the five-day working week system. The change seemed directly
related to the widespread interests in marine leisure activities and related businesses. Under the
circumstances, with the supports form the Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries in Korea, a
high-speed power boat for leisure activity was developed recently to further enhance public interests
to the marine leisure sports.
The resistance performance of a high-speed boat needed to be estimated from the measured
hydrodynamic forces at the high speed limits, practically impossible to attain at the ordinary towing
tank. Seoul National University devised a new unmanned lightweight high-speed towing carriage
that could be accelerated up to 15 m/sec. In addition, a wireless measuring system adequate for the
carriage was implemented with the support of the Korea Research Foundation.
The wireless remote measurement system was validated carefully through the series of bench-
mark tests of the semi planing hull used in a cooperative research program of KTTC. The high-speed
towing carriage with a wireless system was used to develop a high-speed leisure boat using an iter-
ative captive model test method. Validation procedure confirmed that the present captive model
test technique with an unmanned high-speed towing carriage is qualitatively and quantitatively
accurate.
The sea trial results were compared with the estimated EHP curve and the results showed good
agreement, so that we may conclude that the results by the present test method are quantitatively
accurate. Therefore, the modified hull form is expected to perform better than the prototype hull.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The present work has been supported by the Korea Research Foundation and Ministry of Maritime
Affairs and Fisheries in Korea.
REFERENCES
Hyungki, & Kim. 2002. Remote Sensing Techniques Applied for the Measurements of Hydrodynamic
Characteristics of small high speed boat, Master’s thesis of Seoul Nat. Univ.: 10–12.
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Jeongil, Shin. Jiman, Yang. Howon, Park. Jaesung Kim, H., Kim, Seung-Hee, Lee & Jae Moon, Lew. 2004.
Evaluation of Resistance Performance of a Motor Boat Using a High-Speed Towing Carriage”, Proc. Inter’l
Symp. On yacht design and production, Mardrid, 25–26 March 2004: 135–148.
Korea Towing Tank Conference High-Speed Marine Vehicle Committee. 1995. Report on the cooperative
resistance test (23 m class planing hull).
K. Mori. 1998. Drag Characteristic of High Speed Small Boat. J. Kansai Soc. N.A., Japan 226: 75–80.
Shigeru, Hayashita. 1995. Resistance Test of High-Speed Crafts by Attitude Control Method (Part 1). J. The
west-Japan society of naval architects 90: 57–65.
The Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries, 2002, Development of Public Leisure Boat: 24–54.
Y. Ikeda, T. Katyama, Y. Yamashita, K. Otsuka & T. Maeda. 1995. Development of an Experimental Method
to Assess the Performance of a High Speed Craft. J. Kansai Soc. N.A., Japan 223: 43–48.
Y. Ikeda, G. Nishida, Y. Yamaguchi, J. Niina & T. Oshima. 1996. Development of an Experimental Method to
Assess the Performance of a High Speed Craft. J. Kansai Soc. N.A., Japan 226: 77–84.
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Fundamental investigation on wave making interactions

around multi-hull vessel
K. Suzuki & H. Kai

Faculty of Engineering, Yokohama National University, Yokohama, Japan
S. Ohkoshi
Graduate School of Engineering, Yokohama National University, Yokohama, Japan
K. Ohno
School of Engineering, Yokohama National University, Yokohama, Japan
ABSTRACT: In order to realize wave making characteristics of a multi-hull vessel, it is very

important to investigate wave making interactions among the multi-hulls. In this paper, an experi-
mental visualization technique of waves around the multi-hull vessel is suggested, and numerical
results of wave making interactions simulated by means of the panel method PAFS (Panel method
Applied to Free Surface flow) are compared with the experimentally visualized ones. The wave
making resistance evaluated by PAFS can also be compared with the experimental ones.
1 INTRODUCTION
In recent years, special type vessels having multi-hulls are suggested as candidates of high-speed
vessels on seaway, which are trimarans and pentamarans. A trimaran has an outrigger at each
side of the main hull, and a pentamaran has two sponsons at each side of the main hull. In order
to investigate their wave making characteristics precisely, complicated wave making interactions
among multi-hulls and lifting effects of outriggers or sponsons should be taken into accounts. In
this paper, their wave making characteristics are investigated by means of a visualization technique
of waves in a circulating water channel and a numerical simulation method of waves based on
Morino’s panel method (Suciu & Morino 1976) for lifting bodies.
Wave patterns around the multi-hull vessel can be visualized by means of a flat plate with
longitudinal white and black stripes fixed on the bottom of the circulating water channel lightened
by a few electric lamps over the free surface. In front of a small model, however, ripples (capillary
waves) are caused by the surface tension effect, which disturb the observation of clear wave patterns
around the model. In the present paper, an effective experimental way to weaken the surface tension
effect is adopted. Complicated wave making interactions can be observed clearly by using the
present experimental technique.
Simulations of wave patterns around the trimaran or the pentamaran are carried out by means of
PAFS (Panel method Applied to Free Surface flow) code developed by the authors’ group, in which
Morino’s panel method is applied to the free surface problems based on the Kelvin type free surface
conditions with sinkage and trim effects. By using the PAFS code, wave making resistance acting on
the hull form can also be calculated. For a case of trimaran, the wave making resistance coefficients
and trim evaluated by PAFS are compared with those of the results based on the classical thin ship
theory (Michell’s theory) and the experimental results.
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x y
z
0.2L
-0.5L 0.5L
y main hall
x
F.P. A.P.
2F 2A
1F 1A
-0.2L
Figure 1. Coordinate system (example of pentamaran) and positions of outrigger or sponsons.
Table 1. Particulars of main hull and model names of trimaran and pentamaran.
Main hull Model name Positions
Length (L) 0.600 m Trimaran TR-1F 1F –

Breadth (B) 0.047 m TR-2F 2F –
Draft (T ) 0.030 m TR-1A – 1A
Displacement volume (∇) 0.000432 m3 TR-2A – 2A
Displacement length ratio (∇/L3 ) 0.002 Pentamaran PNT-1F1A 1F 1A
Wetted surface area (S) 0.0469 m2 PNT-1F2A 1F 2A
Midship area (Am ) 0.00113 m2 PNT-2F1A 2F 1A
Midship coefficient (Cm ) 0.800 PNT-2F2A 2F 2A
Block coefficient (Cb ) 0.509 PNT-1F2F 1F, 2F –
Prismatic coefficient (Cp ) 0.637 PNT-1A2A – 1A, 2A
2 TRIMARAN AND PENTAMARAN MODELS
In this paper, the coordinate system is taken as in Figure 1, in which the uniform flow U is taken in
positive x direction. Shapes and particulars of trimaran or pentamaran models used in the present
studies are given as follows. Each hull has the following shape with water lines of cosine curve and
frame lines of 4th order parabolic curve.
Particulars of the main hull are given in Table 1, and the outriggers or sponsons are 1/3 similar
models of the main hull. Hull form arrangements for trimarans and pentamarans are also given in
Figure 1 and respective model names are also summarized in Table 1. These positions (1F, 1A, 2F
and 2A) are obtained from the optimization results of positions of outriggers for trimaran models
√ 1993b), in which designed Froude numbers Fn are
based on the thin ship theory (Suzuki & Ikehata
0.4 (1F, 1A) and 0.5 (2F, 2A), where Fn = U/ gL and g is the acceleration of gravity. As shown in
Table 1, various types of trimaran and pentamaran can be supposed.
3 EXPERIMENTAL VISUALIZATION METHOD
The experimental visualization technique of wave making interactions around the multi-hull vessel
is based on the similar techniques proposed by the authors’ group (Suzuki et al. 1993a). In the
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Figure 2. Waves around pentamaran model (PNT-1F1A) with & without surface tension effect.
present studies, a small model of multi-hull vessel like the trimaran or the pentamaran is placed on
the free surface in the testing part (length 2.50 m × width 1.20 m × depth 0.85 m) of the circulating
water channel. In front of a small model like the present cases, ripples (capillary waves) caused
by the surface tension effect can be observed in general. For this reason, it becomes difficult to
observe clear Kelvin wave patterns around the floating model that is very important to realize the
full-scale phenomena.
According to the former experimental experiences (Suzuki et al. 1993a), in order to weaken the
surface tension effect, 2% water solution of cleanser “Woolite” containing 22.5% surface activator
(surfactant) is sprayed upon the free surface at upstream of the model. Wave making interactions
are visualized by using a flat plate with longitudinal white and black stripes placed on the bottom
of the circulating water channel lightened over the free surface by a few electric lumps.
As an example, visualized wave patterns at Fn = 0.4 around a pentamaran model are compared
for the cases with and without surface tension effect. In the case without surface tension effect as
shown in Figure 2, Kelvin wave patterns around the pentamaran can be observed more clearly by
using the present experimental technique. In later sections, experimental wave patterns based on
the present method are shown.
4 OUTLINE OF PANEL METHOD
The numerical investigations of the wave making interactions around the multi-hull vessel are
carried out by means of a panel method. In this section, a program code for numerical analysis of
free surface flow, PAFS (Panel method Applied to Free Surface flow) developed by the authors’
group is explained briefly. In the prototype code of PAFS, Morino’s panel method is extended to
analyze the free surface flow based on 1st order Kelvin type free surface condition. In the present
PAFS code (Park & Suzuki 1999), 2nd order Kelvin type free surface condition is introduced
to take into account nonlinearity of the free surface condition, and sinkage and trim effects that
are important for high-speed ships are also taken into accounts. The outlines of formulations and
numerical schema used in the present PAFS code can be described as follows.
If the fluid flow is assumed as inviscid, irrotational and incompressible, a total velocity potential
can be assumed and written as follows by means of the perturbation method,
where ε is a perturbation parameter, s is a sinkage (positive upwards) and t is a trim (positive trim by
the stern). As shown in Equation (2), velocity potentials for sinkage and trim are formulated as the
second order quantities. For these velocity potentials, the following formulations and conditions
are introduced. In these expressions, SF is the undisturbed free surface (z = 0), SB is the hull surface
of multi-hull vessels, and Sw is the wake surface without thickness along the uniform flow direction
from the trailing edge of each outrigger or sponson.
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As the free surface conditions, the following Kelvin type conditions are imposed on the
undisturbed free surface (Maruo 1966); for the first order potential,
and for the second order potentials
where K0 = g/U 2 . The radiation condition should be introduced for the analysis of surface waves
around the body in uniform stream. As this condition, a numerical radiation condition suggested
by Dawson (1977) is employed for Kelvin type free surface conditions in Equations (3) and (4),
in which the second partial derivatives in x direction for respective potentials are approximated by
the upstream difference scheme.
As the hull surface conditions based on the formulations by Yasukawa (1993), the following
Neumann type conditions are imposed on the hull surface; for the first order potential,
and for the second order potentials,
where
and n is the outward normal unit vector, and nx is its x-component.

For the purpose of numerical analysis for respective velocity potentials, numerical scheme based
on Morino’s panel method (Suciu & Morino 1976) for lifting bodies is adopted. On the wake surface,
the following condition is imposed. Continuity of normal velocities on the wake surface should be
kept. In order to express circulation flows on lifting bodies, however, the following conditions of
potential jump are imposed on streamlines on the wake surface.
At the trailing edge of each lifting body, Kutta condition should also be imposed. In the present
PAFS code, the pressure Kutta condition suggested by Kerwin et al. (1987) is imposed at the trailing
edge of each lifting body like an outrigger or a sponson in the present cases.
Applicability of the PAFS code has been investigated for several types of hull form. As shown
in the above brief discussions on the formulations of PAFS, both non-lifting and lifting bodies with
free surface flow can be analyzed. In this paper, PAFS is applied for trimarans and pentamarans with
lifting bodies. Numerical simulations of Kelvin wave patterns with the wave making interactions
among multi-hulls are shown, and accuracies of estimated wave making resistance coefficients
with the effects of sinkage and trim can also be confirmed.
5 WAVES AROUND MULTI-HULL VESSEL
Typical examples of visualized Kelvin wave pattern with wave making interactions among trimaran
hulls (TR-2F & TR-2A) or pentamran hulls (PNT-2F1A & PNT-1A2A) are shown in Figure 3.
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TR-2F TR-2A
PNT-2F1A PNT-1A2A
Figure 3. Wave making interactions around multi-hull models (TR-2F, TR-2A, PNT-2F1A, PNT-1A2A).
Figure 4. Numerical and experimental results of wave making interactions around trimaran (TR-1A) and
pentamaran (PNT-2F1A).
In respective cases, complicated wave making interactions among multi-hulls can be observed
clearly. In some cases, reflected waves from the outrigger or the sponson can be found. As the
fundamental studies on the wave making characteristics of multi-hull vessels, observations and
realizations of wave making interactions become very important. Since the present experimental
technique is useful even in the cases employing these small models, it can be expected to investigate
the wave making characteristics of more practical hull forms having multi-hulls.
As discussed in the previous section, Kelvin wave patterns can also be obtained from the numer-
ical simulation based on PAFS. In Figure 4, simulated wave patterns around the trimaran (TR-1A)
and the pentamaran (PNT-2F1A) having the same stern arrangement are compared with the experi-
mental ones. From both numerical and experimental wave patterns, characteristics of wave making
interactions are confirmed; for example, positions of wave reflection among multi-hulls, different
wave interactions corresponding to the different hull form arrangements and so on. As shown in
Figure 4, both visualized results are very helpful to realize the wave making interactions among
multi-hulls.
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CrCwpCw × 104
Trim × 102
7 PAFS
Thin Ship Theory 2.5
6 PAFS
Cr
2.0 Exp.
5 Cwp
1.5
4
1.0
3
0.5
2
0.0
1
-0.5
0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 Fn
Fn
Figure 5. Wave making resistance coefficients and trim of trimaran (TR-1F).
By using the PAFS code, wave making resistance acting on these hull forms can also be obtained
as an example for the trimaran (TR-1F) shown in Figure 5. The coefficients of wave making resist-
ance Cw computed by PAFS are compared with those of the results based on the classical thin ship
theory (Michell’s theory), the experimental residuary resistance coefficients Cr and the experimen-
tal wave pattern resistance coefficients Cwp based on wave analysis. Positions of humps and hollows
of the curve based on PAFS are shifted from the results based on the thin ship theory, because the
wave making interactions among multi-hulls can be taken into consideration in the case of PAFS.
Simulated trim curves are also compared with the experimental ones in Figure 5, in which the agree-
ments are well even in the case of complex hull form like the trimaran. As shown in Figures 4 & 5,
it is expected that the numerical predictions of wave making characteristics based on PAFS can be
introduced for the practical design of complex hull form like the trimaran or the pentamaran.
In this paper, wave making interactions around the multi-hull vessel are discussed through the
experimental studies and the corresponding numerical works based on PAFS (Panel method Applied
to Free Surface flow).
The suggested experimental method is very useful to visualize Kelvin wave patterns around the
small model of multi-hulls, because ripples caused by the surface tension effect can be excluded by
spraying the surface activator. Kelvin wave patterns can also be simulated numerically by means
of PAFS. Wave making characteristics of the multi-hull vessel can be realized and discussed by
using both experimental and numerical results. In the case of the present PAFS code, wave making
resistance coefficients with sinkage and trim effects can also be estimated. This code can be expected
as practical application tools for the design of multi-hull vessel like the trimaran or the pentamaran.
In the present studies, however, optimizations of shapes and/or hull form arrangements are not
discussed. If these optimizations are carried out as future works, a new concept of fast multi-hull
vessel with small wave making resistance can be expected.
The authors would like to appreciate well Mr. I. Okada for his helpful works. This study is partially
supported by the Grant-in Aid for Scientific Research of the Ministry of Education, Science and
Culture of Japan.
REFERENCES
Dawson, C.W. 1977. A practical computer method for solving ship-wave problems, Proceedings of 2nd
International Conference on Numerical Ship Hydrodynamics, pp. 30–38.
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chap-14 20/9/2004 16: 24 page 123
Kerwin, J., Kinnas, S.A., Lee, J.T. and Shih, W.-Z. 1987. A surface panel method for the hydrodynamic analysis
of ducted propellers, Transactions of SNAME, Vol. 95, pp. 93–122.
Maruo, H. 1966. A note on the higher order theory of thin ships, Bulletin of the Faculty of Engineering,
Yokohama National University, Vol. 15, pp. 1–21.
Park, K.-D. and Suzuki, K. 1999. Numerical analysis of free-surface flow around ships with sinkage and trim
effects’, Proceedings of 4th Japan-Korea Joint Workshop on Ship and Marine Hydrodynamics, Fukuoka,
pp. 127–132.
Suciu, E.O. and Morino, L. 1976. A nonlinear finite-element analysis of wings on steady incompressible flows
with wake roll-up, AIAA Paper, No.76-64, pp. 1–10.
Suzuki, K., Ikehata, M., Ue, K. and Ogihara, H. 1993a. Experimental study on the free surface flow in
front of 2-D rectangular floating body with and without the effect of surface tension, Proceedings of 2nd
Japan-Korea Joint Workshop on Ship and Marine Hydrodynamics, Sakai, pp. 104–110.
Suzuki, K. and Ikehata, M. 1993b. Fundamental study on optimum position of outriggers of trimaran from view
point of wave making resistance, Proceedings of 2nd International Conference on Fast Sea Transportation,
Yokohama, Vol. 2, pp. 1219–1230.
Yasukawa, H. 1993. A Rankine panel method to calculate steady wave-making resistance of a ship taking the
effect of sinkage and trim into account, Transactions of The West-Japan Society of Naval Architects, No.104,
pp. 27–35.
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Experimental and numerical study of shipping water impact on

running ship foredeck in regular head seas
Katsuji Tanizawa, Hiroshi Sawada, Masaru Tsujimoto

National Maritime Research Institute, Mitaka, Tokyo, Japan
Seiichi Koshizuka
The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan
ABSTRACT: Recent development of robust numerical simulation methods such as particle

method enable us to simulate severe hydrodynamic impact on ship hull caused by slamming, slosh-
ing and shipping water. The simulated results look realistic and agree with experiments in quality.
However, to use the newly developed technology as a design tool, quantitative verification is
required. Authors are conducting a joint research project to develop a robust numerical code for
the simulation of shipping water on running ship foredeck and conducted its flow visualization.
Two high-speed video cameras and synchronous stroboscopic sheet light were used to take clear
movies of shipping water and PIV were applied to the video image to analyze the velocity field.
The impact pressure and loads on the deck were also measured synchronized with the video image.
This paper reports the outline of this work.
1 INTRODUCTION
When ships are navigating in heavy seas, water level sometimes exceeds the bow height and green
water rushes onto the deck. This phenomenon is called shipping water and dangerous for the
safety navigation. Shipping water damages container, hatch cover, equipment and superstructure
on the deck. In extreme case, severe shipping water hits and breaks the bridge windows, floods
electronics and disables all functions of the ship for navigation. In the past half century, shipping
water was experimentally studied and various mathematical models were proposed to estimate the
shipping water amount and its impact pressure by Tasaki (1961), Goda (1976), Mizoguchi (1988),
Ogawa (1997). However, estimations based on model equations are not always accurate, because
the shipped water flow is three-dimensional rushing torrent involving breakup and coalition of the
water influenced by various conditions such as wave height, wave length, ship speed, heading angle
and freeboard. The equipments and superstructures on the deck also affect the shipping water flow
drastically. Therefore, in order to estimate the shipping water load in detail, we need numerical
simulation codes.
Authors have a joint research project to develop a simulation code for the shipping water based
on the moving particle semi-implicit method (MPS). This is a particle method developed for the
incompressible fluid by Koshizuka (1995). MPS is very robust and has a capability to simulate
severe hydrodynamic impacts on ships such as slamming, sloshing and shipping water. For the
quantitative validation of newly developing code, the authors are conducting tank experiments.
Objectives of tank experiments are:
(1) Understanding of three-dimensional behavior of the shipping water on the deck by visual
observation of the flow,
(2) Quantitative measurement of the flow field of the shipping water by image analysis based on
PIV for the validation of the numerical code.
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In this paper, visualizing technique of shipping water is briefed and the obtained visual images
together with the result of PIV analysis are presented. The present status of the code developing is
also reported with simulated results.
2 EXPERIMENT
2.1 Visualizing equipments of shipping water

Visualization of whole 3-D flow is a difficult task. So, we used a sheet light to slice a section from
the flow. The flow only inside of the section was illuminated and its stereo image was taken by two
high-speed video cameras. Figure 1 shows the visualizing equipments composed of two high-speed
video cameras, a synchronous stroboscopic light, a cylindrical lens for sheet illumination and a PC
for video image storage. We set the thickness of the sheet light and the frame speed of the video
cameras to 15 mm and 250 frame/sec respectively.
2.2 Preliminary experiment

The first trial of the visualization was conducted at the two dimensional wave flume of NMRI.
Figure 2 shows a bow model installed in the flume. Regular waves were used to generate the shipping
water on it. Polystyrene particles, (specific gravity is nearly equal one, diameter is 0.5 mm) were
distributed as tracers of the water for the image analysis. Figure 3 shows an example visualized
Figure 2. Arrangement of measuring equipments

Figure 1. Visualizing equipment. in two-dimensional wave flume.
Figure 3. High-speed video images of the shipping water in 2D flume. Velocity field analyzed by PIV are
over laid.
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images of shipping water in the section along the centerline of the model. These images were taken
through the side glass of the wave flume. Velocity vectors plotted on images were obtained by PIV
analysis. In this simple experiment, the authors acquired quantitative data of shipping water flow,
at the same time tested various ideas to visualize and analyze the shipping water.
2.3 Main experiment in the towing tank

Main experiment was conducted at a small towing tank of NMRI, (see Figure 4). This tank is
equipped with a towing carriage and a flap wave maker. A model ship of VLCC used for the
experiment is shown in Figure 5 with its principal dimensions given in Table 1.
Cameras and a mirror were mounted in the waterproof case on starboard deck, and the shipping
water on portside deck was shot through the transparent current plate attached at the longitudinal
section along the centerline of the model ship. The cylindrical lens was set parallel to the longitudinal
section by a traverser mounted on the top of the waterproof case.
The model ship was attached to the carriage by a heave rod and a gymbal, and towed in regular
head seas. Heave and pitch motions were allowed to be free with the other motions fixed. Wave
length λ was chosen as the main parameter and varied from λ/L = 0.7 to 1.5. Wave height was
11 cm except shortest wave. We set the height of the shortest wave to 12.5 cm because the volume
of the shipping water in the shortest wave was not enough for visualization. Ship speed was kept
constant, 0.134 in Froude number.
Measured items were incident wave at FP, heave and pitch motions and impact pressure on the
deck. Location of the pressure gauges is shown in Figure 6.
Figure 4. Towing tank used for the experiment. Figure 5. Model ship used for the visualization.
50.0 50.0 50.0 50.0 50.0 50.0 50.0 50.0

44.5
P26
L5
Table 1. Principal dimensions of the model ship.

50.0
L4.5
P25 P24 P23 P22

L4
Type Tanker (VLCC)

50.0
L3.5
P21 P20 P19 P18 P17 P16

L3
Length Lpp 3m
50.0
L2.5
Breadth B 0.529 m P15 P14 P13 P12 P11 P10 P9

L2
Depth D 0.26 m
50.0
L1.5
Draft d 0.19 m P8 P7 P6 P5 P4 P3 P2 P1
L1
20.0
Displacement ∇ 243 kg
C
L
Radius of gyration Kyy/L 0.248

Figure 6. Location of pressure gauges.
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2.4 Result of the main experiment

Figure 7 shows the amplitude of heaving and pitching motions. Solid lines are estimations by NSM
and white circles are measured values. Due to the nonlinear effect of shipping water, they are
smaller than estimations overall. Since the length of the lever from the center of the gravity of the
ship to the center of the shipping water load on bow deck is long, it has a greater affect on pitching
motion than heaving motion.
Figure 8 shows the measured time histories of the incident wave, heaving motion and pitching
motion. Polarities of the plot for the incident wave and heaving motion are both positive upward
and that of pitching motion is positive in bow diving direction. Ratio between wave length and
ship length, λ/L, is 1.0. As can be seen in the pitching time histories, the crest part is distorted by
shipping water load. We repeated the experiment several times to confirm the reproducibility of
the measured data. In this figure, 4 time histories are plotted. These lines match each other and
prove good reproducibility of the experiment.
Heave Pitch
1.0 NSM 1.0 NSM

EXP EXP
θ / kζa
Z / ζa
0.5 0.5
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
λ/L λ/L
Figure 7. Heave and pitch motions in regular wave.
Encounter wave at FP
8
4
cm
0
-4
-8
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (sec)
Heave
3
2
1
cm
0
-1
-2
-3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (sec)
Pitch
2
1
degree
0
-1
-2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (sec)
Figure 8. Time histories of incident wave and motions (λ/L = 1.0).
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Next, Figure 9 shows measured pressure time histories at the location from P1 to P8 in Figure 6.
Also in this figure, 4 time histories are plotted together. The reproducibility of impact pressure is
also good. During the first five encounter wave periods, the transient motions are decaying and
converging to periodically steady state. The level of peak impact pressures at P1 to P3 is almost
same, nearly 1 mAq. Oscillations are observed at these locations. Frequency of the oscillation is
about 154 Hz. This is much lower than the natural frequency of the pressure gauge in water. This
P1
100
80
60
cmAq
40
20
0
-20
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (sec)
P2
100
80
60
cmAq
40
20
0
-20
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (sec)
P3
100
80
60
cmAq
40
20
0
-20
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (sec)
100 P4
80
60
cmAq
40
20
0
-20
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (sec)
P5
100
80
60
cmAq
40
20
0
-20
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (sec)
P6
100
80
60
cmAq
40
20
0
-20
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (sec)
P7
100
80
60
cmAq
40
20
0
-20
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (sec)
P8
100
80
60
cmAq
40
20
0
-20
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (sec)
Figure 9. Pressure time history on L1 line (λ/L = 1.0).
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λ/L=0.7 λ/L=1.0 λ /L=1.5
L2.5
95mm 95mm 95mm
L2
70mm 70mm 70mm
L1.5
45mm 45mm 45mm
L1
20mm 20mm 20mm
0 5 10 15 20 cm 0 5 10 15 20 cm 0 5 10 15 20 cm
Distance from the stem Distance from the stem Distance from the stem
Figure 10. Simultaneous pictures of shipping water at four sections depart 20 mm, 45 mm, 70 mm and 95 mm
from the centerline of the ship.
oscillation is caused by air entrapment. As it goes downstream, the peak value decrease and no
oscillation is observed anymore because the trapped air has already escaped to the atmosphere.
Figure 10 is a sample of the high speed video images of shipping water. λ/L of each column
is 0.7, 1.0 and 1.5 respectively. We can see that the shipping water is rushing onto the deck from
the left to right. Each column has four images of different sections from L1 to L2.5. Location of
these sections are given in Figure 6. Horizontal axis is the distance from the bow tip. Camera scope
moves to bow as the location of the section departs from the centerline. Every images were taken
in different run, but the timing of video shooting was accurately controlled. Therefore, it can be
said that the simultaneity of images are preserved in each column.
The authors applied PIV (Particle Image Velocimetry) to the high speed video images and
analyzed the velocity field of shipping water. In Figure 11, an example of PIV analysis is presented.
PIV, is an optical measurement technique of the velocity field with seeded particles in flow. By
tracking the image of seeded particles in the sequence of video frames, the velocity field is analyzed.
Various pattern matching techniques were developed for PIV. Using PIV, information of the flow
field such as translation, rotation, divergence, shear deformation, etc. could be obtained.
2.5 Behavior of the shipping water

From the visualization, the authors summarize the behavior of the shipping water as follows.
(1) In short wave range, (λ/L<< 1)
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Figure 11. Velocity vectors obtained by PIV analysis (L1 section, λ/L = 1.0).
Behavior of shipping water in short wave range can be observed in the left column of Figure 11.
Ship motion is small in short wave but the reflection of the incident wave by bow is significant.
First, the incident wave hits the bow, be reflected and breaks backward. Next, the wave rises
up beyond the freeboard, then rushes onto the foredeck. The backward breaker in images is
formed in this way. Since the shipping water has complex three-dimensional initial shape, the
behavior of shipping water flow also becomes complex
However, the volume of shipping water is relatively smaller than that in longer wave.
(2) In medium wave range, (λ/L ≈ 1)
The relative motion of ship and free surface becomes largest in the medium wave range. As
the middle column of Figure 11 shows, significant shipping water occurs. The volume of
shipping water is large and the resulting impact pressure is the highest. Significant air trapping
is also observed. During the impact process, the trapped air bubbles are compressed by impact
pressure. We consider that this impulsive compression is the main cause of impact pressure
oscillation observed on the measured pressure time histories. As a future research, we are going
to measure the radius of air bubbles in the video images and calculate their natural frequency
in water.
(3) In long wave range, (λ/L >> 1)
In long wave range, ship motions are large but smooth. Heaving motion follows the wave
elevation and pitching motion follows wave slope. Therefore, relative motion of ship and free
surface is not as large as that of in medium wave range. The deformation of wave by ship hull
is not significant. Behavior of shipping water can be observed in the right column of Figure 11.
Even in long wave, the volume of shipping water is still large. However, the shipping water
flow is not so rushing. Shallow water flow model, based on the method of characteristics, can
be applied to simulate the shipping water flow in long wave range.
3 NUMERICAL SIMULATION
3.1 Outline of MPS method

MPS (Moving Particle Semi-implicit) method was developed by Koshizuka (1995) to simulate
incompressible fluid. In this method, fluid is represented as a set of particles and the governing
equations such as the continuity equation and Navier-Stokes equation are discretized by differential
operators defined as equivalent interaction models among the particles. Since MPS does not use
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Figure 12. Result of shipping water simulation by MPS.
any grids, it can be applied to various nonlinear problems involving large deformation, breakup
and coalition of water. In addition, MPS is a fully Lagrangian method and advection term can be
directly calculated by the motion of particles. Therefore, it is free from the numerical diffusion.
3.2 Development of the simulation code

Taking these advantages of the method, the simulation code for shipping water is under development.
Since the simulation of three-dimensional shipping water is large scale computation, following
ingenuities are needed to complete the code.
(1) Domain decomposition.
(2) Parallel computation with use of MPI (Message Passing Interface).
(3) Conjugate Gradient method as the optimum matrix solver.
(4) Development of the code to simulate 3-D floating body motions with use of Quaternion.
3.3 Result of preliminary simulation

Figure 12(a) shows the target of the simulation which corresponds to the preliminary experiment.
The total number of particles are 367,038 (241,474 for fluid). PC cluster (Number of PC: 4,
CPU : Pentium4 × 1/PC, Clock : 2.8[GHz], Memory : 1GB, OS : Linux) is used for parallel
computation. The result of simulation is shown in Figure 12(b-f). As the initial condition of the
simulation, the fluid motion driven by a linear progressive wave was given. Wave length and
wave height were 1.56 m and 0.1 m respectively. The simulation shows that a wave is propagating
(0.2 sec), hits the bow (0.4 sec), rushes onto the deck and focus on the center (0.6 sec) and flows
downstream (0.8 sec). CPU time was about 93 hours for 2356 steps simulation (2 second in real
time).
Figure 13 shows the simulated pressure time history at P0 and its time integral. The average
of 25 particles around P0 was taken to calculate the pressure. The simulated peak pressure is a
little lower than the experiment, but the total impulse shown in lower figure well agrees with the
experiment. For the design of the structure, total impulse is more important than the peak pressure.
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Figure 13. Simulated impact pressure and its impulse.
Figure 14. Simulation of the ship motions in a wave.
From the result, the authors got a prospect to develop MPS code to simulate the shipping water on
running ship in head sea. Figure 14 shows one scene of the simulation by developing code. This
code has a capability to simulate the shipping water and ship motions in waves. The simulated
results correspond to the main experiment will be presented near future.
4 CONCLUSION
In this study, authors developed a visualizing technique of shipping water on a running ship fore-
deck. Using this technique, a tank experiment was conducted and a large amount of high-speed
video images were obtained. Model ship motions and impact pressure on the deck were also mea-
sured simultaneously with the video shooting. PIV were applied to measure the velocity field
of shipping water quantitatively. Based on the visualization, the authors studied the behavior of
shipping water and classified it into three types.
The result will be used to validate the developing simulation code based on MPS, in the next
stage of this project.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study is financially supported by JRTT, Japan Railway Construction, Transport and Technology
Agency, as a selected subject of their fundamental study support program. The authors would like
to acknowledge JRTT and the assessment committee members of this program for their strong
support and guidance.
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REFERENCES
Tasaki, R. 1961. On shipping water, Monthly report of transportation technical research institute, Vol.11, No.8
Goda, K., Miyamoto, T. 1976. A study of shipping water pressure on deck by two dimensional ship model test,
JSNAJ, Vol.140
Mizoguchi, S. 1988. Analysis of shipping water with experiments and the numerical calculation, JSNAJ,
Vol.163
Ogawa, Y., Ishida, S., Taguchi, H. 1997 Experimental study on shipping water volume and its load on deck,
JSNAJ, Vol.182
Koshizuka, S., Tamako, H., Oka, Y. 1995. A Particle Method for Incompressible Viscous Flow with Fluid
Fragmentation, Comput. Fluid Dynamics J. 4, 29–46
Sawada, H., Hoshino, K., Tanizawa, K. 2003. Measurment of shipping water flow by high-speed video camera
and image analysis based on PIV and PTV, Journal of the Visualization Society of Japan
Tanizawa, K., Sawada, H., Hoshino, K., Tsujimoto, M. 2003. Visualization of shipping water for validation of
numerical simulation by particle methods, Conference Proc. of SNAJ, Vol.2 pp.55–56
Tanizawa, K., Sawada, H., Hoshino, K., Tsujimoto, M. 2004. Visualization of shipping water on running ship
foredeck in regular head seas, Proc. 14th ISOPE Conf. in Toulon
Koshizuka, S., Go, S., Oka, Y., Tanizawa, K. 2003. Numerical analysis of two-dimensional experiment of
shipping water on deck using particle method, Conference Proc. of SNAJ, Vol.2 pp.57–58
Shibata, K., Koshizuka, S., Oka, Y., Tanizawa, K. 2003. Three-dimensional numerical analysis code for
shipping water on deck using particle method, Conference Proc. of SNAJ, Vol.2 pp.59–60
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Validation of 2.5D sea-keeping prediction method
Y. Wang
Naval Research Center, Beijing, China
S. Ma & W.Y. Duan

Harbin Engineering University, Harbin Heilongjiang Province, China
ABSTRACT: This paper makes a comparison between experimental and theoretical data on hydro-
dynamic forces and vertical ship motions in waves of several kind of ship model. The numerical
accuracy of three numerical algorithms have been discussed. Comparisons between theoretical and
experimental results indicate that 2.5D theory presented is an efficient method to calculate the
hydrodynamic forces for moderate and high speed ships.
1 INTRODUCTION
2.5D hydrodynamic theory has been developed for the prediction of ship sea-keeping and wave
loads in recent years. Different numerical method for solving the 2.5D hydrodynamic problem are
proposed by Faltinsen & Zhao (1991), Hermundstad (1994), Wang (1998), Duan (2001), Holloway
(2003). To promote the application of 2.5D method in sea-keeping design of high-speed ship, a
widely validation work must be provided. In this paper 2.5D theory has been used to calculate
the vertical hydrodynamic coefficients of Wigley I and vertical ship motions of several high speed
displacement ships in regular waves.
2 FORMULATIONS OF 2.5D HYDRODYNAMIC THEORY
Consider a slender ship traveling in regular waves with the forward speed U. Time-harmonic motions
of small amplitude are considered for the ship motions, with the complex factor eiωt applied to
oscillatory quantities. ξj ( j = 1, 2 . . . 6) represents complex amplitude of six modes of motion of
ship about the center of gravity. The velocity potential is used to describe the fluid motion around
the ship. The right-handed coordinate system o-xyz is defined moving with the velocity of ship.
The fluid potential around the ship can be expressed as:
where φs is the perturbation potential due to steady translation: ζa is the incident wave amplitude; φ0
is the deep water incident wave potential with unit wave amplitude; φ7 is the diffraction potential in
unit wave amplitude. φj The radiation potential due to unit motion in the jth direction ( j = 1, 2 . . . 6).
According to 2.5D theory developed by Faltinsen [4], the unsteady wave potential φj
( j = 2,3 … 6,7) satisfies the following mathematical formulations:
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appropriate radiation condition at infinity.

Introduce the time function t(x) and the fluid function ψj (t, y, z) to the Equations 2–6, where:
We derive the formulation of the 2.5D theory in terms of ψj (t, y, z)
3 NUMERICAL SCHEME
This mathematical formulation about ψj (t, y, z) may be regarded as defining a 2D time-domain

body-nonlinear problem. The starting time is at the bow and following a time-stepping procedure,
each body section or strip S(t) is treated sequentially moving from bow to stern. In this paper
the transient free surface Green function has been applied to derive the body boundary integral
equations (BBIE) to solve for ψj (t, y, z) and its derivatives. The detailed deduction of body boundary
integral equations can be seen in [2][3].
4 HYDRODYNAMIC COEFFICIENTS
After determining the radiation potential φj ( j = 2, 3 … 6) and the diffraction potential φ7 according
to 2.5D theory, using Bernoulli’s equation the linear hydrodynamic pressure can be obtained. By
integrating the hydrodynamic pressure over the hull, the hydrodynamic forces acting on the ship
can be determined:
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In order to avoid numerical difference errors carried by calculating the time derivative of fluid
potential, we can make a appropriate calculation for hydrodynamic forces by first calculating the
integration of fluid potential along the cross section and then making difference for the integration
of sectional quality about ψj , as shown in Equation 14.
By using Equation 14, the numerical errors can be reduced considerably. However, chances of
error are still exist. In order to further improve the accuracy of results, stokes theorem can be
applied on Equation 13 to get the following results.
For j = 2, 3 … 6, Tij represents the radiation hydrodynamic coefficients which can be divided
into added mass Aij and damping coefficients Bij terms, Namely:
For j = 7, Tij is the diffraction forces acting on the ship.
5 SHIP MOTION EQUATIONS
After calculating the hydrodynamic forces acting on the ship traveling in regular waves, the equa-
tions of ship motions can be established based on the dynamics of rigid bodies. In this paper, the
longitudinal motions of heave and pitch
in regular
seas was investigated.
Expressing the displace-
ment of heave and pitch as η3 (t) = Re ξ3 eiωe t and η5 (t) = Re ξ5 eiωe t respectively. We may write
the heave and pitch equations of motion in the form
In Equation 17 M , IGyy denote the components of the generalized mass matrix for the ship, C35 ,
C53 , C55 represents the hydrostatic restoring coefficients and FjI , FjD are the complex amplitude of
the incident wave force and diffraction forces.
6 COMPARISON OF NUMERICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
6.1 Numerical algorithms for the calculation of hydrodynamics coefficients

In order to evaluate the numerical accuracy of different algorithms for vertical hydrodynamic coef-
ficients. A comparison of the numerical results calculated by the above mentioned three algorithms
and the measured values of the vertical hydrodynamics coefficients is given. The experimental data
of the hydrodynamic coefficients are from the forced oscillation experiments of the mathematical
ship form Wigley I in still water with the forward speed (Journee 1992). The Froude number used
here is 0.3.
Figures 1–4 illustrate the theoretical and experimental values of vertical hydrodynamic coeffi-
cients of Wigley I at 0.3 Froude number. Numerical algorithms 1, 2 and 3 refer to theoretical results
given by Equations 13, 14 and 15 respectively. It is seen that results given by numerical algorithm
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A33 B33
Numerical algorithm 1 Numerical algorithm 1
1.25 Numerical algorithm 2 2.5 Numerical algorithm 2
Numerical algorithm 3 Numerical algorithm 3
1.00 2.0
0.75 1.5
0.50 1.0
0.25 0.5
ϖ ϖ
0.00 0.0
0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5
Figure 1. Wigley I, Fn = 0.3. Figure 2. Wigley I, Fn = 0.3.
A53 Numerical algorithm 1

B53
0.4 Numerical algorithm 1 Numerical algorithm 2
0.0 Numerical algorithm 3
Numerical algorithm 2
Numerical algorithm 3 Experiment
0.3 Experiment
-0.1
0.2
-0.2
0.1
-0.3
0.0
ϖ ϖ
-0.1 -0.4
0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5
Figure 3. Wigley I, Fn = 0.3. Figure 4. Wigley I, Fn = 0.3.
2 and algorithm 3 are very close to each other. But the difference between algorithm 1 and 3 is
evident especially at the low frequency of the ship oscillation. The comparison of the theoretical
and experimental results shows that the heave hydrodynamic coefficients A33 , B33 predicted by
numerical algorithm 3 are in good agreement with the experimental data. For coupling hydrody-
namic coefficients A53 , B53 the calculated values using numerical algorithm1 agree quite well with
the measured value. However algorithm 1 gives a poor prediction of coupling hydrodynamic coef-
ficients. This is the consequence of numerical difference for fluid potential ψj (t, y, z). Thus we can
say that the numerical difference algorithm is not stable to calculate the hydrodynamic coefficients.
Through comprehensive comparisons of experimental data with computed data, it’s demonstrated
that numerical algorithm 3 is stable for the calculation of hydrodynamic coefficients.
6.2 Prediction of the vertical ship motions based on 2.5D theory

Based on 2.5D theory and presented numerical algorithm, the heave and pitch amplitude responses
of catamarans and a trimaran with high Froude number have been calculated and compared with
the model experiments results. An extensive model tests on monohulls and catamarans in waves
have been carried out in regular head seas and oblique seas in the Southampton Institute Test Tank
(Wellicome et al. 1995, 1999). In this paper, catamarans Model 5b based on NPL series and Model
5s based on series 64 hull form have been selected. The centerline to centerline separation/length
ratios of the Model 5b and Model 5s are both 0.4. For Model 5s catamaran, report (Wellicome
et al. 1999a) provides experimental motions transfer functions of a towed Model 5s catamaran in
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Fn=0.80(2.5D Theory)
Fn=0.53
η3 /ζa Fn=0.80(2.5D Theory) η5 /kζa Fn=0.80(Experiment)
Fn=0.53 Fn=0.53
2.0 Fn=0.80(Experiment) 1.6
Fn=0.53 1.4
1.6
1.2
1.2 1.0
0.8
0.8 0.6
0.4
0.4
0.2
λ/L λ/L
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Figure 5. Model 5b, S/L = 0.4. Figure 6. Model 5b, S/L = 0.4.
Heave/ζa 2.5D Theory(Fn=0.8)

2.5D Theory(Fn=0.80) Pitch/kζa Experiment (Fn=0.8)
2.0 Experiment (Fn=0.80) 1.8 2.5D Theory(Fn=0.53)
2.5D Theory(Fn=0.53) Experiment (Fn=0.53)
2.5D Theory(Fn=0.53) 1.5
1.6
1.2
1.2
0.9
0.8
0.6
0.4 0.3
λ/L λ/L
0.0 0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Figure 7. Model 5s, S/L = 0.4. Figure 8. Model 5s, S/L = 0.4.
long crested head seas at 0.2, 0.53, 0.65 and 0.8 Froude numbers. Whereas report (Wellicome et al.
1999b) provides experimental motions transfer functions of a free running Model 5s catamaran in
oblique seas at 0.67 Froude number. In Harbin Engineering University, theoretical and experimen-
tal work on the sea-keeping characteristics and ship wave resistance of trimaran has been ongoing
over a number of years .The experimental vertical motions amplitude responses of a trimaran ship
model at four Froude numbers are presented to compare with the theoretical results. The centerline
to centerline separation of side hull/length of main hull ratio of the trimaran is 0.40.
Figures 5–6 illustrate the theoretical and experimental heave and pitch values for the catamaran
Model 5b traveling at Froude numbers 0.53, 0.8 in head seas. It’s seen from the figures that the
predictions by 2.5D theory show excellent agreement with the experimental data.
Figures 7–10 show the numerical results comparisons with the measured value of heave and pitch
transfer functions for the towed Model 5s catamaran at 0.2, 0.53, 0.65 and 0.80 Froude numbers
in head seas. The theoretical results can also predict the experimental values very well except for
the slightly underprediction of the pitch responses of experimental values at Froude numbers 0.53,
0.65 and 0.80. The peak values of the calculated pitch curve is lower nearly 25% than that of
the experimental values. Figures 11–12 present the vertical motion characteristics of free running
Model 5s catamaran in oblique seas. Both the heave and pitch transfer functions shows relatively
small reductions when going from a heading of 180 to 150 degree, but a significant reduction when
going from 150 to 120 degree. The calculated heave and pitch curves can give a similar motion
characteristics prediction compared with that of measured values.
Figures 13–14 demonstrate the theoretical and experimental heave and pitch values for the
trimaran traveling at Froude numbers 0.2, 0.35, 0.5 and 0.70 in head seas. At the lower Froude
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Heave/ζa Pitch/kζa 2.5DTheory (Fn=0.65)

2.0 Experiment (Fn=0.65) 1.8
2.5DTheory (Fn=0.20)
Experiment (Fn=0.20) 1.5
1.6
1.2
1.2
0.9
0.8
0.6
0.4 0.3
λ/L λ/L
0.0 0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Figure 9. Model 5s, S/L = 0.4. Figure 10. Model 5s, S/L = 0.4.
β=180°(2.5D Theory)
β=150°
Heave/ζa β=180°(2.5D Theory) Pitch/kζa β=120°
β=150° 1.6 β=180°(Experiment)
2.5
β=120° β=150°
β=180°(Experiment) β=120°
2.0 β=150°
1.2
β=120°
1.5
0.8
1.0
0.4
0.5
λ/L λ/L
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Figure 11. Model 5s, S/L = 0.4, Fn = 0.67. Figure 12. Model 5s, S/L = 0.4, Fn = 0.67.
Heave/ζa Fn=0.20(2.5D theory) Pitch/kζa Fn=0.20 (2.5D theory)

Fn=0.35 Fn=0.35
3.0 1.8 Fn=0.50
Fn=0.50
Fn=0.70 1.6 Fn=0.70
2.5 Fn=0.20(Experiment) Fn=0.20 (Experiment)
Fn=0.35 1.4 Fn=0.35
Fn=0.50 Fn=0.50
2.0 1.2 Fn=0.667
Fn=0.667
1.0
1.5
0.8
1.0 0.6
0.4
0.5
0.2
λ/L λ/L
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
Figure 13. Trimaran, S/L = 0.4. Figure 14. Trimaran, S/L = 0.4.
numbers 0.2 and 0.35, the calculated heave and pitch amplitudes fit quite well with the measured
values. But at the higher Froude numbers 0.5 and 0.7, There is an overprediction of the experimental
heave and pitch transfer functions especially at the peaks of the experimental responses curves. For
the heave motion, the maximum difference of theoretical values at peaks is about 28% relative to
the experimental values at Froude number 0.8. For the pitch motion, The maximum difference is
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about 23% at Froude number 0.8. These difference may attributed to the neglecting of influence of
steady waves at high speed.
7 CONCLUSION
According to the prediction results, it can be concluded that:

1. The numerical algorithm based on Stokes formula is proved to be a stable and effective method
to predict the hydrodynamic coefficients based on 2.5D theory.
2. The numerical results based on 2.5D theory provide a close agreement with the experimental
values of heave and pitch responses in regular head and oblique seas at both mid and high
speed ranges. The theoretical value of vertical ship motions can catch the peak value responses
frequency reasonably. This indicates that 2.5D theory reflects the free surface conditions with
forward speed sufficiently well and is an effective tool for prediction of hydrodynamic forces
and sea-keeping characteristics of the high speed vessels.
3. The steady wave potential may have a great effect on the hydrodynamic calculation of high
speed displacement ship, the further studies on 2.5D theory should include the contribution of
steady wave potential on the unsteady fluid potential.
REFERENCES
Dai Yishan. 1998. Potential flow theory of ship motions in waves in frequency and time domain. Beijing:
National Defence Industry Press.
Duan Wenyang. 1995. Nonlinear hydrodynamic forces acting on a ship undergoing large amplitude motion.
Ph.D. thesis. Harbin Engineering University.
Duan Wenyang & Huang Debo et al. 2001. Comparison of two sea-keeping prediction methods for high speed
multi-hull vessels. FAST’01.
Faltinsen O. & Zhao R. 1991. A Numerical predictions of ship motions at high forward speed. Philos. Trans.
R. Soc. London. 334: 241–252.
Journee J.M.J. 1992. Experiments and calculations on 4 Wigley hull forms in head waves. Report 0909. Delft
university of technology.
Wellicome J.F. & Temarel P. et al. 1995. Experimental measurements of the sea-keeping characteristics of fast
displacement catamarans in long-crested head-seas. Ship Science Report No.89. School of Engineering
Sciences, Ship Science, University of Southampton.
Wellicome J.F. & Molland A.F. et al. 1999a. Experimental measurements in head seas of the sea-keeping
characteristics of a fast displacement catamaran of Series 64 form. Ship science report No. 107. School of
Engineering Sciences, Ship Science, University of Southampton.
Wellicome J.F. & Temarel P. et al. 1999b. Experimental measurements of the sea-keeping characteristics of fast
displacement catamarans in oblique waves. Ship Science Report No. 111. School of Engineering Sciences,
Ship Science, University of Southampton.
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Double-frequency wave force and moment on a body moving

forward in steep regular wave
J.P. Wu & R.K. Wang

Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, P.R. China
Z.J. Zou
Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, P.R. China
ABSTRACT: This paper deals with the numerical prediction of the double-frequency wave loads
on a floating body traveling with a constant speed on steep regular waves. A de-singularized source
method has been applied for calculating the three-dimensional nonlinear potential flow in frequency
domain. The isolated Rankine sources are distributed inside the body or above the free surface.
The geometric form of the body is described by NURBS (Non-Uniform Rational B-Splines). The
nonlinear free surface boundary conditions are expanded by the Stokes perturbation expansion for
nonlinear deep-water waves. The solution of the nonlinear diffraction problem includes the effects
of the nonlinear steady flow. Numerical results of the first-order and double-frequency wave forces
are presented for a submerged spheroid and a Wigley model.
1 INTRODUCTION
The nonlinear wave excitation plays an important role in the nonlinear response of floating bodies
and the springing of the offshore structures. The nonlinear surface wave effects fall into two distinct
categories, i.e. low and high frequencies. Double frequency is one of the high frequency. The high
frequency wave problems are studied for vertical cylinder(s) by many researchers, but there are
few studies for ships.
In this paper, a de-singularized Rankine source method (Wu et al. 2002, Wu et al. 2004) combined
with the nonlinear Stokes wave theory of deep water is applied to solve the nonlinear diffraction
problem for a floating body moving at a constant speed on steep regular waves. A frequency domain
method is developed to solve the first-order and second-order diffraction velocity potentials.
Computations are performed for a submerged spheroid and a Wigley model of surface ship.
Numerical results of the wave excitation forces are presented and compared with the available
results by other researchers. The agreement is satisfactory to a certain extent.
2 FORMULATION OF THE PROBLEM
It is assumed that the fluid is inviscid and incompressible, and the flow is irrotational. The surface
tension is neglected. The floating body moves forward with a constant speed U on steep regular
waves in deep water.
A general inertial coordinate system oxyz is chosen with the z-axis pointing upwards. The origin
lies in the mean free surface and moves with a constant velocity U i.
The total velocity potential (x, t) of the flow can be expressed by
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where −Ux is the uniform flow potential, S (x) is the steady perturbation velocity potential, I (x, t)
is the incident wave velocity potential, and D (x, t)) is the diffraction wave velocity potential.
Correspondingly, the free surface elevation η can be decomposed into
According to the nonlinear Stokes wave theory of deep water, the following perturbation
expansion for the perturbation potential D and the wave elevation η is postulated:
The velocity potential of the incident wave is chosen as:
where A is the amplitude of the incoming wave train, g is the acceleration of gravity, ω0 is the
natural frequency, ω is the frequency of encounter, ω = ω0 − ω02 U cos θ/g, θ is the angle between
the phase velocity of the incident wave and the forward velocity of the body. Then
In frequency domain, Equations 3 and 4 can be expressed as:
Then the linear and second-order potentials ϕD(1) and ϕD(2) should satisfy:
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and the proper radiation condition, where n = (n1 , n2 , n3 ) is the unit normal vector pointing out
the fluid domain, and g is the gravitational acceleration. The nonlinear solution of S (x) has been
presented by Wu et al. (2004).
and the proper radiation condition.

The linear and second-order diffraction wave elevations are:
The wave forces and moments acting on the floating body are integrated by
where (n1 , n2 , n3 ) = n, (n4 , n5 , n6 ) = x × n, p is the pressure distribution of body surface.

The first-order wave exciting forces and moments are computed by:
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The second-order wave exciting forces and moments are:
3 NUMERICAL METHOD
A de-singularized source method (Wu et al. 2002, Wu et al. 2004) is used to numerically solve
the diffraction problems. The geometric form of the floating body is described by NURBS (Non-
Uniform Rational B-Splines). The body surface and the free surface are discretized into grids. The
isolated Rankine sources are distributed inside the body by a small distance along the inner normal
direction, or above the free surface. The boundary conditions on the body surface and free surface
are satisfied simultaneously to determine the source strengths.
In order to satisfy the radiation condition, the isolated sources above the free surface are shifted
backwards in x direction by one grid interval.
4 NUMERICAL RESULTS
Numerical calculations were performed for a submerged spheroid and a Wigley model of surface
ship. Wave excitation forces and wave contours were obtained.
4.1 Submerged spheroid of L/B = 5

As the first case we solved the diffraction problem of the submerged spheroid same as that of Wang
(1999). The submerged spheroid has L/B = 5, d/B = 0.75, where L is the length, B is the maximal
breadth, and d is the distance between the center of the spheroid
√ and the mean free surface. The
spheroid moves at a speed corresponding to Fn = 0.2, Fn = U / gL.
Figure 1 shows the linear wave exciting force and moment on the spheroid. The non-dimensional
(1)
amplitude of the first-order wave exciting force C31 = f3 /ρgABL, the non-dimensional amplitude
(1)
of the first-order wave exciting moment C51 = f5 /ρgABL2 , and the phase angles θ31 and θ51 are
the occurrence of wave peaks. In Figure 1, present numerical results are compared with the results
given in Wang (1999).
Figure 2 shows the second-order wave exciting force and moment computed by the present
(2)
method. The non-dimensional amplitude of the second-order wave exciting force C32 = f3 /ρgA2 L,
(2)
the non-dimensional amplitude of the second-order wave exciting moment C52 = f5 /ρgA2 L2 .
Figure 3 shows an example of the wave contours, which include nonlinear steady waves, the first-
order diffraction waves ς D(1) and second-order diffraction waves ς D(2) , and the total free surface
elevations.
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C31 C51
Experiment
Iwashita & Ohkusu (1988)
Wang (1999)
Experiment
L /l L /l
u31 u51
L /l L /l
Figure 1. Linear wave exciting forces on the spheroid (β = 180◦ , Fn = 0.2).
C32 C52
L /l L/l
Figure 2. Second-order wave exciting forces on the spheroid (β = 180◦ , Fn = 0.2).
(a) nonlinear steady waves (b) first-order diffraction waves
(c) second-order diffraction waves (d) total free surface elevation (t = 0. A/l = 0.05)
Figure 3. Wave patterns of the spheroid (β = 180◦ , Fn = 0.2, L/λ = 1.0).
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C31 Journee (1922) C51

Kara & Vassalos (2003)
Present Method
kL kL
u31 u51
kL kL
Figure 4. Linear wave exciting forces on a Wigley model (β = 180◦ , Fn = 0.4).
C32 C52
kL kL
Figure 5. Second-order wave exciting forces on a Wigley model (β = 180◦ , Fn = 0.4).
4.2 Wigley model

The second case is a Wigley model of surface ship. The half beam of the hull is given by:
It has length to beam ratio of L/B = 10 and beam to draft ratio of B/T = 1.6. The ship moves with
a speed corresponding to Fn = 0.4.
Figure 4 shows the linear wave exciting forces and moments on the Wigley model. The computed
results of the present method are compared with the data published in Kara (2003). Figure 5
shows the computed second-order wave exciting forces and moments. The wave exciting forces are
(1) (2) (1)
given in the non-dimensional forms: C31 = f3 L/ρgAV , C32 = f3 L2 /ρgA2 V , C51 = f5 /ρgAV ,
(2)
and C52 = f5 L/ρgA2 V , where V stands for the volume of ship.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The nonlinear diffraction problem of a floating body moving at constant speed on steep regular
waves is dealt with by a de-singularized source method combined with the nonlinear Stokes wave
theory of deep water. The forward speed effects are incorporated into the problem by the nonlinear
steady velocity potential. The numerical results of wave exciting forces and the wave elevation
are presented and compared with the relevant results by other researchers. It is shown that the
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proposed method is an efficient nonlinear method, and can give reasonable solution for the nonlinear
diffraction problem. The further work is to deal with the nonlinear radiation problem by this method.
REFERENCES
Kara, F. & Vassalos, D. 2003. Time domain prediction of steady and unsteady marine hydrodynamics problem.
Int. Shipbuilding Progress 50(4): 317–332.
Wang, C. T. 1999. Vertical motions of slender bodies with forward speed. Proc. NSC, Part A: Physical Science
and Engineering 23(1): 31–41.
Wu, J. P., Zou, Z. J. & Wang, R. K. 2002. A de-singularized isolated source method for potential flow problem
(in Chinese). Journal of Wuhan University of Technology 24(2): 49–51.
Wu, J. P., Zou, Z. J. & Wang, R. K. 2004. Numerical simulation of the nonlinear waves by a submerged
ellipsoid. Journal of Ship Mechanics, to appear.
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A unified approach to ship seakeeping and manoeuvering

using a RANSE method
Y. Xing-Kaeding & G. Jensen

Fluid Dynamics and Ship Theory Section, TU Hamburg-Harburg, Germany
ABSTRACT: Viscous, turbulent and free surface effects of the fluid flow together with the flow-
induced ship motion are simultaneously considered by a single program solving the Reynolds-
Averaged Navier-Stokes Equations (RANSE) and body dynamics equations. The finite-volume
method used in the flow solver employs moving-grids to realize the instant position of the body
motion. The flow solver is coupled with the computation of ship motion at each outer iteration.
To demonstrate the capability of the method in its applications to seakeeping and manoeuvring,
the motion of a Ro-Ro ferry is computed subjected to waves, showing good agreement with
experiments. With a geometrically modelled rudder and a body-force simulated propeller, a turning-
circle manoeuvre is performed for a container ship, producing reasonable yaw rate, flow field and
wave pattern.
1 INTRODUCTION
As the prediction of ship hydrodynamic performance has been conventionally broken down into
different areas, such as seakeeping, manoeuvring, resistance and propulsion, state of the art Com-
putational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) methods offer the opportunity to study different problems by a
unique technique.
Today, an acceptable range of accuracy has been achieved in prediction of flow field (especially
the wake distribution) and friction resistance by computation of viscous turbulent flow around the
ship without consideration of the free surface. Steady manoeuvring motions have been computed
to predict hydrodynamic coefficients by Cura Hochbaum (1998) and Sato et al. (1998). The last
decade has seen increasing consideration of free surface deformation in RANSE computations
around ships. The interface-tracking methods appeared initially, but were not widely applied due to
their complexities of adaptation of the grid to the instant position of the free surface. More recently,
interface-capturing methods have grown fast and have been applied to computations of ship motions
in waves, see Azcueta et al. (1999), Kinoshita et al. (1999), Sato et al. (1999), Muzaferija and Peric
(1999). These methods proved to be valuable also to many other problems in free-surface ship
hydrodynamics such as sloshing, slamming and other phenomena related to wave-breaking and
air-cushion effects.
In this paper, numerical analyses with free surface are performed by a VOF method. Computation
of ship motion is integrated into the flow solver to predict the motion of a free-floating body in
viscous turbulent flow. A variety of verification and validation on wave generation and flow-
induced motion of both simple-geometry bodies and complex-geometry ships can be found in
Xing et al. (2001a, 2001b, 2004) and Hadzic et al. (2000, 2002). Some manoeuvring applications
such as turning-circle manoeuvres and Z-manoeuvres in planar motion can be found in Xing et al.
(2002, 2003). In this paper, to demonstrate the potential of the method in its application to ship
seakeeping and manoeuvring, a Ro-Ro ferry with forward speed in head waves has been first
computed and results are compared with the experiments, showing favourable agreement. Then, a
rudder-controlled turning-circle manoeuvre has been performed for a self-propelled container ship
in calm water.
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2 NUMERICAL METHOD
Incompressible viscous flows with free surface are solved here by a finite volume method incorpo-
rated in the “Comet” code (CD adapco Group). The conservation equations for mass, momentum,
and scalar quantities (e.g. energy or chemical species) are written in their integral form. The so-
called space conservation law (SCL) is employed for moving-grids. The velocity and pressure
fields are coupled using SIMPLE-algorithm, see Patankar & Spalding (1972). Interface-capturing
method and High-Resolution Interface Capturing (HRIC) scheme have been used to model the
free surface, more details are given in Muzaferija & Peric (1999). Turbulent effects are taken into
account by the standard k-ε model. Due to space restriction, these basic equations will not be
introduced here; for more detail, see Demirdzic et al. (2000).
The ship motion is computed simultaneously with the flow motion. The body dynamics module
is incorporated into the flow solver (Comet) via its user-coding interface. The forces and moments
acting on the ship are integrated from the fluid flow ajacent to the ship hull. A predictor-corrector
procedure is used to predict the ship motion. This procedure is readily coupled with the iterative
procedure of the flow solver. For more details about body dynamics, integration scheme and
body-flow coupling, see Xing et al. (2001a, 2001b) and Hadzic et al. (2002).
Blocks of surface-fitted grid around the ship hull together with its rudder block have been
generated in an unstructured manner. Moving-grid strategies have been adapted for the ship motion;
sliding interfaces have been employed between the rudder block and its surroundings to allow a
random rudder angle. To avoid further complication of the geometry and reduce the computing
effort, the propeller has been simulated by applying body forces distributed to a layer of finite-
volume cells in the propeller plane, see Stern et al. (1988).
3 NUMERICAL GRID AND BOUNDARY CONDITION
The block of surface-fitted grid surrounding the ship has a shape of the rectangular block and is
made of a finite number of control volumes, which can have more than 6 faces. All variables are
stored at the centre of each control volume. Structured as well as unstructured grids with multi-
blocks are employed. As mentioned before, sliding interfaces, which allow a random rudder angle,
have been taken between the block containing the rudder and the blocks surrounding the rudder
block. Numerical beaches have been generated at some boundaries of the domain, which are far
from the ship, to avoid unexpected reflection of the waves at the boundaries. For the moderate roll,
pitch and heave motions of the ship, a block around the ship (including the block with the rudder)
can be moved together with the ship and the grid far away from the ship is kept unchanged; the
blocks in between have to be smoothed or regenerated in three dimensions. For large yaw motion
(e.g. in the case of turning circle), either the whole computational domain can be moved with the
ship or additional body forces corresponding to the rotation should be applied to the whole domain
instead of grid moving. The first alternative is used in this paper.
Great care should be taken to set boundary conditions correctly since the fluid could be flowing
in or out from the same border of the domain at different stages during manoeuvring motion. Here a
pressure boundary condition has been used beside the inlet boundary condition at the corresponding
outflow and inflow parts of the border. No-slip wall condition has been applied to the ship hull as
well as the surface of the rudder. At the bottom of the domain, slip wall condition or symmetry
condition can be applied if it does not exist physically. At the top of the domain, static air pressure
can be applied or other corresponding conditions can be set up if wind is considered.
In the following sections, the method has been applied to problems related to ship seakeeping and
manoeuvring. No extra effort is required to these two different applications, which demonstrates the
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great potential of this unique approach in applications of ship hydrodynamics. The computations
are compared to available experiments showing favourable agreement.
4.1 Ship motion in waves

The motion of a Ro-Ro ferry, designed by Flensburger Schiffbau-Gesellschaft (FSG), has been
computed in small regular waves and the results are compared with experimental data.
The ship model is 5.364 m in length (L) between perpendiculars and 0.168 m in draught with the
model scale of 1/34. The regular waves generated by an inlet boundary are of 0.15 m height and
4.0 m length. More details about the wave generation can be found in Xing-Kaeding et al. (2004).
The ship runs with constant speed (Fn = 0.22) against incoming waves. Heave and pitch motions
are free in both experiment and simulation.
The computation domain extends to 1.3 L in front of the ship bounded by an inlet boundary
with velocities specified, 1.5 L behind the ship connecting to a 1.5 L damping zone bounded by
a hydrostatic pressure boundary, 1.5 L at the side of the ship and 1.0 L in water depth bounded
by slip wall boundaries. Half of the ship has been modelled due to the symmetry condition and
the numerical grid has 550,000 control volumes. As shown in Fig. 1, a relatively fine grid is used
around the ship and the free surface region.
Computed time histories of heave and pitch motions of the ship are compared with experimental
data in Fig. 2. The numerical results are compared with experiments, showing satisfactory agree-
ment. The wave patterns generated by the Ro-Ro ferry are shown at two time instants in Fig. 3. It
is observed that the spread angle of the wave crests at the ship bow is about 2 · 19.5◦ , which agrees
with the analytical prediction of the steady wave system due to forward speed of the ship. It can be
seen that the wave crest hits the ship bow around the time step 9.75 s and it travels along the ship
Figure 1. Grid at the free surface and the Ro-Ro

ferry. Figure 2. Time histories of heave and pitch motions.
Figure 3. Computed wave patterns at time = 9.75 s (left) and time = 10.20 s (right).
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Figure 4. Pressure distribution on the ship hull at time = 9.75 s (left) and time = 10.20 s (right).
until it reaches the middle part of the ship at about 10.20 s, where the ship bow is approximately
at the trough of the wave. The ship is under the condition of positive and negative bending at these
situations. Therefore, these two critical time steps are taken for further discussion. Figure 4 gives
the pressure distribution on the ship hull at these two time steps. As expected, higher pressure
appears at the bow and the middle part of the ship at these two time instants respectively. Relatively
high pressure can be observed in the ship bow region at 9.75 s, which corresponds to the so-called
bow flare slamming and is critical when the wave height increases.
4.2 Turning-circle manoeuvre in calm water

The container ship “CBOX”, designed by FSG, has been selected to perform the turning-circle
manoeuvre on its own spade rudder. The geometrically modelled rudder is surrounded by sliding
interfaces and can therefore be turned to any desired rudder angle during the manoeuvring operation.
The propeller is simplified by a body force field (Stern et al. (1988)) with a total thrust determined
by the propeller diagram and the inflow condition.
The ship is computed in a model scale of 1/29. The full-scale ship has the length of 145.75 m
between perpendiculars (L) and the draught of 9.0 m. The computational domain extends to 1.5 L
in front of the ship, 2.5 L beside the ship and 3L behind the ship prolonged by an artificial damping
zone to avoid reflected waves. The top and bottom boundaries are 1.0 L above and below the still
water level to simulate a deep-water condition and minimize the air flow effect. The computational
grid contains about 900,000 cells including the rudder block.
The computation has been started from a self-propelled ship in steady straight motion with a
constant velocity corresponding to Fn = 0.23. The rudder is then turned starboard by a turning
rate of 13.5 ◦ /s until the maximum rudder angle (δ = 35◦ ) is reached, which is kept until the ship
has performed a turning-circle of 540◦ . The ship is expected to turn dramatically at the initial
turning before the steady state is reached. Free surface deformations can be seen from Fig. 5 during
the turning-circle manoeuvre at yaw angles ψ = 0◦ , 30◦ and 60◦ respectively. The rudder block
surrounded by sliding interfaces can also be seen from Fig. 5 at δ = 35◦ .
The computed yaw rate and the horizontal velocity of the ship are given in Fig. 6 against time.
The non-dimensional yaw rate r approaches the value of 0.3 at the steady turning state. The speed
of the ship has also been decreased dramatically at the beginning of the turning-circle and then
reached a steady state by half of the initial speed. The computed tactical diameter is about 2.98 L,
which is in the range of typical values for a container ship.
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(a) ψ 0° (b) ψ 30° (c) ψ 60°
Figure 5. Free surface deformations during a turning-circle manoeuvre of a container ship.
Figure 6. Yaw rate (left) and absolute velocity (right) for a turning circle manoeuvre of a container ship with
operating rudder.
Figure 7. Pressure distribution on the ship hull and the rudder at port (top) and starboard (bottom) sides.
Figure 7 shows the pressure distribution on the ship hull and the rudder surface at port and
starboard sides. As can be seen, the pressure on the ship stern is larger on the starboard than on the
port side of the ship and the maximum pressure appears on the leading edge of the rudder (from
starboard view). The axial velocity contour and tangential velocity vectors at the cross section
x = −0.45 L viewed from bow are shown in Fig. 8 together with distorted mesh and free surface
position. As can be observed, the ship has slightly heeled toward starboard (δ = 2◦ ) as expected.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The instantaneous interaction between viscous free surface flow and flow-induced body motion has
been computed using the finite volume method. Rigid body dynamics for six degrees of freedom
has been integrated into the fluid solver to compute the body motion. The RANSE code proved
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Figure 8. Axial velocity contour with distorted mesh (left) and tangential velocity vectors with free surface
position (right) at the cross section x = −0.45 L (view from bow).
to be capable to predict the response of the real-geometry ship in the seakeeping applications,
showing good agreement with experiments. Despite its shortcoming of large computational effort,
the method has been seen as a robust tool to be able to cope with further complicated applications in
maritime hydrodynamics. As one example, a first approach to ship manoeuvring has been shown
using the present method without extra effort. A turning circle manoeuvre of a self-propelled
container ship has been presented in this paper considering the free-surface effect. The rudder has
been modelled geometrically in addition to the ship hull. The propeller has been simulated by a
body force model. The model needs further refinement to better account for in-plane forces of
the propeller in manoeuvring. A Z-manoeuvre of the container ship will also be performed and
compared with available experiments in the near future.
REFERENCES
Azcueta R., Muzaferija S. & Peric M. 1999. Computation of breaking bow waves for a very full hull ship.
Proc. 7th Int. Conf. Numerical Ship Hydrodynamics. Nantes/France.
Cura Hochbaum A. 1998. Computation of the Turbulent Flow around a Ship Model in Steady Turn and in
Steady Oblique Motion. 22nd ONR Symp. on Naval Hydrodynamics. Washington D.C./USA.
Demirdzic I., Muzaferija S. & Peric M. 2000. Computation of turbulent flows in complex geometries, chap.
7 in G. Tzabiras et al. (eds.), Calculation of Complex Turbulent Flows. WIT press, Southampton/UK.
pp. 249–299.
Hadzic I., Muzaferija S., Peric M., Xing Y. & Kaeding P. 2000. Predictions of Flow-Induced Motions of
Floating Bodies. Proc. 3rd Numerical Towing Tank Symp. Tjaernoe/Sweden.
Hadzic I., Xing Y., Muzaferija S. & Peric M. 2002. Numerical Simulation of Interaction of a Floating Body
and a Free-Surface Flow with Waves. 5th World Congress on Computational Mechanics, Vienna/Austria.
Kinoshita T., Kagemoto H. & Fujino M. 1999. A CFD application to wave-induced floating-bodies, 7th Int.
Conf. on Numerical Ship Hydrodynamics. Nantes/France.
Muzaferija S. & Peric M. 1999. Computation of Free Surface Flow Using Interface-Tracking and Interface-
Capturing Methods, chap. 2 in O. Mahrenholtz and M. Markiewicz (eds.), Nonlinear Water Wave Interaction,
pp. 59–100, WIT Press, Southampton/UK.
Patankar S.V. & Spalding D.B. 1972. A calculation procedure for heat, mass and momentum transfer in
three-dimensional parabolic flows. Int. J. Heat and Mass Transfer 15: 1787–1806.
Sato T., Izumi K. & Miyata H. 1998. Numerical Simulation of Manoeuvring Motion. 22nd ONR Symp. on
Naval Hydrodynamics. Washington DC/USA.
Sato Y., Miyata H. & Sato T. 1999. CFD simulation of 3-dimensional motion of a ship in waves: application
to an advancing ship in regular head waves. J. Mar. Sci. Technol. 4: 108–116.
Stern F., Kim H.T., Patel V.C. & Chen H.C. 1988. A viscous-flow approach to the computation of propeller-hull
interaction. J. Ship Research. 32: 246–262.
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XingY., Hadzic I., Muzaferija S. & Peric M. 2001a. CFD Simulation of Flow-Induced Floating-Body Motions.
Proc. 16th Int. Workshop on Water Waves and Floating Bodies, Hiroshima/JAPAN. pp. 169–172.
Xing Y., Hadzic I. & Peric M. 2001b. Predictions of Floating-Body motions in Viscous Flow. Proc. 4th
Numerical Towing Tank Symp., Hamburg/Germany.
Xing Y., Jensen G., Hadzic I. & Peric M. 2002. An approach to ship maneuvering by simultaneous computation
of viscous flow and ship motion. Proc. 5th Numerical Towing Tank Symp. Pornichet/France.
Xing-Kaeding Y., Jensen G., Hadzic I. & Peric M. 2003. Simulation of Ship Manoeuvring in Viscous Flow
with Free Surface. Proc. 5th Numerical Towing Tank Symp. Rome/Italy.
Xing-Kaeding Y., Jensen G. & Peric M. 2004. Simulation of Flow-Induced Ship Motions in Waves using a
RANSE Method. J. Ship Technol. Research. 51: 56–68.
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Evaluation of propulsive performance of a tanker in damaged

conditions
J.M. Yang
Graduate Student, Dept. of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering, Seoul National University,
Seoul, Korea
S.H. Rhee
Senior Engineer, Fluent Inc., Lebanon, New Hampshire, USA
J.K. Lee
Researcher, Research Institute of Marine Systems Engineering, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
H. Kim
Professor, Dept. of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
ABSTRACT: Many disastrous oil spill accidents from damaged vessels become worse especially
when the early treatment is not prompt enough. To properly handle this type of accidents and prevent
further disasters, International Maritime Organization establishes and imposes various rules and
regulations. In assessing the damages and providing salvage operation, the propulsive performance
of damaged vessels is important, as well as for containing the oil spill while the vessels are being
towed or self-propelled. Until now only a few studies for damaged vessels are found in literature.
The propulsive performance of a very large crude-oil carrier (VLCC) in heeled and/or trimmed
conditions is examined both experimentally and computationally in this study.
1 INTRODUCTION
In recent years, many environmentally disastrous maritime accidents followed from oil or fuel spill
from damaged vessels. The situation becomes worse especially when the early counter treatment is
not prompt enough. To properly handle this type of accidents and prevent further disasters, inter-
national organizations, such as the International Maritime Organization, established and imposed
various rules and regulations on the designs and operations of sea going vessels. In assessing the
damages and assisting the development of new rules and regulations, therefore, better understand-
ing of the propulsive performance of damaged vessels is of great importance. This understanding
is essential for salvage operations, as well as for containing oil spill while the vessels are being
towed or self-propelled. Until now, many hydrodynamics researches have focused on the propulsive
performance under normal operating conditions (Lee et al., 2003) and there have been only a few
studies for damaged vessels. In this paper, both experimental and computational methods are used
to investigate the flow features around hull and hydrodynamic performance of a VLCC in heeled
and/or trimmed conditions (Yang et al., 2003, 2004).
2 MODEL TEST
2.1 Resistance test

A 300,000 DWT VLCC hull form designed at the Korea Research Institute of Ship and Ocean
Engineering was selected to provide an artificial standard hull form for research work. This artificial
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Principal particulars
Design speed 15.5 LBP (m) 320.0

(knots)
LWL (m) 325.5 B (m) 58.0
D (m) 30.0 T (m) 20.8
WSA (m2 ) 27320.0 Volume (m3 ) 312737.5
CB 0.81
Figure 1. Body plan and principal particulars of 300 k class VLCC.
30000
EK
25000
Angle of Heel EHP 2D (HP) (%)
H1°CW
H1 CW
H2°CW
H2 CW
H3°CW
H3 CW
H4°CW
H4 CW
0◦
20000
H5°CW
H5 CW 19411.5 100.0
1◦
H10°CW
H10 CW
EHP(HP)
15000
19498.6 100.4
2◦ 20630.7 106.3
10000
3◦ 19654.0 101.2
4◦ 19447.9 100.2
5000
5◦ 19509.5 100.5
10◦ 19683.1 101.4
0
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Vs(knots)
Figure 2. Comparison of EHP (2D Extrapolation) at various heeled conditions.
hull form was reported to the technical committee of the International Towing Tank Conference
(ITTC) as a benchmark model for various researches. ITTC adopted this hull form as an official
standard for the various research of VLCC and named it KVLCC. The hull form has become quite
popular among naval hydrodynamicists as a good benchmark test for experimental evaluation of
hydrodynamic performance and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) validations. The principal
particulars and the body plan of the model are shown in Figure 1. A 1/100 scale model was
manufactured of fiber reinforced plastic and tested at the Seoul National University Towing Tank.
To evaluate the resistance performance of VLCC in various heeled conditions, resistance values
were compared with the even keel condition as presented in Figure 2. We see that the resistance
increases in heeled conditions. It was unfortunate that some further experimental validation is
deemed in the data set obtained at the design speed (15.5 knots) in the 2◦ heel condition. The
resistance in heel conditions increase up to 1.4% in terms of the effective horsepower (EHP) in the
considered range.
For the investigation of the trim effect on resistance, towing tests have been carried out in
various conditions as shown in Figure 3. The resistance in the even keel condition seems to be the
smallest and the resistance increased along with the increase of the trim angle. The increasing rate
of resistance in bow trim conditions is slightly higher than in stern trim conditions. The maximum
increase in EHP is found in the 1◦ bow trim condition and reaches to 5.3%.
The resistance performance in trim plus heel conditions was also tested in the towing tank and
accordingly EHP’s were estimated by a 2-dimensional extrapolation method. The obtained EHP’s
are compared in Figure 4. The maximum increase in EHP is found in the 0.5◦ bow trim plus 5◦
heel conditions and reaches to 7%.
In order to evaluate the viscous resistance, Prohaska’s method was adopted in the calculation of
form factor (1 + k). The results are tabulated in the Table 1.
The form factors (1 + k) shown in Table 1 are very small for an ordinary VLCC. This under-
estimation of form factors are inherited from the laminar flow effect, which is caused by the
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30000
EK
25000 TB0.5°
TB0.5
TB1.0°
TB1.0
TS0.5
TS0.5° Trim Condition EHP 2D (HP) (%)
20000 TS1.0
TS1.0°
Trim bow 1.0◦ 20436.1 105.3

EHP(HP)
15000
Trim bow 0.5◦ 19897.2 102.5
Even keel 19411.5 100.0
Trim stern 0.5◦ 19831.6 102.2
10000
5000
Trim stern 1.0◦ 20405.6 105.1
0
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Vs(knots)
Figure 3. Comparison of EHP (2D Extrapolation) at various trimmed conditions.
30000 30000
EK EK
25000 25000 TS0.5°H2
TS0.5 H2°
TB0.5°
TB0.5
TB0.5°H5
TB0.5 H5° TS0.5
TS0.5°H5
H5°
TB0.5°H10
TB0.5 H10° TS0.5°H10
TS0.5 H10°
TB1.0
TB1.0°H5
H5° 20000 TS1.0°H5
TS1.0 H5°
20000
EHP(HP)
EHP(HP)
15000 15000
10000 10000
5000 5000
0 0
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Vs(knots) Vs(knots)
Trim Heel EHP 2D (HP) (%) Trim Heel EHP 2D (HP) (%)
0◦ 0◦ 19411.5 100.0 0◦ 0◦ 19411.5 100.0

−0.5◦ 2◦ 20484.1 105.5 0.5◦ 2◦ 19816.3 102.1
−0.5◦ 5◦ 20649.7 106.4 0.5◦ 5◦ 19921.9 102.6
−0.5◦ 10◦ 20775.4 107.0 0.5◦ 10◦ 19630.5 101.1
−1.0◦ 5◦ 20535.1 105.8 1.0◦ 5◦ 20228.5 104.2
Figure 4. Comparison of EHP (2D Extrapolation) at combined various heel and trim conditions.
Table 1. Comparison of form factor (1 + k) at various hull attitudes.
Hull Attitude Heel 0◦ 2◦ 5◦ 10◦ 0◦ 0◦ 0◦ 0◦

Trim 0◦ 0◦ 0◦ 0◦ −0.5◦ −1.0◦ 0.5◦ 1.0◦
Form factor (1 + k) 1.118 1.128 1.120 1.141 1.135 1.151 1.120 1.137
Hull Attitude Heel 2◦ 5◦ 10◦ 5◦ 2◦ 5◦ 10◦ 5◦
Trim −0.5◦ −0.5◦ −0.5◦ −1.0◦ 0.5◦ 0.5◦ 0.5◦ 1.0◦
Form factor (1 + k) 1.139 1.146 1.166 1.151 1.124 1.125 1.118 1.140
relatively small scale of the model and slow towing speed. Thus, the form factors are improper
to use for the estimation of EHP of the corresponding full scale ship. However, the form factors
should be effective in relative comparison of the viscous resistances in various hull attitudes in
damaged conditions.
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Figure 5. Measured velocity contours at propeller plane (Vs = 15.5 knots).
2.2 Wake field measurement

The wake field at the propeller plane of the KVLCC was already measured in the design condition
(Kim et al., 2000). To investigate the changes in the wake field on the propeller plane due to attitude
changes caused by damages, velocity distribution were measured with five-hole Pitot tubes attached
to a rotational wake rake installed on the propeller shaft (Kim et al., 1997) (Yang et al., 2000).
The wake configurations derived from the measurements at five different radii between 0.3 R and
1.1 R, where R is the propeller radius, with circumferential interval of 15◦ are presented in Figure 5
for selected typical damaged conditions. Considering the body-fixed coordinate system adopted,
the effects of hull attitude in damaged conditions are clearly observed with asymmetry of the wake
shape.
In these wake configurations, measured value in the polar coordinate system were transformed
into those in the Cartesian coordinate system with the origin at the shaft center, positive X-axis
in the starboard direction, and positive Y-axis in the upward direction. The wake configurations are
normalized by the propeller diameter (D = 0.098 m). The circumferential mean of the axial wake
measured on each radius for selected typical damaged conditions are tabulated in Table 2.
3 NUMERICAL COMPUTATIONS
To investigate the flow features around the hull in more detail, viscous flow analysis was carried out
using a CFD solver (Kim and Rhee, 2002) for assumed damaged conditions. The origin of the right
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Table 2. Circumferential mean values of measured axial velocity (Vs = 15.5 knots).
Trim Heel r/R 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 Mean
0◦ 0◦ 1-w 0.091 0.192 0.282 0.506 0.643 0.424

0◦ 5◦ 1-w 0.076 0.238 0.256 0.503 0.612 0.413
−1.0◦ 5◦ 1-w 0.033 0.237 0.205 0.458 0.585 0.379
1.0◦ 5◦ 1-w 0.079 0.239 0.301 0.569 0.640 0.449
Figure 6. Computed velocity (m/s) contours at propeller plane and surface pressure (Pa) at Re = 2.02 × 106 .
Table 3. Comparison of viscous drag coefficients (Vs = 15.5 knots).
Condition Heel 0◦ 5◦ 10◦ 0◦ 5◦ 0◦ 5◦

Trim 0◦ 0◦ 0◦ −1◦ −1◦ 1◦ 1◦
Re (×106 ) Calculation 2.02 2.02 2.02 2.02 2.02 2.02 2.02
Cv (×10−3 ) Calculation 4.665 4.634 4.633 4.695 4.688 4.857 4.771
Re (×106 ) Experiment 2.02 1.99 1.88 1.98 1.88 1.98 1.88
Cfm (×10−3 ) 4.046 4.060 4.103 4.063 4.104 4.063 4.104
(1+k) 1.118 1.120 1.141 1.151 1.151 1.137 1.140
(1+k) × Cfm (×10−3 ) 4.523 4.547 4.682 4.677 4.723 4.620 4.679
hand Cartesian coordinate system is located at the midship on the calm water free surface, with the
positive X-axis towards the stern. In the calculation of viscous flow around the hull, asymmetric
structured grid system with 640,000 elements were generated with the first grid point from the hull
surface equal to 45 in terms of y+ (Kim et al., 2002), for each of the assumed damaged conditions.
The design speed of KVLCC corresponds to the low Froude number, thereby the wave resistance
can be ignored in the viscous flow calculation. For Re = 2.02 × 106 , CFD calculation was carried
out for the even keel full load condition by applying slow speed approximation. Computed examples
of the velocity distribution in a flow field around stern part and static pressure distribution on the
surface of bow part are shown in Figure 6.
In various assumed hull attitudes of damaged conditions, viscous resistance coefficients are
computed as shown in Table 3. The computed viscous resistances for various hull attitudes are
compared with those derived from empirical form factors and skin friction coefficients (Cfm)
based on the ITTC’57 model-ship correlation line. The computed viscous resistances quantitatively
coincide with the empirical results, considering the neglected wave resistance, although assumed
very small, and the difference of Reynolds numbers due to the different temperatures of tank water
on different days.
The Froude number of KVLCC at the design speed was low enough to ignore the wave effects
in the viscous flow calculation. For Re = 2.02 × 106 , CFD calculation was carried out for the even
keel full load condition by applying double body approximation. And calculations are done to
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Even keel Heel 5˚ Heel 10˚
Stern 10˚ Even keel Bow 10˚
Stern 10˚ Heel 5˚ Heel 5˚ Bow 10˚ Heel 5˚
Figure 7. Comparison of computed velocity contours at propeller plane (Re = 2.02 × 106 ).
investigate the effect of heel on flow field around the hull for 5◦ and 10◦ heel condition. The trim
effects were also examined for 1◦ bow trim and stern trim conditions. Finally, flow fields were
investigated when ship was heeled and an additional trim was combined. The results obtained for
various conditions are compared in Figure 7.
When the ship is heeled from the even keel condition, the computed wake contour on the propeller
plane has an asymmetric shape about the center plane of the hull. These asymmetric characteristics
are qualitatively in good agreement with the measured wake contours given in Figure 5. However,
the global wake fields outside the propeller disk area are similar in spite of heeling as confirmed
by the comparison between the wake contours shown in the first row of Figure 7.
When the ship is in a stern trim condition, thinner boundary layer with narrower wake contour
on the propeller plane is observed, while thicker boundary layer and wider wake contour appears
in a bow trim condition as presented in the second row. These are consistent with experimental
observations that the larger resistance is measured in a bow trim condition. When trim is combined
with heel, both tendencies induced by trim and heel are also combined in wake field generation as
easily observable on the third row of Figure 7.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Early treatments are essentially important in minimizing the disastrous oil spill accidents of VLCC.
To properly handle the accidents and prevent further disasters, international organizations, such
as the International Maritime Organization, establish and impose various rules and regulations on
the designs and operations of sea going vessels. In assessing the damages and providing salvage
treatment, better understanding of the propulsive performance of damaged vessels become great
important. In this study, both experimental and computational methods are used to investigate the
flow phenomena around the hull and the hydrodynamic performances of a VLCC under various
damaged conditions. From this investigation it is found out that the resistance increase occurred
primarily due to bow trim condition. Also the validity of the numerical computation in assessing the
hydrodynamic performances in damaged condition was shown through the computation by Fluent
CFD code.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors wish to acknowledge the help of Il-Ryong Park, Jin Kim and Suak-Ho Van (Korea
Research Institute of Ship and Ocean Engineering) for grid generation.
REFERENCES
Kim, S. E. and Rhee, S. H. 2002. Assessment of Eight Turbulence Models for a Three-Dimensional Boundary
Layer Involving Crossflow and StreamwiseVortices, AIAA Paper 2002-0852, Proc. 40thAerospace Sciences
Meeting and Exhibit, Reno, NV
Kim, W. J., Kim, D. H., Yoon, H. S., Moon, D. Y. and Van, S. H. 1997. Study on the calibration of a five-hole
Pitot-tube for the wake measurement. Journal of the society of Naval Architecture of Korea 34(2): 11–19
Kim, W. J., Van, S. H., Kim, D. H. and Lee, C. J. 2000. Experimental Study on Local Flow Characteristics and
Propulsive Performances of Two KRISO 300 K VLCCs with Different Stern Shapes. Journal of the society
of Naval Architecture of Korea 37(3): 11–20
Kim, W. J., Van, S. H. and Kim, D. H. 2002. Computational study on turbulent flows around modern tanker
hull forms. International Journal for Numerical Methods in Fluids 38(4): 377–406
Lee, S. J., Kim, H. R., Kim, W. J. and Van, S. H. 2003. Wind Tunnel Tests on Flow Characteristics of the
KRISO 3,600 TEU Containership and 300 K VLCC Double-DeckShip Models. Journal of Ship Research
47(1): 24–38
Yang, J. M., Lee, S. J., Kim, H. C., Suh, J. C. and Park, Y. M. 2000. Effect of Pre-swirl Stator Vane on the
Propeller Hull Interaction of a Full Ship. Proceedings of annual autumn meeting SNAK: 188–191
Yang, J. M. and Kim, H. C. 2003. Prediction of Propulsive Performances of a heeled and trimmed VLCC.
Proceedings of annual autumn meeting SNAK: 216–221
Yang, J. M., Kim, H. C., Lee, J. K., Van, S. H., Kim, J. and Park, I. R. 2004. Evaluation of Ship Flow and
Performances of a heeled and trimmed VLCC. Proceedings of annual spring meeting SNAK: 306–314
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Bowflare and stern slamming induced whipping of large ships
R. Zhao, O.D. Økland & J.R. Hoff

Norwegian Marine Technology Research Institute (MARINTEK), Trondheim, Norway
J.V. Aarsnes
Advanced Production and Loading (APL), Kolbjørnsvik, Norway
ABSTRACT: Extensive experimental and theoretical studies have been carried out at MARINTEK
for slamming induced whipping responses of large ships. In the studies of whipping both bowflare
slamming and stern slamming have been investigated. Segmented models were used in the model
tests in order to predict slamming induced whipping responses and corresponding mid-ship bending
moment. In this paper theoretical approaches to predict slamming loads and whipping responses
are discussed.
1 INTRODUCTION
In the last four years extensive research projects on impact loads and structure responses have been
carried out at MARINTEK. The main purpose of one of these projects was to investigate bowflare
and stern slamming induced vibration and whipping responses of large ships, for instance large
cruise ships with lengths of 170 m to 350 m.
Problems related to bowflare-slamming have been investigated by many authors, mostly by using
two-dimensional theoretical approaches to predict slamming loads and pressures, or using three-
dimensional theory of conservation of momentum. Experimental and full-scale studies are usually
done by measuring pressures at some locations at the flare of the bow. Stern slamming loads have
not been studied until recently, since conventional stern geometries are not so flat, and therefore
stern slamming is not an issue for these types of ships. Recently there are many new designs of
large ships, for instance cruise ships, with very flat stern. In the transverse direction the deadrise
angle between stern and mean water level can be as low as 2 to 3 degrees, and at the same time a
large stern area is close to the mean water level. Based on momentum theory for slamming loads
one can find that the maximum impact loads could be very large due to short impact duration. The
main reason for this kind of stern geometry design is to reduce the wave resistance in calm water.
The new experimental tests carried out at MARINTEK for predicting slamming induced whip-
ping responses are based on measuring total slamming loads on the bowflare and stern in addition
to total bending moment at mid-ship. Such measurements are done by introducing transverse cuts
in the model vertically near bow, stern and at mid-ship. The important parameter for whipping
responses due to bowflare and stern slamming is the duration and rise time of total bowflare and
stern slamming forces. Totally 80 different stern and bowflare geometries have been tested at MAR-
INTEK in the last four years. From the experimental data one can identify important parameters
for bowflare and stern slamming as function of significant wave height, wave period, speed of ship,
wave direction and bow and stern geometry. The findings will help us to find proper numerical
tools to predict slamming loads on large ships. Numerical predictions of impact loads and structure
responses have also been carried out. Many different approaches have been applied. It has been
found that the present numerical tools are not good enough to predict design loads with sufficient
accuracy, but they could be used to check different designs and to distinguish between good or bad
designs from a slamming point of view.
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2 EXPERIMENTAL METHOD TO PREDICT WHIPPING RESPONSES AND

SLAMMING LOADS
A four-segment model was used to predict whipping responses and slamming loads on large ships.
The model consists of a hull model made in stiff foam (Divinycell) reinforced by wooden plates.
The hull model was equipped with a rigid framework aluminium structure along the main part of the
ship length. The framework was used to ensure that the segments in the model were as bending-stiff
as practically possible. In the connection between segments, the end of the framework was welded
to a 20 mm thick Al endplate. After welding of the frame, the endplates were machined in the area
where the springs and force transducer were connected to enable correct assembly of the segments.
The foam model was rigidly connected to the frame by means of glass-fibre reinforced material.
The model was divided into four stiff segments by three transverse cuts:
• Cut I, near stern
• Cut II, at Mid-ship
• Cut III, near bow
Forces and moments in Cut I and II (axial force, transverse and vertical shear, torsion, horizontal
and vertical bending moment) were measured in the connection between the flexible section and
the rigid frame in the hull. For both cut I and II, it was possible to obtain a stiff connection by
using a stiff distance piece between the plates connecting the springs and a pre-tensioned locking
device. Note that also in the case of stiff connections the impact loads and global loads at the
different cuts could be correctly measured. Stiffening structure, flexible section with locking-
devices and location of force transducers are shown in Figure 1. At Cut III there is a rigid
connection between the segments and only total vertical force is measured. In the whipping tests a
rigid connection was used in Cut II, meaning that the 2-node whipping mode is represented with
force transducers adjustable spring
flexible hinges
plate 3
plate 1 plate 2
Figure 1. Illustration of framework, flexible section and force transducers in test-model.
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a 2-segment model. The natural period of the model is close to that of the first whipping mode.
It is pointed out by Økland et.al. (2003) that a two segment model with rigid frame inside each
segment gives a very good approximation for the mid-ship bending moment for a real ship. The
model was self-propelled and run free during the tests. The tests were carried out in the ocean-basin.
The model was equipped with an autopilot-system, which was used to control the direction of the
model.
3 THEORETICAL PREDICTION OF SLAMMING LOADS AND WHIPPING RESPONSES
Two different approaches are used to predict slamming loads from bowflare slamming. The first
approach is based on a ship motion program, for instance by using the strip theory of Salvesen,
Tuck and Faltinsen (1970) to predict ship motions and relative velocity between ship and water,
followed by application of the two-dimensional theory (by Zhao, Faltinsen and Aarsnes (1996))
to predict slamming loads for each section near the bow. Generally speaking, the relative vertical
velocity near the bow predicted by numerical methods could have 20 to 30% error due to large ship
motions and the effect of nonlinear incident waves. For small incident waves, the errors could be
10 to 20%, which is mainly due to the lack of a “consistent” linear theory for ship motions with
forward speed. The main problem is how to correctly include forward speed effect.
The second approach is based on momentum theory. A momentum theory which has been used
in ship hydrodynamics to predict slamming loads can be written F = d(A33(t)V(t))/dt. The total
slamming force F is derived by using a free surface condition of φ = 0 on the free surface, where φ is
the velocity potential. Zhao (1992) found that this formula is an approximation and only valid when
the deadrise angle is approaching zero. Since this note has not been published, a short discussion is
given here.
The formula is derived by using a free surface condition of φ = 0 and in addition one assumes
that the pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure on the free surface. Generally speaking, these
two conditions cannot be used at the same time. Actually φ = 0 is a dynamic free surface condition
used for the far-field solution. When one uses the dynamic solution φ = 0, one cannot at the same
time apply a dynamic free surface condition with the pressure set equal to zero. One will find
that if φ = 0, the pressure is not equal to zero on the free surface, especially near the intersection
point between the free surface and body surface. Therefore an additional term with a free surface
integrand should be included. When the deadrise angle is going to zero, the value of this integrand
is also going to zero. But for finite deadrise angle, the integration is not going to zero. However,
the formula is a very good approximation for the total slamming force. In the numerical prediction
the measured relative velocity V(t) near the bow has been used to predict the total slamming load F.
Generally speaking the momentum theory will over-predict loads by 10 to 30% depending on ship
geometry.
For the stern slamming problem, a 3-D method is needed to predict the loads. Since the flow
about the stern is extremely complex, it is very difficult to predict wetted surface as function of
time. Therefore the stern slamming force is very sensitive to the chosen method. In the experiments
we have found that even with the same incident waves and the same model, the slamming loads
and pressures show large differences from run to run. This implies that the loads does not repeat
well even if all other conditions are the same.
4 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Model tests have been carried out for different type ships, like cruise ships and container ships.
A typical cruise ship model is shown in Figure 2. During whipping test the total bow slamming
force, stern slamming force and total mid-ship bending moment were measured. In addition the
wave elevation at FP and AP, and slamming forces on panels were measured.
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Figure 2. A segmented model with rigid framework aluminium structure.
Figure 3. Typical time-series for VBM where the whipping-response is caused by bow and aft-body slamming.
The total bending moment can be split into two components:

• Low-frequency contribution (wave-contribution)
• High-frequency contribution (whipping-contribution)
Contributions from wave and whipping can be found by high- and low-pass filtering of the
measured signal. A typical time history for measured VBM, wave-contribution and whipping
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Figure 4.
contribution is shown in Figure 3. In this case the contribution from whipping is larger than the
wave-contribution. Generally speaking the contribution from whipping could be from 30% to 150%
in extreme wave conditions for cruise ships depending on local bow and stern geometry. However,
cruise ships are usually not operated in such large waves.
Figure 4 shows an example of total stern force (FZ AFT), total force on bow (V.FORCE BOW)
and total mid-ship bending moment (MY CG). The large contributions from the whipping part of
the mid-ship bending moment are mainly due to bow or/and stern slamming. The bow slamming
forces are largest for head sea cases with large forward speed. The increasing mid-ship bending
moment with forward speed is significant. The whipping responses could be three to four times
larger for forward speed of 10 knots compared to zero speed in large waves. The stern slamming
occurs in following sea conditions at low speed. Usually the stern slamming could be significantly
reduced by a slight change of stern geometry. For some stern geometries the stern slamming do
happen in head sea conditions with relative low forward speed. For these ships in head seas, the bow
slamming force increase with forward speed, but stern slamming force increase when ship reduces
speed. Then one should find an optimal forward speed to reduce the total slamming contribution
to the mid-ship bending moment.
5 CONCLUSION
Slamming induced whipping responses have been discussed. New experimental methods have
been developed to predict stern slamming force, bow slamming force and whipping response at
mid-ship. The results show that whipping responses could be significantly or much larger than the
wave-contribution. Both bow and stern slamming are important for whipping responses.
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REFERENCES
Salvensen, N., Tuck, E.O. and Faltinsen O.M. 1970. Ship motions and sea loads. Trans. SNAME.
Zhao, R. 1992. Slamming force based on a momentum theory. Unpublished note.
Zhao, R., Faltinsen, O.M. and Aarsnes, J.V. 1996. Water entry of arbitrary two-dimensional sections with and
without flow separation. Proc. 21st Symposium on Naval Hydrodynamics.
Økland, O.D., Zhao, R. and Moan, T. 2003. Numerical assessment of segmented test-model approach for
measurement of whipping responses. Proc. FAST 2003, Italy, October 2003.
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A comparative study of 3-D methods with experimental results for

seakeeping analysis
T. Zhu
Nippon Kaiji Kyokai, Chiba, Japan
L. Xu
China Classification Society, Beijing, China
S.P. Singh
Indian Register of Shipping, Mumbai, India
T.B. Ha
Korean Register of Shipping, Daejeon, Korea
ABSTRACT: A comparative seakeeping study has been presented in this paper. Three different
3-D linear computation methods have been used to obtain motion, pressure and loads. These
methods are: (1) Rankine source/panel method (2) Green’s Function Method in frequency domain
(3) Transient Green’s Function Method in time domain. The computations are carried out for
various heading angles between head sea and following sea and the frequency range corresponding
to λ/L = 0.2 to 2.0, λ is the wave length and L is the ship length. The results for motion, vertical
bending moment, horizontal bending moment and dynamic pressure are presented. The pressure
estimation has been done at various points close to the water line and stations at midship and
forward region. The results are presented in the form of transfer function. The results are compared
with the experimental data.
1 INSTRUCTION
Determination of the ship motion and wave loads is a very important aspect of the ship design.
Various 2-D theories have been used for prediction of the ship motion and loads and they provide
reasonably accurate results for global loads like vertical shear force and bending moment for
the conventional ship shape. However, 2-D theories have several limitations and do not provide
satisfactory results for some responses e.g. local pressure. In view of this background, many studies,
by, e.g., Lin & Yue (1990), Nakos & Sclavounos (1990) and Orihara & Miyata (2003) have been
carried out so far to develop 3-D methods using Green function method, Rankine source/panel
method or unsteady RANS numerical simulation technique. Detailed reviews on above-mentioned
studies by many ISSC technical, specialist and special task committees are given in Mansour &
Ertekin (2003).
Full 3-D methods expected to provide better estimation of all relevant responses are now feasible
with the advent of faster computers and are gaining popularity. Broadly these methods can be
classified into three categories: (1) Rankine source/panel method (2) Green’s Function Method in
frequency domain (3) Transient Green’s Function Method in time domain.
In view of the importance of the subject and it’s impact on the ship design, four classification
societies (ClassNK of Japan, KR of Korea, CCS of China and IRS of India) have undertaken a
joint research project aimed at development of advance 3-D linear and non-linear methods for
sea keeping analysis. In present paper, results in respect of a bulk carrier obtained as per 3-D
linear methods developed by each society are compared with the comprehensive experimental
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Table 1. Principal particulars of the ship model.
Model Unit
Length (L) 4.500 m

Breadth (B) 0.793 m
Depth at midship (D) 0.390 m
Draft at A.P. (dAP ) 0.285 m
Draft at mid-ship (dm ) 0.285 m
Draft at F.P. (dFP ) 0.285 m
Displacement () 850.7 kgf
Distance from mid-ship to CG(XG ) (Bows on) 0.144 m
Distance from keel to CG(KG ) 0.2125 m
Non-dimensional radius of roll gyradius (Kxx /B) without added mass 0.305 –
Non-dimensional radius of pitch gyradius (Kyy /Lpp ) without added mass 0.248 –
Transverse metacentric height (GM) 0.1095 m
Natural period of roll (Troll ) obtained by the experiment 1.694 sec
Extinction coefficient for roll (Fn = 0.131) φ = aφn + bφn2 a = 0.0597; b = 0.0130
Extinction coefficient for roll (Fn = 0.000) φ = aφn + bφn2 a = 0.0219; b = 0.0172
Table 2. Experimental conditions in regular waves.
Froude number = 0.131; Incident wave height Hw = 8.79 cm (full scale 6.0 m)
Relative wave length λ/Lpp 0.5, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 1.2, 1.5 (1.1 only in beam sea)
Wave encountering angle χ (deg.) 0, 45, 90, 135, 180
Froude number = 0.0; Incident wave height Hw = 8.79 cm (full scale 6.0 m)
Relative wave length λ/Lpp 0.5, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 1.2, 1.5 0.8, 1.0, 1.1
Wave encountering angle χ (deg.) 180 90
results available with ClassNK (Zhu et al (2002)). Three different theories have been used by the
four societies, namely: Rankine Source or Panel Method (ClassNK and CCS), Green’s Function
Method (KR) and Transient Green’s Function Method (IRS).
2 EXPERIMENT
The experiment was conducted in a wave basin (length: 80 m, width: 80 m, water depth: 4.5) at
National Maritime Research Institute of Japan. Main particulars of the ship model used for the
experiment are specified in Table 1. Wave-induced ship motions, vertical as well as horizontal
bending moment, hydrodynamic pressures, relative wave elevation (relative displacements) and
green sea loads are measured as the ship model is freely advancing without any external restrictions
in regular waves and irregular waves respectively. The fore part and the aft part of the model are
connected at the model’s longitudinal center via a force transducer so that the vertical and the
horizontal moments acting at the midship section can be measured. The results for regular wave
conditions were used for comparison; these conditions are described in Table 2. The following
measured items were considered for comparison purpose:
i. Heave, pitch and roll motions.
ii. Vertical and horizontal bending moments at midship section.
iii. Hydrodynamic pressures were measured on the ship hull at 20 positions (P1–P20): by pressure
gauges. The positions of pressure gauges are shown in Figure 1. Comparison has been made
at some of the pressure points.
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P4 P12 P4 P12
P1 P2 P3 P5 P13 P11 P5 P19 P13
338
338
P20
285
285
285
241
241
241
P6 P14 P10 P6 P18 P14
117
117
P9 P8 P7 P17 P16 P15
198 198 198 198
AP 1.0 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0.9.5 FP
S.S.6.0 S.S.9.0
Figure 1. Positions of pressure gauges.
3 COMPUTATIONAL METHOD
As described earlier three different 3-D linear methods are used for computations, all the methods
are based on potential flow approximation, the brief descriptions of the methods are given below.
3.1 Rankine source/panel method in frequency domain

Flow is described by means of a velocity potential which satisfies the Laplace equation. Velocity
potential is subsequently divided into three components as:
where
φ0 : velocity potential representing steady double body flow,
φ1 : velocity potential representing steady wavy flow,
φU : velocity potential representing unsteady wavy flow.
The total potential is obtained by satisfying the linearized free surface condition, body surface
condition of the ship and radiation condition of waves. The potential is solved at the discrete points
on the hull and part of free surface. The details of the method can be found in (Miyake et al (2001),
and Xu et al (2001)).
3.2 Transient Green’s function

This is based on the method proposed by Lin & Yue (1990), Here velocity potential φT is divided
into two components as:
where φI represents the incident wave potential, φD is the total disturbance potential (i.e. this
includes the steady wave resistance potential, unsteady scattered and radiation potentials). The
problem is solved in time domain using transient Green’s function. The potential is solved at the
discrete points on the hull.
3.3 Green’s function method in frequency domain

It is assumed that the profiles of small amplitude incident waves are sinusoidal and harmonic in
time with frequency of encounter ω. Then, the unsteady velocity potential ϕ is written as:
where ϕ0 pertains to the incident wave with the amplitude A0 , ϕj represents the radiation potentials
of the fluid flow as a result of forced unit oscillation of the body in the j-th mode having amplitude
ξj in calm water, and ϕ7 denotes the diffraction potential arising from the scattered waves when the
body is restrained from any motion in its mean position.
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2.0 2.0
Expt. Expt.
NK(3D) NK(3D)
1.6 KR(3D) 1.6 KR(3D)
CCS(3D) CCS(3D)
IRS(3D) IRS(3D)
Heave/ζA
Heave/ζA
1.2 1.2
0.8 0.8
0.4 0.4
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
λ/Lpp λ/Lpp
Figure 2. Heave, Fn = 0.131, χ = 180 deg. Figure 3. Heave, Fn = 0.0, χ = 90 deg.
6.0 1.5
Expt. Expt.
NK(3D) NK(3D)
5.0 KR(3D)
KR(3D) 1.2
CCS(3D) CCS(3D)
4.0 IRS(3D)
IRS(3D)
Pitch/kζA
0.9
Roll/kζA
3.0
0.6
2.0
1.0 0.3
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
λ/Lpp λ/Lpp
Figure 4. Roll, Fn = 0.131, χ = 90 deg. Figure 5. Pitch, Fn = 0.131, χ = 180 deg.
Each potential satisfies the Laplace equation with appropriate boundary conditions and it forms a
boundary problem. To solve the unsteady boundary value problem, the boundary integral equation
method described by Brad (1972), Faltinsen & Michelsen (1974) and Ha (2000) is used. The
unsteady Green’s function with speed effect given by Wehausen & Laitone (1960) is incorporated
as a modified singularity in the unsteady boundary integral equation.
4 RESULTS
Results for motion, load and dynamic pressure are presented in the form of transfer function.
Linear motion (Heave) is nondimensionalised with wave amplitude (ζA ) and the angular motions
(roll and pitch) are nondimensionalised with wave slope (kζA , where k is the wave number). The
vertical bending moment (VBM) and horizontal bending moment (HBM) are nondimensionalised
with ρgBL2 ζA , where B and L are the breadth and length respectively for the hull. The dynamic
pressure is nondimensionalised with ρgζA .
Figures 2–5 show the motion results. Figures 6–9 show the load results (VBM and HBM).
Figures 10–17 show the pressure results.
5 DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSION
By comparing the numerical results with the experimental ones, the followings have been
understood.
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0.030 0.030
Expt. Expt.
NK(3D) NK(3D)
0.025 KR(3D) 0.025 KR(3D)
IRS(3D) IRS(3D)
My/ρgζAL2B
My/ρgζAL2B
0.020 CCS(3D) 0.020 CCS(3D)
0.015 0.015
0.010 0.010
0.005 0.005
0.000 0.000
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
λ/Lpp λ/Lpp
Figure 6. VBM, Fn = 0.131, χ = 180 deg. Figure 7. VBM, Fn = 0.0, χ = 180 deg.
0.030 0.030
Expt. Expt.
NK(3D) NK(3D)
0.025 KR(3D) 0.025 KR(3D)
IRS(3D) IRS(3D)
0.020 CCS(3D) Mz/ρgζAL2B 0.020 CCS(3D)
Mz/ρgζAL2B
0.015 0.015
0.010 0.010
0.005 0.005
0.000 0.000
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
λ/Lpp λ/Lpp
Figure 8. HBM, Fn = 0.131, χ = 45 deg. Figure 9. HBM, Fn = 0.131, χ = 135 deg.
5.0 5.0
Expt. Expt.
NK(3D) NK(3D)
4.0 KR(3D) 4.0 KR(3D)
CCS(3D) CCS(3D)
IRS(3D) IRS(3D)
3.0 3.0
P/ρgζA
P/ρgζA
2.0 2.0
1.0 1.0
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
λ/Lpp λ/Lpp
Figure 10. Pressure at P1, Fn = 0.131, χ = 90 deg. Figure 11. Pressure at P1, Fn = 0.131, χ = 180 deg.
The heaving motion seems to be slightly larger than the experimental ones in head seas near the
relative wavelength λ/L = 1.2 with speed of 14 knots.
For the rolling motion, it could be said that the four 3-D methods predict the rolling motion
fairly well compared with the measured results.
The numerical results of pitching motions by the four 3-D methods are in very good agreement
with the experimental results.
Regarding the vertical wave bending moment, the numerical results obtained by the four 3-D
methods are generally slightly underestimated compared with the experimental ones.
For the horizontal wave bending moments, the numerical results by 3-D Rankine source method
program are fairly good in agreement with experimental ones.
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5.0 5.0
Expt. Expt.
NK(3D) NK(3D)
4.0 KR(3D) 4.0 KR(3D)
CCS(3D) CCS(3D)
IRS(3D) IRS(3D)
3.0 3.0
P/ρgζA
P/ρgζA
2.0 2.0
1.0 1.0
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
λ/Lpp λ/Lpp
5.0
5.0 Expt.
Expt. NK(3D)
NK(3D) 4.0 KR(3D)
4.0 KR(3D) CCS(3D)
CCS(3D) IRS(3D)
IRS(3D) 3.0
P/ρgζA
3.0
P/ρgζA
2.0 2.0
1.0 1.0
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
λ/Lpp λ/Lpp
5.0
5.0 Expt.
Expt. NK(3D)
NK(3D) 4.0 KR(3D)
4.0 KR(3D) CCS(3D)
CCS(3D) IRS(3D)
IRS(3D) 3.0
P/ρgζA
3.0
P/ρgζA
2.0
2.0
1.0
1.0
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 λ/Lpp
λ/Lpp
Figure 17. Pressure at P10, Fn = 0.131,
Figure 16. Pressure at P6, Fn = 0.131, χ = 90 deg. χ = 90 deg.
It is confirmed that the numerical results of the pressure obtained by the four 3-D methods
program are generally agreed with the experimental ones quantitatively.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The experimental data used in the present study are obtained by a joint research project carried
by Nippon Kaiji Kyokai, the National Maritime Research Institute of Japan and the University of
Tokyo. The authors wish to gratefully acknowledge Dr. Iwao Watanabe of the National Maritime
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Research Institute of Japan, and Prof. Hiroshi Kagemoto of the University of Tokyo for their
permission to use the valuable experimental results in our study. Meanwhile, the first author thanks
Dr. Ryuji Miyake of Nippon Kaiji Kyokai, who assisted him in the accomplishment of the study.
REFERENCES
Brad, R. 1972. The representation of a given ship form by singularity distribution when the boundary condition
on the free surface is linearised; Journal of Ship Research 16: 79–92.
Faltinsen, O. & Michelsen, F.C. 1974. Motion of large structures in waves at zero Froude number; International
Symposium on the Dynamics of Marine Vehicles and Structures in Waves, London, 1974.
Ha, T.B. 2000. A three dimensional prediction of the seakeeping performance of high speed marine vehicles;
Ph.D. thesis, University of Strathclyde, UK.
Lin, W.M. & Yue, D.K.P. 1990. Numerical solutions for large amplitude ship motions in the time domain;
Proceedings of the 18th Symposium on Naval Hydrodynamics: 41–66. National Academy Press.
Mansour, A.E. & Ertekin, R.C. 2003. Proceedings of the 15th International Ship and Offshore Structures
Congress, San Diego, Elsevier.
Miyake, R., Zhu, T. & Kagemoto, H. 2001. On the Estimation of Wave-Induced Loads Acting on Practical
Merchant Ships by a Rankine Source Method; Journal of the Society of Naval Architects of Japan 190:
107–119.
Nakos, D.E. & Sclavounos, P.O. 1990. Ship Motions by a Three-Dimensional Rankine Panel Method;
Proceedings of the 18th Symposium on Naval Hydrodynamics: 21–40. National Academy Press.
Orihara, H. & Miyata, H. 2003. Evaluation of added resistance in regular incident waves by computational fluid
dynamics motion simulation using an overlapping grid system; Journal of Marine Science and Technology
8: 47–60.
Wehausen, J.V. & Laitone, E.V. 1960. Surface waves, Handbook der Physik: 9., Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
Xu, L., Zhang, W., Zhao, C., Xu, F. & Chen, Y. 2001. Ship Motions and sea loads by a 3D Rankin panel
method; Proceedings of the 8th International Symposium on Practical Design of Ships and Other Floating
Structures, Shanghai, 16–21 September 2001. Elsevier.
Zhu, T., Kumano, A., Shigemi, T. & Matsunami, R. 2002. Consideration of wave-induced loads for direct
strength calculation under extreme waves; Proceeding of 21st International Conference on Offshore
Mechanics and Arctic Engineering, Oslo, June 2002. OMAE ASME.
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Sloshing simulation of viscous liquid coupled with elastic structures
R.Q. Zhu
Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang City, Jiangsu Province, China
Y.S. Wu
China Ship Scientific Research Center, Wuxi City, Jiangsu Province, China
ABSTRACT: In this paper, a theory and a corresponding numerical technique to deal with the
coupled interactions between liquid sloshing and elastic structures have been produced. The liquid
motions are described with Navier-Stokes equations. The governing equations are discretized by
finite difference method with staggered girds and solved by SOR method. The profile of liquid
surface is reconstructed by a function of the volume of fluid in each computational step on the basis
of the volume of fluid (VOF) method. FAVOR technique is applied for considering the influence of
vibrations of structure of tank on fluid sloshing. A hydroelasticity theory is established to describe
the sloshing of viscous flow coupled with elastic structures. Using the theory and the numeri-
cal technique, a series of calculations are performed to observe the effects of different structural
rigidities of a 2D elastic tank to sloshing responses. The results are helpful to understand the
physical phenomena.
1 INTRODUCTION
The back and forth fluid motion in a partially filled tank is referred as liquid sloshing. Excessive
sloshing loads acting on the tank walls of a ship could produce local structural damage, loss
control of stability or maneuverability of the ship (Bass et al. 1980, Cleary 1982). The study
on liquid sloshing is motivated by increasing demands for LNG and LPG carriers, double-hull
tankers, moored FPSOs, and VLCCs, which have to encounter all the sea states in the region,
and consequently experience severe sloshing loads. In these floating structures, the influence of
dynamic distortion of the liquid tank on the sloshing behavior can usually be neglected. However
when the sloshing induced local structural strength is of great concern, as it appears in a LNG
vessel, the interaction between the fluid pressure and the structural deflections can no longer be
omitted.
The interactions between sloshing liquid and elastic tank structure were investigated in a consid-
erable amount of papers. Liu (1981, 1985, 1988) presented a variational principle for fluid-structure
interaction problems with sloshing, induced by both seismic and body forces. The author indicated
that from the functional thus developed, various fluid-structure interaction formulations may be
obtained. Kim et al. (1995) developed a technique for simulating structural response of a onboard
liquid tank using finite element method. Casella et al. (1996) and Lee & Choi (1999) also studied
the hydroelastic effects relevant to sloshing phenomenon of ships.
The present paper presents a hydroelasticity theory describing the sloshing of viscous fluid
coupled with tank structure based on the VOF (Volume of Fluid) method and the FAVOR (Frac-
tional Area Volume Obstacle Representation) technique. Numerical examples are illustrated for the
sloshing responses of a rigid tank and an elastic tank, both are two-dimensional. The influence of
structural rigidity on sloshing responses under the same excitation is discussed.
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chap-22 20/9/2004 16: 27 page 182
2 EQUATIONS OF MOTION OF STRUCTURE PRINCIPAL COORDINATES
Two coordinate systems employed to describe the fluid-structure interactions are shown in Figure 1.
Oxyz is an equilibrium set of axes; O x y z is an axis system fixed in the structure with the origin
at O such that it coincide with Oxyz in the absence of any disturbance.
A point P0 of the body in its equilibrium position moves to P in its dynamic responses. The
corresponding displacement may be decomposed into three parts: the translation of the O x y z
system uT with respect to the reference frame Oxyz, the rotation of the body uR with respect to
the O x y z system, and the distortion of the body uD defined in the body-fixed coordinate system
O x y z . These components are expressed respectively as follows
where the radius vectors of point P and P0 are rp = x e1 + y e2 + z e3 and rP0 = xe1 + ye2 + ze3 ;
T is the matrix of transformation between the two coordinate systems, caused by severe motion
of the body with large rotations. For a ship, it depends on three Eulerian angles, namely it’s roll,
pitch, and yaw. The sloshing problem in a liquid tank of a ship may be then described in these sets
of coordinate systems.
After discretization the nodal displacements U, and the displacement u at any point of the
structure may be represented with respect to the principal modes as
where Dr , ur0 and Qr (t) are the r-th principal mode of nodal displacement, point displacement, and
the r-th principal coordinate respectively.
The equations of motion in principal coordinates are
where a, b and c are generalized mass, damping and stiffness matrices of the structure respectively,
and ass ωs2 = css . G is the other generalized gravity force, and Z is the generalized fluid force
expressed as
y
z P
x
z
y O
x
O
Figure 1. Coordinate systems.
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where p, I, µ, and S are the pressure of viscous fluid field, the unit tensor, the coefficient of
dynamic viscosity, and the deformation tensor respectively. n̄ is the normal vector of the structure’s
wetted surface defined in Oxyz system.
3 CALCULATION OF FLUID FORCE

The liquid contained in the tank is assumed to be incompressible, homogenous Newtonian fluid
with constant density ρ and viscosity µ. The effect of air cousin enclosed in the tank, as well as
the cavitations and other phase change is neglected. The continuity equation and the transport of
fluid momentum equations expressed in Oxyz system are
where V = (u, v, w) is the velocity vector. g , ρ, p and µ are respectively the gravity acceleration,
the fluid density, the scalar pressure, and the coefficient of dynamic viscosity. F b is a virtual body
force due to motion of fluid domain. Meanwhile the non-slip condition of the viscous flow over
the solid boundary and the velocity and the pressure boundary conditions on the free surface have
to be satisfied.
For the spatial discretization, the fluid domain is divided into rectangular cells, with the discrete
field variables defined in the typical staggered grids (Fig. 2).
The governing equations (6) and (7) can be discretized as semi-implicit coupled finite difference
equations efficiently solved by the SOR (successive over-relaxation) method.
3.2 Free surface representation

Non-linear kinematic free surface conditions were adopted in the analysis of the sloshing fluid. The
profile of liquid surface was reconstructed in each time step by a scalar function of the volume of
fluid, F(x, y, z, t), on the basis of the VOF method. The average value of F in a cell of the computing
mesh is equal to the fractional volume of the cell occupied by liquid. Therefore the meaning of F
is as follows:
vi,j
ui-1,j Fi,j pi,j ui,j
vi-1,j
Figure 2. Staggered grid locations of field variables for cell (i, j).
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As a Lagrangian invariant, F should satisfy the scalar advection equation
Solving F-fluxes together with the equations of mass and moment conservation needs special
attention to preserve a sharp interface between liquid and void phases. The Donor-Acceptor flux
approximation method (Hirt and Nichols, 1981) is employed in the present approach to avoid the
numerical diffusion encountered in the usual finite-difference method.
4 FAVOR TECHNIQUE
The FAVOR technique (in some publications it is called Fluid Flow Aperture technique, Hirt and
Sicilian, 1985) is employed to account for thy structural deformation of the tank in the sloshing
simulation. According to FAVOR, geometry of the structure is defined within the liquid grid by
computing the fractional face areas and fractional volumes of each element that are blocked by
static or moving ‘obstacles’. When an obstacle occupies a fraction of the computational domain,
the governing equations of fluid motion (6) and (7) may be rewritten in a Cartesian co-ordinate
system as
where ∀, Ax , Ay and Az are respectively the fractional volume and the fractional areas in x-,
y- and z-directions open to flow defined in the central or on the boundaries of each cell, and
(u1 , u2 , u3 ) = (u, v, w), (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (x, y, z).
Compared with the method using body-fitted grids, this technique retains the simplicity of
direct representation of obstacle within rectangular Cartesian grids, while representing complex
geometric shapes at a level consistent with the use of averaged flow quantities within each volume
element. However it requires a relatively large number of cells for numerical purposes.
In accordance the advection equation (9) is of the form
When neglecting volume-of-fluid source terms, namely taking F = 1, this equation becomes the
continuity equation.
5 HYDROELASTICITY ANALYSIS
When the dynamics of a tanker, or a LNG vessel traveling in high sea states is concerned, the
interaction problems between the liquid sloshing, the compartment distortions, the ship motions
and the surrounding waves may probably be solved as a coupled entirety by employing the presently
proposed methods together with the existing hydroelasticity theories of ships (for example, Bishop,
Price and Wu, 1985). If only examining the sloshing-structure interactions induced by a prescribed
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6
Presure(KPa)
5 Pressure at middle of left wall

4
3
2
1
0
16 17 18 19 20
time(Sec)
4
Presure(KPa)
3
Pressure at 3/4 height of left wall
2
1
0
-1
16 17 18 19 20
time(Sec)
7
Pressure at top height of left wall
6
Presure(KPa)
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1
16 17 18 19 20
time(Sec)
Figure 3a. Calculated pressure on the wall. Figure 3b. Tested results (Arai, 1984).
forced excitation, the corresponding hydroelasticity analyses may be performed based on the meth-
ods summarized above, without including the hydroelastic analysis of an entire ship in waves. The
hydroelastic equation (4) is solved by employing Admas-Bashforth prediction-correction method
and the time advancement technique. The coupled fluid forces are iteratively solved by the numerical
method described in Section 3 and 4.
6 NUMERICAL EXAMPLES
6.1 Sloshing in a rigid tank experiencing forced rolling

The two-dimensional rigid tank model numerically investigated and tested by Arai (1984) was taken
as the example for the present analysis. The tank is of the length 0.9 m and height 0.6 m, partially
filled with water (ν = 1.14 × 10−6 m2 /s) of the depth 0.6 m, and excited by a sinusoidal rolling with
frequency 0.89 Hz and amplitude 4◦ . Figure 3a exhibited the time variations of sloshing induced
pressure at three positions of the tank wall predicted by the present method. Figure 3b shows the
corresponding test results (Arai, 1984).
6.2 Sloshing in an elastic tank partially filled with viscous fluid

6.2.1 The model
The sloshing phenomenon of an elastic tank partially filled with liquid under the excitation of
forced rolling is simulated. For simplify the liquid motion and the structural distortion is assumed
two dimensional, implying neglect of influence along longitudinal direction. The particulars of the
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Table 1. Particulars of the model.

Dimensions of the tank
Width 0.90 m Table 2. Natural frequencies of tank structure and
Height 0.60 m the resonant frequencies of liquid sloshing.
Liquid depth 0.45 m
Parameters of the rolling excitation Natural frequencies Resonant frequencies
Amplitude 4.0 degree of tank structure of liquid sloshing
Frequencies 0.45, 0.80, 0.89 Hz No. (Hz) (Hz)
Plate thickness of the tank wall 1 1.29 0.892
At the top 0.0015 m 2 3.26 1.314
At the bottom 0.0020 m 3 4.13 1.613
On the left and right 0.0010 m 4 9.27 1.862
Physical parameters of the plates 5 11.599 2.082
Young’s modulus 210000 MPa 6 11.902 2.281
Density of plates 7800 kg/m3 7 15.622 2.464
Poisson coefficient 0.29 8 23.191 2.634
0.003
0.0025 f1=0.45Hz
(a) f2=0.8Hz 1E-05
0.002 f3=0.89Hz
f1=0.45Hz
(b) f2=0.8Hz
0.0015 7.5E-06 f3=0.89Hz
0.001
5E-06
0.0005
Q1(m)
Q5(m)
2.5E-06
0
-0.0005 0
-0.001
-2.5E-06
-0.0015
-0.002 -5E-06
-0.0025
24 25 26 27 28 27 27.1 27.2 27.3 27.4 27.5
Time(Sec) Time(Sec)
5E-06
1.4E-07 f1=0.45Hz
f1=0.45Hz f2=0.8Hz
4E-06 f2=0.8Hz 1.2E-07 (d)
(c) f3=0.89Hz f3=0.89Hz
3E-06 1E-07
8E-08
2E-06
6E-08
Q7(mv)
Q9(m)
1E-06 4E-08
0 2E-08
0
-1E-06
-2E-08
-2E-06
-4E-08
-3E-06 -6E-08
-4E-06
27 27.25 27.5 27.75 28 27 27.25 27.5 27.75 28
Time(Sec) Time(Sec)
Figure 4. Time history of the principal coordinates.
tank, natural frequencies of the structure, and resonant frequencies of the liquid sloshing are given
in Table 1–2.
6.2.2 The coupled structural responses

The tank was excited by forced rolling with angular amplitude θ = 4◦ , and three frequencies,
f1 = 0.45 Hz, f2 = 0.8 Hz and f3 = 0.89 Hz. Obviously f3 is close to one of the resonant frequencies
of liquid sloshing. Examples of numerical results of the principal coordinates are shown in Figure 4.
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0.01 0.03 0.04
0.009
f1=0.45Hz Q1 f2=0.8Hz Q1 f3=0.89Hz Q1
0.035
0.025
0.008
0.007
(a) (b) 0.03 (c)
Amplitude(m)
Amplitude(m)
0.02
Amplitude(m)
0.025
0.006
0.005 0.015 0.02
0.004 0.015
0.01
0.003
0.01
0.002
0.005
0.005
0.001
0 0 0
0 0.5 1 15
. 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Frequency(Hz) Frequency(Hz) Frequency(Hz)
Figure 5.1.
2E-06 6E-05
f1=0.45Hz Q5 f2=0.8Hz Q5 0.00015 f3=0.89Hz Q5
1.75E-06
(a) 5E-05 (b) 0.000125 (c)
1.5E-06
4E-05
Amplitude(m)
Amplitude(m)
Amplitude(m)
1.25E-06 0.0001
1E-06 3E-05 7.5E-05
7.5E-07
2E-05 5E-05
5E-07
1E-05 2.5E-05
2.5E-07
0 0 0
0 3 6 9 12 15 0 3 6 9 12 15 0 3 6 9 12 15
Figure 5.2. Spectrum of the principal coordinates of mode 5.
3E-05 5E-05
3E-05
f1=0.45Hz Q7 f2=0.8Hz Q7 f3=0.89Hz Q7
4E-05 2.5E-05
2E-05 (a) (b) (c)

Amplitude(m)
Amplitude(m)
Amplitude(m)
2E-05
3E-05
1.5E-05
2E-05
1E-05 1E-05
1E-05
5E-06
0 0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
5E-07 1E-06
f2=0.8Hz Q9
f1=0.45Hz Q9 9E-07 f3=0.89Hz Q9
4E-07 7.5E-07 8E-07
7E-07
Amplitude(m)
Amplitude(m)
Amplitude(m)
3E-07 (a) (b) 6E-07 (c)

5E-07
5E-07
2E-07 4E-07
3E-07
2.5E-07
1E-07 2E-07
1E-07
0 0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
Apparently the principal coordinates, therefore the structural responses, are greatly influenced by
the rolling frequencies. This is even more pronounced in the frequency spectra of the principal
coordinates, as shown in Figure 5, where (a), (b), and (c) are the amplitude spectra of principal
coordinates excited at rolling frequencies 0.45, 0.8 and 0.89 Hz respectively.
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0.00015 5E-06
D1 5E-06 D2 D3
f3=0.89Hz Q2 f3=0.89Hz Q2 f=0.89Hz Q2
0.000125
4E-06 4E-06
0.0001
Amplitude(m)
Amplitude(m)
Amplitude(m)
3E-06 3E-06
7.5E-05
2E-06 2E-06
5E-05
2.5E-05 1E-06 1E-06
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0
0 5 10 15 20
Figure 6.1. The influence of structural rigidity on the principal coordinate Q2 .
1.5E-05
0.0002
D1 1.1E-05 D2 D3
1.25E-05
f3=0.89Hz Q4 1E-05 f3=0.89Hz Q4 f3=0.89Hz Q2
0.00016
9E-06
1E-05
8E-06
Amplitude(m)
Amplitude(m)
Amplitude(m)
0.00012 7E-06
6E-06 7.5E-06
5E-06
8E-05
4E-06 5E-06
3E-06
4E-05 2.5E-06
2E-06
1E-06
0 0 0
0 3 6 9 12 15 0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30 40 50
Figure 6.2. The influence of structural rigidity on the principal coordinate Q4 .
The following conclusions may be drawn from the numerical results:
1) The amplitude of principal coordinate of first mode is always larger than other’s for about two
orders whatever the rolling frequency is (Fig. 4).
2) All frequency spectra of the principal coordinates exhibit discrete spectra at the frequencies which
are either the exciting rolling frequencies, or the resonant frequencies of the liquid sloshing, or
the natural frequencies of the tank structure (Fig. 5).
3) It is worth noticing that at the exciting frequencies 0.8 and 0.89 Hz, which are close to the first
resonant frequency of liquid sloshing, many discrete spectra of the principal coordinates are
observed. These discrete spectra would cause the reduction of structural fatigue life of the tank.
4) At the excitation of rolling frequencies 0.8 and 0.89 Hz, narrowband responses occur in high
frequency regime of 15 Hz upwards (Figs 5.3 and 5.4). The corresponding time histories show
great oscillations (Figs 4c and d). This phenomenon exhibits that a harmonic excitation at
a prescribed frequency may generate nonlinear dynamic interactions between the sloshing of
viscous liquid and the structure with a spread frequency bandwidth.
5) Although the deflections and strains of the tank structure are not shown in the figures, it is
apparent that they strongly depend on the principal coordinates. It is also observed that when
the deformation of the structure is not large (just within the same scale of the fluid cell), the
structural effect to sloshing motion of the liquid is not obvious.
6.2.3 The influence of structural rigidity on the tank-liquid interactions

Three tanks with same dimensions but different plate thickness are analyzed to investigate the
influence of structural rigidity on sloshing responses. The first one (D1) is of the original plate
thickness as shown in Table 1. The second (D2) and the third (D3) are of the plate thickness twice
and third times of the original respectively. The tanks are forced to roll with frequency of 0.89 Hz
and amplitude of 4◦ . The numerical results of the principal coordinates of the second and the fourth
modes are shown in Figures 6.1 and 6.2. The figures show that the increase of rigidity would
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greatly reduce the value of the discrete spectra of principal coordinates. However the reduction is
not proportional to the increase of rigidity.
Although sloshing induced structural deflections of liquid apartments of a ship are usually small,
and may not apparently influence the sloshing motions, the importance of hydroelastic analysis
of sloshing responses of a liquid container actually relies on the advantage that it predicts simul-
taneously both the hydrodynamic behaviors and the structural responses (deformations, strains,
stresses, and internal forces). The results of the simple tank model simulated in this paper really
exhibit that the method presented in this paper can reasonably predict the interaction phenomena
between the liquid sloshing and the elastic structure, and hence may be used to examine the safety
of the structure. The numerical simulations also indicate that sloshing loads will generate abundant
discrete frequency components of structural responses, corresponding to the excitation frequen-
cies, the resonant frequencies of the liquid sloshing, and the natural frequencies of the structure.
Apart from these components, the structural deformations would be nonlinear, characterized by
the occurrence of narrowband responses in high frequency regime. Therefore attention should be
given to fatigue analyses of the apartment structure for a ship sustaining sloshing in waves.
REFERENCES
Arai, M. 1984. Experimental and numerical studies of sloshing pressure in liquid cargo tanks. Journal of the
Society of Naval Architects of Japan 155: 114–121.
Bass, R.L., Bowles, E.B. & Cox, P.A. 1980. Liquid dynamic loads in LNG cargo tanks. SNAME Transactions
88: 103–126.
Bishop, R.E.D., Price, W.G. & Wu, Y. 1986. A general linear hydroelasticity theory of floating structures
moving in a seaway. Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. London, 316 (A1538, A316 375–426).
Casella, G., Sebastiani, L. & Valdenazzi, F. 1996. Fluid-structure interaction in numerical simulation of liquid
sloshing. Cetena International Seminar on Hydroelasticity for ship structural design, Genoa, Italy (Feb.
1996).
Cleary, W.A. Jr. 1982. Subdivision, Stability, Liability. Marine Technology 18: 38–50.
Hirt, C.W. & Nichols, B.D. 1981.Volume of fluid (VOF) method for the dynamics of free surface fluid flows.
J Comput Phys. 39: 201–225.
Hirt, C.W. & Sicilian, J.M. 1985. A porosity technique for the definition of obstacles in rectangular cell meshes.
In: Proceedings of Fourth Int. Conf. Ship Hydrodynamics. Washington: National Academy of Science.
Kim, J.Y., Lee, K.J., Kang, J.M., Yum, D.J., Seol, Y.S., Rashed, S. & Kawahara 1995. A Simulation of 3-D
sloshing and structural response in ship’s tank. The 6th International Symposium on Practical Design of
Ships and Mobile Units pp. 17–22.
Lee, D.Y. & Choi, H.S. 1999. Study on sloshing in cargo tanks including hydroelastic effects. J. Mar. Sci.
Technol. 4 (1)
Liu, W.K. 1981. Finite Element Procedures for Fluid-Structure Interactions and Applications to Liquid Storage
Tanks. Journal of Nuclear Engineering and Design 65: 221–238.
Liu, W.K. 1985. A Method of Computation for Fluid Structure Interaction. Journal of Computers and Structures
20: 311–320.
Liu, W.K. & Uras, R.A. 1988. Variational approach to fluid–structure interaction with sloshing fluid. Nuclear
Eng. 106 (1): 69–85.
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Coastal engineering
chap-23 20/9/2004 16: 27 page 193

Transverse waves in a channel with decreasing width
Li-Mei Deng & Allen T. Chwang

Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
ABSTRACT: Previous studies have shown that transverse waves may occur when the wavelength
of incident waves and the channel width satisfy certain specific conditions. The effect of channel
width on the excitation and development of transverse waves is investigated experimentally in this
study. The experiments are carried out in a long channel, in which seven Plexiglas plates are used
to adjust the width of the cross section. The width of the water channel decreases as the distance
from the wavemaker increases. Incident regular waves are generated by a computer-controlled
piston-type wavemaker at one end of the channel and propagate away along the channel. By means
of capacitance-type wave gauges and using the transfer function method based on the linear wave
theory, the evolution of transverse waves down the channel is studied. It is shown that the variation
of transverse-wave amplitude decreases as the cross-section width decreases. The mode number
is found to be correlated with the width of the cross section. The behavior of transverse waves in
different cross sections is shown graphically. The effect of channel width on transverse waves is
also discussed.
1 INTRODUCTION
Transverse waves were observed by Zhu (1999a) in a small, fixed water flume where the incident
waves propagated along the flume. Zhu and Chwang (2000) conducted a series of experiments in
a 30 cm wide wave flume and took the initial effort to give a theoretical explanation on transverse
waves. They found that a transverse wave generally has the same frequency as that of the incident
wave and it took place when the wavelength of the incident wave is less than or equal to twice of
the width of the wave flume. The interaction between incident waves and their oblique reflection of
relatively short waves was suggested to be the reason for the occurrence of transverse waves (Zhu
and Chwang 2000).
Similar phenomena include cross-waves and sloshing waves. They are all standing waves oscil-
lating between the sidewalls of a channel. Cross-waves are generated when a plane wavemaker
operates in a rectangular channel and produces propagating plane waves. Cross-waves have been
proved to have a frequency that is one-half that of the wavemaker (Garret 1970, Barnard and
Pritchard 1972, Mahony 1972, Jones 1984, Miles 1988). Sloshing waves, however, are created
when the container is subjected to a periodic horizontal oscillation. Sloshing waves have the same
frequency as that of the container oscillation (Barnard et al. 1977, Shemer et al. 1987, Kit et al.
1987, Shemer and Kit 1988). Cross-waves and sloshing waves are comparable with transverse
waves. Cross-waves are similar to transverse waves in lacking a container oscillation, but differ in
having a different wave frequency. On the other hand, sloshing waves resemble transverse waves in
having the same wave frequency as the excitation frequency. However, the source of excitation is
different: a container periodical oscillation for sloshing waves and an incident wave for transverse
waves.
We have done a series of experiments in a rectangular channel and found that transverse waves
were excited under certain conditions and the maximum amplitude of transverse waves occurred
when the channel width was an integer multiple of the half-wavelength of incident waves. The
frequency and amplitude of incident waves were found to affect the generation of transverse waves
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θ
L
• • • • • •
• • • • • • • • d
• • • • • •
Figure 1. The position of wave gages in the channel.
in a rectangular channel. From the theoretical analysis of Zhu and Chwang (2000), transverse waves
occur when the wavelength of an incident wave is less than or equal to twice the channel width. In
the present work, the width effect is studied experimentally. The experiments are performed in a
converging channel with rectangular cross-sections to investigate the width effect on the excitation
of transverse waves and to study the amplitude variation of transverse waves with the width of the
cross section.
2 EXPERIMENTAL CONFIGURATION
Experiments are performed in a water channel 12 m long, 0.73 m wide and 0.90 m deep, in which
water is filled up to a mean depth of 0.40 m. A piston-type wavemaker at one end of the channel is
used to generate regular incident waves. At another end of the channel, a porous plate and plastic
parings are applied to absorb the reflected waves. Seven aligned Plexiglas plates, totally 7.8 m
long (indicated as L), are fixed in the channel and make the width of the cross section decrease
as the distance from the wavemaker increases (see Fig. 1). The maximum cross section is near the
wavemaker where the width is 73 cm. At the narrowest cross section, which is near the endwall
of the channel, the adjusted width d is 23 cm. It makes the angle θ between the sidewall and the
sloping Plexiglas plates about 3.7 degrees. Three capacitance-type wave gages are fixed separately
in the same cross section at the width of 37 cm, 43.8 cm, 50 cm, 57 cm, 62 cm and 68.5 cm in the
experiments as shown in Fig. 1 (black dots indicate the wave gages). The auto-collecting system
continually collects signals from the wave gages at a rate of 50 Hz.
In the experiments, the wavemaker is kept vertical throughout the motion and plane progressive
waves are generated in the channel. The wave period ranges from 0.45 sec to 1.0 sec. The wave
height of the incident waves is chosen as 2 cm, 3 cm, 4 cm, 5 cm and 6 cm in order to avoid severe
nonlinear effects. Some specific periods such as 0.685 sec, 0.559 sec, 0.484 sec and 0.470 sec
are selected as the testing periods according to previous experiments carried out in a rectangular
channel with the same absorbing equipments.
As conducted in a rectangular channel, incident waves generated by the wavemaker propagate along
the channel and the reflection-wave energy is absorbed by the absorbing materials at the end of
the channel. According to previous experiments, it is known that transverse waves with the crests
normal to the wavemaker occur at some discrete frequencies and amplitudes. Figures 2, 3 and 4 show
the first three modes of transverse waves in the original channel without absorbing materials. The
mode number is an integer multiple of the half-wavelength in the channel width. When absorbing
materials are placed at the end of the channel, transverse waves with a lower amplitude still occur.
To study the width effect on the occurrence of transverse waves, the width of the cross section is
varied with distance from the wavemaker by vertical Plexiglas plates. It is found that transverse
waves also occur in the channel with decreasing cross sections. But transverse waves occur only in
a region near the wavemaker which is different from that occurred in a rectangular channel. In a
rectangular channel, transverse waves occur in the whole channel, while in a converging channel,
transverse waves did not appear at certain width.
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Figure 2. Photograph of the first-mode (N = 1) oscillation.
Figure 3. Photograph of the second-mode (N = 2) oscillation.
Because of the geometrical change, the occurrence frequency of transverse waves is also changed.
The occurrence frequency of transverse waves becomes less compared with that in a rectangular
channel. At periods of 1.0 sec, 0.685 sec and 0.559 sec, transverse waves occurred in the original
channel, but in a converging channel, the amplitude of transverse waves is too small to be captured.
However, transverse waves obviously occur in the range of periods from 0.463 sec to 0.512 sec.
From the experiments, it is observed that the maximum amplitude of transverse waves occurs near
the wavemaker, where the width is the largest.
To study the evolution of transverse waves down the channel, transverse waves are assumed to
be regular waves in the cross section and the free surface elevation is assumed to consist of three
parts: the progressive incident plane wave, the corresponding reflected wave and the transverse
wave. When transverse waves occur, the maximum water elevation varies at different locations.
Based on the assumption that the incident wave and the reflected wave keep constant before and
after the occurrence of the transverse wave, the amplitude of transverse waves can be approximately
obtained by employing the transfer function method based on the linear wave theory (Zhu 1999b,
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Figure 4. Photograph of the third-mode (N = 3) oscillation.
Table 1. The amplitude of transverse waves at different cross sections.
Amplitude at different widths α (cm) (A = 2 cm)

Period Frequency
T (sec) f (Hz) W = 37.0 W = 43.8 W = 50.0 W = 57.0 W = 62.0 W = 68.5
0.500 2.00 0.00 0.40 0.79 0.83 1.23 1.29

0.484 2.07 0.00 0.56 0.57 0.65 1.14 1.45
0.470 2.13 0.00 0.94 0.98 1.04 1.46 1.61
1.8
1.6
1.4
Amplitude (cm)
1.2
1
0.8
T=0.50 sec
0.6
T=0.484 sec
0.4
T=0.47 sec
0.2
0
30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75
Width (cm)
Figure 5. The amplitude of transverse waves at different cross sections.
Zhu and Chwang 2001). Table 1 shows the amplitude of transverse waves at different cross sections
with different widths, when the incident wave amplitude is 2 cm.
The behavior of transverse waves at different cross sections is shown graphically in Fig. 5. From
this figure, it is noted that the amplitude of transverse waves decreases with a decrease of the
channel width. At certain width of the cross section, no transverse waves can be observed. Among
the tested locations, transverse waves cannot be observed at the width of 37 cm.
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Figure 6. The mode of transverse waves in a converging channel.
4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
The occurrence of transverse waves in response to the change in geometry is studied experimentally.
It is known from the analysis of Zhu and Chwang (2000) that transverse waves occur when the
wavelength of incident waves is equal to or less than twice the channel width. The channel width is
found to have an effect on the occurrence of transverse waves in the present experiments. By placing
vertical Plexiglas plates in the channel, the width is made smaller than that of the original channel
and a higher frequency is needed to excite transverse waves. This explains why transverse waves
cannot occur at periods of 0.685 sec and 0.559 sec (transverse waves occur in a rectangular channel),
but occur at periods of 0.50 sec, 0.484 sec and 0.47 sec. At smaller periods (higher frequencies),
transverse waves can be excited, but they only appear near the wavemaker because the width there
is large enough. The amplitude of transverse waves decreases as the distance from the wavemaker
increases. When the width reduces to a certain value, the excitation of transverse waves becomes
difficult. In the experiments, transverse waves cannot be observed at the place where the width
is 37 cm. The mode number also varies with width in the experiments, which is correlated to the
channel width and the wavelength of the incident wave. Due to the limitation of decreased channel
width, the clear mode of transverse waves is the first mode, which can be observed near the wave-
maker shown in Figure 6.
In conclusion, the occurrence frequency of transverse waves in a converging channel is different
from that in a channel of constant rectangular cross section. In a converging channel, short incident
waves are easier to excite transverse waves. The amplitude of transverse waves decreases along the
converging channel and becomes zero at a certain width.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors greatly appreciate Dr. Yuhai Chen and Mr. Toman Mok for their technical assistance
during the preparation of experimental equipment. This research was sponsored by the Hong Kong
Research Grants Council under Grant Number HKU 7076/02E.
REFERENCES
Barnard, B.J.S., Mahony, J.J. & Pritchard, W.G. 1977. The excitation of surface waves near a cut-off frequency.
Phil. Trans. R. Soc. London, A 286: 87–124.
197
chap-23 20/9/2004 16: 27 page 198
Barnard, B.J.S. & Pritchard, W.G. 1972. Cross-waves. Part 2. Experiments. J. Fluid Mech. 55: 245–255.
Garrett, C.J.R. 1970. On cross-waves. J. Fluid Mech. 41: 837–849.
Jones, A.F. 1984. The generation of cross-waves in a long deep channel by parametric resonance. J. Fluid
Mech. 138: 53–74.
Kit, E., Shemer, L. & Miloh, T. 1987. Experimental and theoretical investigation of nonlinear sloshing waves
in a rectangular channel. J. Fluid Mech. 181: 265–291.
Mahony, J.J. 1972. Cross-waves. Part 1. Theory. J. Fluid Mech. 55: 229–244.
Miles, J.W. 1988. Parametrically excited, standing cross-waves. J. Fluid Mech. 186: 119–127.
Shemer, L. & Kit, E. 1988. Study of the role of dissipation in evolution of nonlinear sloshing waves in a
rectangular channel. Fluid Dyn. Res. 4: 89–105.
Shemer, L., Kit, E. & Miloh, T. 1987. Measurements of two-dimensional waves in a channel, including the
vicinity of cut-off frequencies. Experiments in Fluids 5: 66–72.
Zhu, S. 1999a. Interaction between waves and porous seawalls. PhD thesis. The University of Hong Kong.
Zhu, S. 1999b. Separation of regular waves by a transfer function method. Ocean Eng. 26: 1435–1446.
Zhu, S. & Chwang, A.T. 2000. Transverse waves in laboratory wave flume. InY. Goda, M. Ikehata & K. Suzuki,
(ed.), Hydrodynamics IV: theory and applications; Proc. 4th Int. Conf. Hydro., Yokohama, 7–9 September
2000. Yokohama: ICHD2000 Local Organizing Committee.
Zhu, S. & Chwang, A.T. 2001. Estimation of laboratory wave reflection by a transfer function method. J. Eng.
Mech., ASCE, 127: 300–304.
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Evaluation of cost function in wave data assimilation with WAM
N. Hashimoto
Port and Airport Research Institute, Kanagawa, Japan
K. Matsuura
Japan Weather Association, Toshima-Ku, Tokyo, Japan
ABSTRACT: The third generation wave model, WAM Cycle 5, was modified to improve accuracy
of wave hindcasting by incorporating the adjoint method with assuming the initial wave condition,
i.e., the initial spatial distribution of the significant wave height, as its control variables. Some
examinations were carried out to evaluate effectiveness of the cost function composed of both the
observation error term and the background error term. As a result, it was found that the effective
assimilated sea area extends with increasing the correlation coefficients of the covariance matrix
of the background error. The effective area also extends when wave observation points are properly
distributed apart from each other. The examinations of applying the data assimilation to wave
observation data show that the hindcasted wave heights are corrected to approach the observed
wave heights and the hindcasting accuracy is surely improved.
1 INTRODUCTION
Recently, third generation wave models, particularly WAM, SWAN and Wave Watch III, are now
widely used in many countries. However, when we apply these models in practical applications and
then the prediction accuracy is not satisfactory, it is still common that we modify the parameters
in the models or the wind field itself by trial and error manner by comparing the numerical results
with the observation data. On the other hand, an excellent data assimilation technique has been
developed, and has been used in various fields recently. The data assimilation is a vital technique
to connect the model with the reality when we try to reproduce the natural phenomena by the
model and verify them with the data. However, in order to utilize the maximum effect of the data
assimilation technique and obtain reliable numerical results, not only the performance of a numeric
model but also the performance of the data assimilation technique bears the key role.
Hersbach (1998) applied the adjoint method to WAM with the object to get a better insight into
numerical values of several model parameters in the WAM source terms. Kobayashi et al. (2003)
applied the adjoint method to WAM with assuming the open boundary conditions of directional
spectra as the control parameters for the data assimilation. However, they took into account only
the observation error without considering the background error in the cost function that controls the
performance of the data assimilation. On the other hand, in the field of atmospheric research, the
data assimilation has been used to correct the initial state from which the forecast start, where not
only the observation error but also the background error is taken into account. In wave modeling,
in fact, under the condition of sufficient spin up computation, the initial condition is not so crucial
compared to the weather prediction. However, in this study, as the first step of developing a new
wave model incorporated with the data assimilation technique, we apply the adjoint method to WAM
Cycle 5 (Hersbach, 1998) with some modifications capable of correcting the initial sea state, and
discuss the effect of the background error in the cost function through numerical simulations. We
also examine the efficiency of the adjoint method by applying it to the field wave data.
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2 WAM CYCLE 5 AND ADWAM
WAM Cycle 5 is a partially improved wave model of WAM Cycle 4, i.e., the numerical integration
scheme and a limiter were changed. The implicit difference equation is given by
where F represents the spectral density with respect to frequency f and direction θ, S represents
the energy source function as a superposition of the wind input, nonlinear energy transfer, white-
capping dissipation, and bottom dissipation, t is the time step and the index n refers to the time
level. The value of α should be taken between 0 and 1.
Though the choice of α = 1/2 was made in WAM Cycle 4, Hersbach and Jannsen (1999) made
the choice of α = 1 since the value α = 1/2 could give rise to some numerical noise in the calculation
of the wave stress and α = 1/2 can mostly suppress these fluctuations.
In addition, in WAM cycle 4, the numerical scheme is not always stable at high frequencies near
the model cut-off, and as a safeguard, a limiter on the increments of F has been imposed. Hersbach
and Jannsen (1999) found that the limiter gave rise to incorrect results of underpredicts when using
very fine grids and time steps, and proposed the following limiter.
∗ ∗
where ũ∗ = max(u∗ , gfPM /f ) and fPM = 5.6 × 10−3 is the dimensionless Pierson-Moskowitz peak
frequency.
WAM Cycle 5 is composed of the updated WAM code and its adjoint code, ADWAM, developed
by Hersbach (1998). For normal applications of wave hindcasting, the WAM code is used and the
energy balance equation is integrated in the forward direction of time t (forward run), while for data
assimilation, the ADWAM code is used and the equation is integrated in the reverse direction of
time t (adjoint run) to obtain the information with respect to the control parameters to be modified
for data assimilation.
Hersbach (1998) applied an automatic adjoint code generator (Giering, 1995) to the WAM code
and constructed the ADWAM code for inverse modeling with the object to get a better insight into
the numerical values of several model parameters in the WAM source terms.
3 ADJOINT METHOD AND COST FUNCTION
The Adjoint method can deal with the parameters including the nonlinearity in the model and
can estimate the optimum values of the control parameters for data assimilation as the maximum
likelihood estimate. In the weather prediction, in its general form, the cost function to correct the
initial state is usually defined as the sum of background error term and observation error terms as
follows. The optimum values of the control parameters are estimated by minimizing it.
where the first term of the right hand side is background error of the initial state and the second term
is the sum of the observation errors at each observation time. x0 is the vector of initial model state,
x0b is the background initial model state (the first guess), and yi0 is the vectors of observations at the
time ti . Hi is the matrix of the operator that converts the model state xi into ŷi . B is the covariance
matrix of the background errors and Ri is the covariance matrix of the observation errors, and are
expressed as follows, respectively:
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where <> denotes the ensemble average, x0b and yi0 are the vector of the background errors
and observation errors, respectively.
In order to obtain the optimum value of x0 , the minimization of the cost function must be
performed. Generally, analytical approach is difficult for the minimization. Instead, a method of
descent is usually applied, which requires the following descendent value of the cost function.
To compute ∇x J (x0 ), the transpose of the operator matrix, Hit , has to be computed. This matrix
corresponds to the adjoint operator H∗ of the tangent liner operator of H. In the actual computation
of Equation (5), however, ∇x J (x0 ) is directly computed through the adjoint run with the adjoint
model code. For constructing the adjoint code of WAM, we used AMC (Adjoint Model Compiler,
Giering, 1995). For the minimization of Equation (3), a descent method with Quasi-Newton Method
is used.
Incidentally, in the Hersbach’s WAM Cycle 5, the minimization of the cost function composed
of only the observation errors enables an appropriate correction of the control parameters since
the number of the control parameters is fewer than that of the observation data. In this study,
however, we adopted the initial sea state as the control parameters, the number of which is much
larger than that of the observation data. This is so called an ill-conditional inverse problem, and the
minimization of the cost function composed of only the observation errors leads to the unstable
computation. This necessitates the introduction of the term of the background error in the cost
function, which imposes the restriction condition that the optimum control parameters should exist
in the vicinity of the initial guess of the computation.
4 NUMERICAL EXAMINATIONS OF BACKGROUND ERROR
We examined the effect of the background error in the cost function by the numerical simulations.
Here, the spatial distribution of the correlation coefficient of the covariance matrix of the back-
ground error is assumed to be in inverse proportion to the distance, and three types of the functions
are assumed as (1) 40/xij , (2) 80/xij , and (3) 120/xij as shown in Figure 1, where the maximum
coefficient is one and xij is the distance (km) between the two computational grid points. For com-
parison, we also examined the case of the unit matrix I for the covariance matrix of background
error with disregarding the off-diagonal components.
The numerical simulations were carried out on the 21 × 21 grid points with the grid interval
of 110 km, where the 5 × 21 grid points on the left side are assumed to be the land area and the
remaining area is the sea area as shown in Figure 2(a). The numerical integration time interval
1.0
0.9 40
Correlation coefficient
0.8 80
0.7 120
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Distance (km)
Figure 1. Correlation coefficient as a function of distance.
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Land Sea
Area Area
(a) Computation area (b) Case 1 (c) Case 2
(d) Case 3 (e) Case 4 (f) Case 5
Figure 2. Initial spatial distribution of significant wave height for rectangular sea (unit: m).
Table 1. Conditions of numerical computations.
Form of Number of Integration

Case background error observation points time
1 non 1 6 hours
2 unit matrix 1 6 hours
3 80/x 1 6 hours
4 80/x 1 12 hours
5 80/x 2 12 hours
was 30 minutes and the data assimilations were executed for 6 hours and 12 hours under the same
wind condition of the wind speed of 10 m/s from the left to the right direction in Figure 2(a).
Table 1 shows the conditions of the numerical simulations. From Case 1 to Case 4, the wave data
are assumed to be observed at the single wave observation point indicated with the filled black
circle in Figure 2(a), while in Case 5, the wave data are assumed to be observed at the two wave
observation points indicated with open white circles in Figure 2(a).
In the following, we only show an example of investigating the effect of the background error,
where the observed wave height is assumed to be 1.5 times larger than the initial guess of the
forward run. The reason why we, on purpose, assumed 1.5 times larger value for the observed wave
height is to confirm the effective assimilated area as a function of space and time more clearly. For
the covariance matrix of the observation error, the unit matrix is assumed under the condition that
the errors of the wave observation data are independent each other. Because of the page limitation,
here, we limit the discussion only on the case of (2) 80/xij .
Figure 2(b) shows the inversely estimated initial wave condition, i.e., the initial spatial distribu-
tion of the significant wave height. The data assimilation was carried out under the condition of
Case 1, i.e., the minimization of the cost function composed of only the observation error was done
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140 141 142 143 144 145 146 140 141 142 143 144 145 146
43 43
42 42
41 41
40 40
39 39
38 38
37 37
36 36
(a) The first guess of the initial distribution (b) The assimilated initial distribution
of significant wave height of significant wave height
(before assimilation) (after assimilation)
Figure 3. Comparison of initial distribution of significant wave height (Left: before assimilation, Right: after
assimilation).
without taking account of the background error. While, Figure 2(c) and (d) are the ones assimilated
under the conditions of Case 2 and Case 3, respectively. Comparing (b) with (c) and (d), it is found
that the spatial variation in the significant wave height of (b) is locally larger than those of (c) and
(d). This is because the initial wave condition of (b) is corrected so as to minimize the difference
between the assimilated wave height and the observed wave height without considering the initial
guess (background error). As seen in (c), it is also found that the spatial variation of initial wave
field becomes smoother by taking into account the background error. Moreover, comparing (c)
with (d), it is found that the introduction of the cross-correlation components in the covariance
matrix of the background error makes the assimilated area larger. It is matter of course that the
effective assimilated area becomes larger by integrating longer time for assimilation as seen in (d)
and (e). Comparison of (e) with (f) also shows that the effective assimilated area becomes larger
when the plural numbers of observation points are distributed with an appropriate distances.
5 EXAMINATION FOR WAVE OBSERVATION DATA
We applied the adjoint wave model to the northeast coast of main island of Japan. Figure 3 shows
the computation area ranging from 36◦ N to 43◦ N and from 140◦ E to 146◦ E, and the computational
grid size is 0.25◦ . The sea surface wind data (10 m height) provided by ECMWF (European Centre
for medium-Range Weather Forecasts) are used for the wave hindcasting. The wave field was
numerically integrated with the time interval of 15 minutes, and the data assimilation was carried
out for 24 hours. The wave observation sites are also indicated with the back filled circles in Figure 3.
The data observed at 6 sites are assimilated. Though observed directional spectra are suitable for
data assimilation, the significant wave heights H1/3 are used since the directional spectra are not
observed at all the sites. In addition, the directional spectra at the open boundary are given by the
other computation executed in advance with larger computation area.
Figure 3(a) shows the initial distribution of significant wave height (the first guess) estimated
with the ECMWF wind data. Figure 3(b) shows the assimilated initial distribution of the significant
wave height, where both the observation error and the background error are taken into account in
the cost function. For the covariance matrix of the background error, the correlation coefficient
is assumed as 80/xij . Figure 4 shows the time series of the significant wave height at the site A,
where the observation data and the hindcasted data are also shown. Comparing Figure 3(a) (before
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Wave Height (m)

4
2 Observation Data
Hindcasted Data (before assimilation)
1
Hindcasted Data (after assimilation)
0
12 14 16 18 20 22 0 2 4 6 8 10
9-Apr-94 10-Apr-94 time
Figure 4. Comparison of time series of significant wave height.
assimilation) and (b) (after assimilation), it is seen that the initial wave height distribution is slightly
modified and wave height rises locally in some areas in (b). Figure 4 shows that the time series of the
assimilated significant wave height is corrected to approach the observation data. The wave heights
at the other wave observation sites were also corrected after the data assimilation to approach the
observation data.
6 CONCLUSIONS
In this study, for the purpose of improving the performance of the spectral wave model, the third
generation wave model, WAM Cycle 5, was improved. The model utilizes 4 dimensional variation
method (adjoint method), in which the initial condition of the significant wave height at the compu-
tation area is assumed as the control variable in the model. Then, we investigated the characteristics
of the cost function, composed of the observation error and background error, through numerical
simulations. In the numerical simulations, several different types of correlation coefficients are
assumed in the covariance matrix of the background error. As a result, we found that the effective
area of the wave data assimilation in the computed wave field becomes larger in proportion to the
values of the cross correlation coefficient among the components of the cross covariance matrix
of the background error. Similarly, the effective area of the wave data assimilation becomes larger
when the plural numbers of observation points are distributed with an appropriate distances. In
addition to the numerical investigations, we applied the wave model with wave data assimilation
to the actual wave data observed at the several wave observation stations in the northeast of main
island of Japan. Consequently, we confirmed that the accuracy of the estimated wave parameters
is improved by using the data assimilation in spectral wave model.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The wind data used herein were provided by the European Centre for Medium Range Weather
Forecasts (ECMWF). We are grateful to the ECMWF for providing the data.
REFERENCES
Giering, R. 1995. The Adjoint Model Compiler, MPI report.

Hersbach, H. 1998. The adjoint of the WAM model, Tech. Rep. KNMI-WR, 97-01, 28p.
Hersbach, H. 1998. Application of the adjoint of the WAM model to inverse wave modeling, J. Geophys. Res.
Vol. 103, No. C5, pp. 10469–10487.
Hersbach, H. and Janssen, P.A.E.M. 1999. Improvement of the Short Fetch Behavior in the WAM model,
J. Atmos. Ocean. Techn., 16, pp. 884–892.
Kobayashi, T., Adachi, T. and Yasuda, T. 2003. Estimation of Wave Fields with Open Boundaries by Applying
an Adjoint Model, Asian Pacific Coasts 2003, 8p.
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Numerical simulation of wave attenuation over porous seabeds
S.A.S.A. Karunarathna & Pengzhi Lin

National University of Singapore, Singapore
ABSTRACT: In this study, wave attenuation over porous seabeds are investigated by using a two
dimensional numerical model (Liu et al., 1999). In the numerical model, the flow outside of the
porous media is described by the Reynolds averaged Navier-Stokes equations and the flow inside
of the porous media is described by the ensemble averaged Navier-Stokes equations. Hence, energy
dissipation inside the porous seabeds due to linear and nonlinear resistances as well as energy
dissipation within the turbulent boundary layer has been fully incorporated into the numerical
model. On the other hand, in the previous theoretical investigations the nonlinear resistance terms
were either neglected (e.g. Liu & Dalrymple, 1984) or linearized (e.g. Gu & Wang, 1991). It is
demonstrated in this paper that the linearizing of the nonlinear resistance terms for porous flows
can lead to a significant deviation in wave damping results. Only the full nonlinear resistance as
the included in the numerical model can provide accurate wave attenuation calculation for wide
range of porous media flows.
1 INTRODUCTION
When waves propagate over porous seabeds, the wave heights will continuously decay. One of
the influences on the decay of wave heights is the dissipation of wave energy that occurs within
the boundary layer above the sea bed. Wave energy is also dissipated inside porous media. Flow
inside of the porous bed results for several forces that act on fluid and soil particles i.e. vis-
cous force between fluid particles, the force exerted on soil particles from the pore fluid and the
inertial forces due to pore fluid and soil particles (Lee et al., 2002a, b). These forces react as
resistances to the flow inside of the porous bed that cause wave energy dissipation. These fric-
tional resistances are mathematically represented by a linear term, a nonlinear term and an inertial
term, which is linearly proportional to the fluid acceleration and is represented by the added mass
coefficient.
The study of wave damping over porous seabeds largely depends on the theory that describes
the porous medium flow. In some of the theoretical studies, it has been assumed that porous
medium obeys Darcy’s law (e.g. Liu, 1973). It is well known that Darcy’s law is valid for low
Reynolds number flows. Therefore, in these studies it has been assumed that only the viscous
friction between fluid particles is significant within the flow inside of the porous bed. Therefore,
wave damping theories that have been developed by using Darcy’s law would satisfy only low
permeability range. Liu & Dalrymple (1984) have derived a theory for wave damping over porous
seabeds by using Darcy’s law with a term to represent the inertial resistance. Several other theoretical
studies have been performed by using Sollitt & Cross (1972) model as the pore pressure equation
(e.g. Packwood & Peregrine, 1980; Gu & Wang, 1991). Sollitt & Cross (1972) model includes
inertial, linear and nonlinear frictional resistances when describing the flow motion inside the
porous bed. However, since the mathematical treatment of the nonlinear resistance term is difficult
in theoretical formulations, linearizing techniques have been used to approximate the nonlinear
pore pressure equation.
The objective of this study is to overcome the shortcoming that may occur due to linearizing
of the nonlinear pore pressure equation when investigating wave damping over porous seabeds.
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In order to achieve this, a two dimensional numerical model (Liu et al., 1999), which fully incor-
porates inertial, linear and nonlinear resistances, is used to simulate wave damping over porous
seabeds. Numerical simulations are performed to determine wave damping over porous seabeds
with different permeability. These results are compared with the results from similar investigations
conducted, theoretically by Liu & Dalrymple (1984) and Gu & Wang (1991).
2 COMPARISON OF THE THEORETICAL AND NUMERICAL FORMULATIONS
In this section, we shall compare theoretical wave damping models derived by Liu & Dalrymple
(1984) and Gu & Wang (1991) with the numerical model (Liu et al., 1999). In these formulations, the
interaction of progressive waves propagating in a constant water depth h with a porous medium of
thickness d is considered as shown in Fig. 1. The bottom beneath the porous medium is impervious
and rigid.
Liu & Dalrymple (1984)

Theoretical expression derived by Liu & Dalrymple (1984) is based on Dagan’s (1979) porous flow
model, which is a generalized form of Darcy’s law that can be applied for non-uniform flows. In
addition, an acceleration term is also introduced to the porous flow model in order to represent the
oscillatory flow motion inside the porous bed. However, the effect due to added mass has not been
considered for the acceleration term. In the derivation, free surface profile has been assumed to
vary with distance x and time t as η(x, t) = aei(kx−σt) where a is the wave amplitude and σ is the
angular frequency. Here, k is a complex variable, which can be written as k = kr + iki , in which kr
represents the wavelength change and ki represents the wave damping. With these conditions the
solution of the boundary value problem has lead to a complex wave dispersion relationship as:
where g is the gravitational acceleration, R = σK/ν is the permeability parameter with

K = kp ν/g = specific permeability in which kp = permeability of porous material and v = kinematic
viscosity of the fluid and β = 1/n in which n = porosity. The first and second terms in the denomi-
nator of the right hand side of (1) represent the linear and inertial frictional resistances, respectively.
In order to calculate wave-damping rate ki , expression (1) needs to be solved iteratively.
Porous seabed d
Figure 1. Definition sketch.
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Gu & Wang (1991)

The complex wave dispersion relationship derived by Gu & Wang (1991) includes the inertial,
linear and non-linear resistance terms for the porous flow model. Unlike, in Liu & Dalrymple’s
(1984) solution, their theory includes the effect due to added mass for the acceleration term. In
order to incorporate energy dissipation due to nonlinear frictional resistance the energy dissipation
within a true nonlinear system has been equated with an equivalent linearized system. Then, the
complex wave dispersion relationship has been obtained as:
Here, both k and the coefficient f0 are complex numbers. The relationship for f0 is given by:
in which
where ā is the average of ae−ki x over one wave length.

In (3), the terms in the right hand side represent the linear, inertial and nonlinear resistances,
respectively. For the inertial resistance the effect due to added mass is also considered and hence,
βa is given by βa = (n + Ca (1 − n))/n2 in which Ca = 0.46 is the added mass coefficient. The
parameter Cd relates to porosity n and sediment
√ mean
√ diameter
√ − n))/n3 d50,
d50 by Cd = (b0 (1
which has been approximated as Cd = Cf / K = (Cf / R)( σ/ν) where Cf = b0 / n2 a0 (1 − n) .
The coefficients a0 and b0 takes the values of a0 = 570 and b0 = 3.
In order to calculate wave damping rate ki , expressions (2) and (3) need to be solved iteratively.
Numerical model (Liu et al., 1999)

In the numerical model flow inside of the porous media is described by the spatially averaged
Navier-Stokes equations:
In (5) and (6), i and j represent the horizontal and vertical indexes, respectively. Over bar denotes
the spatially averaged quantities and the double prime denotes the spatially fluctuated quantities. ρ
and p0 are density of fluid and effective pressure, respectively. In (6), the second term in the right
hand side is much smaller than the third term and it is neglected in the numerical model. The third
term in the right hand side is modeled with a combination of linear and nonlinear frictional forces:
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with
√
uc in (7) is given by uc = ui ui . In this study, the empirical coefficients a0 and b0 takes the same val-
ues as given in Gu & Wang (1991). Thus, the numerical model consists of all three resistance terms
i.e. linear resistance, inertial resistance with the effect due to added mass and nonlinear resistance.
3 INCORPORATING LINEARIZED PORE PRESSURE EQUATION INTO THE

NUMERICAL MODEL
According to Section 2, the difference between the theoretical model by Gu & Wang (1991) and
the numerical model is the way that the non-linear resistance term is treated in each model. In the
theoretical model, the non-linear resistance term has been approximated with a linearized term
where as in the numerical model it has been fully utilized. In order to determine the linearization
error, we shall solve the theoretical model by Gu & Wang (1991), numerically by implementing (2)
into the numerical model. When (2) is derived, the pore pressure equation is linearized while keeping
the inertial resistance term together with the non-linear resistance term. In order to implement it
into the numerical model, we have changed its form by retaining the inertial resistance term while
linearizing only the nonlinear resistance term and combining it with the linear resistance term.
Then, the wave dispersion relationship is obtained as
Compared with (2), in (10), the only difference is that f0 is replaced by fl − (iCm /ρ). Here, k is an
unknown complex variable and fl is an unknown complex coefficient which is given by
where
The wave damping model as given in (10) can be equivalently implemented to the numerical model
2
when the parameters in the numerical model are given by ap = {[al (1 − n)3 ]/n2 }{ν/gd50 } where
2 3 2 3
al = {(σfl /ν)(n /(1 − n) )}{d50 } and bp = {[bl (1 − n)]/n }{1/gd50 } where bl = 0.
4 NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF WAVE DAMPING OVER POROUS SEABEDS
Numerical simulations are performed for three cases i.e.

1. by including terms to represent linear resistance and inertial resistance for the ensemble averaged
Navier-Stokes equations inside the porous media
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2. after implementing the linearized pore pressure equation into the numerical model
3. by including terms to represent linear resistance, non-linear resistance and inertial resistance
for the ensemble averaged Navier-Stokes equations inside the porous media
Among these three cases, case1 is similar with Liu & Dalrymple’s (1984) theory. However, the
coefficient that represents the added mass is not included for the inertial resistance term in Liu &
Dalrymple’s (1984) model. Case 2 is the numerical solution for Gu & Wang’s (1991) theory. Case 3
is the exact numerical model.
For the numerical tests, the wave and porous media parameters are: wave period T = 4 s, wave
height H = 1 m, water depth h = 4 m, thickness of the sediment layer d = 5 m and porosity n = 0.4.
Wave damping for a distance of x = 300 m over different permeable seabeds representing differ-
ent permeability parameters R are numerically simulated. The corresponding diameter for each
2
permeability parameter is obtained from the relation 1/kp = {[a0 (1 − n)3 ]/n2 }{ν/gd50 }.
When simulating these free surface profiles fifth order Stoke’s waves are sent from the inside
wave generator. Several wave gages are located along the porous bed in order to measure wave
heights. For each of the free surface profiles, the graphs are plotted for the variation of − ln (Hj /H0 )
with x in which Hj refers to the wave height of the jth wave and H0 refers to the initial wave height.
Wave damping rate ki for each porous bed is calculated from the slope of the least square fit to the
expression:
Figure 2 compares the theoretical wave damping results with numerical wave damping results.
Since the effect due to added mass is not considered in Liu & Dalrymple’s (1984) model, in Fig. 2
we have plotted their model by including the added mass coefficient into the inertial resistance term.
0.045
Numerical results (case 1)
0.04 numerical results (case 2)
Numerical results (case 3)
Liu and Dalrymple (1984)
0.035 Liu and Dalrymple (with added mass)
Gu and Wang (1991)
0.03
ki/(σ2 - g)
0.025
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
log(R)
Figure 2. Comparison of the numerical wave damping results with the theoretical results.
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According to Fig. 2, when the added mass coefficient is included with Liu & Dalrymple’s (1984)
solution, the damping rates have been reduced compared with their original results. Permeability
parameter that gives the peak-damping rate has also been slightly changed. These results are
compatible with the corresponding numerical results i.e. case 1.
Compared to case 1, wave damping results from Gu & Wang’s (1991) model are different. When
the linearized pore pressure equation is implemented to the numerical model i.e. case 2, a good
agreement between the numerical results and Gu & Wang’s (1991) results is obtained. This further
ensures that the numerical model can correctly represent the theoretical models. When the exact
numerical model is used to obtain wave damping i.e. case 3, the peak-damping rate is reduced
compared to case 2. Permeability parameter that gives the peak-damping rate is reduced. The only
difference between case 2 and case 3 is that although, the non-linear resistance term is linearized
in case 2, case 3 has the full non-linear resistance term. This is the only reason that can cause
deviation in the results. This ensures that the numerical results are more accurate.
It can be seen from Fig. 2 that at low permeability regions as well as at very high permeability
regions wave damping is small. This is due to the facts that at low permeability region the flow
is laminar and at very high permeability regions the flow becomes irrotational. At these regions,
all the models give approximately the same results for wave damping. Therefore, it is clear that
the non-linear resistance term is insignificant within these regions and hence the wave damping is
sufficiently predicted by the damping models developed by including linear and inertial resistances
alone. In contrast, the region in between, where the real seabeds are also belonged to, is largely
overestimated/underestimated by Liu & Dalrymple’s (1984) model compared with the numerical
results. The reason for this is because the non-linear resistance term is significant within this
permeability region. In addition, the wave damping results from Gu & Wang’s (1984) model has also
underestimated/overestimated the numerical results. However, the deviation between the numerical
results and Gu & Wang’s (1991) results is very much less than that with the numerical results and
Liu & Dalrymple’s (1984) results. This ensures that although, the inclusion of the non-linear
resistance term increases the prediction accuracy of wave damping, the linearizing approximation
cause underestimation of wave damping at low permeability range and overestimation of wave
damping at high permeability range.
6 CONCLUSIONS
This paper ensures that the present numerical model is a very good research tool in the study
of wave damping over porous seabeds. Theoretical models that are derived by neglecting the non-
linear resistance term can be only used at a limited range of bed permeability. The accuracy of wave
damping predictions has been increased when the non-linear term is introduced to the theoretical
models. However, due to the fact that the non-linear term is approximated in theoretical models,
these models underestimate wave damping at low permeability range and overestimate at high
permeability range. In the future, we shall further use this numerical model to study the effects of
wave period, depth of sediment layer and etc. on wave damping.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The study was supported, in part, by the research grant provided by the National University of
Singapore (R-264-000-136-112) and ONR Grant (N00014-01-1-0457).
REFERENCES
Dagan G. (1979). “The generalization of Darcy’s law for nonuniform flows.” Water Resour. Res., 15, 1–17.
Gu Z. and Wang H. (1991). “Gravity waves over porous bottoms.” Coast Eng., 15, 497–524.
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chap-25 20/9/2004 16: 27 page 211
Lee T.L., Tsai C.P. and Jeng D.S. (2002a). “Ocean waves propagating over a Coulomb – damped poroelastic
sea bed of finite thickness: an analytical solution.” Comput. And Geotech., 29, 119–149.
Lee T.L., Tsai C.P. and Jeng D.S. (2002b). “Ocean waves propagating over a porous sea bed of finite thickness.”
Ocean Eng., 29, 1577–1601.
Liu P.L.-F. (1973). “Damping of water waves over porous bed.” J. Hyd. Div., 99(12), 2263–2271.
Liu P.L.-F. and Dalrymple R.A. (1984). “The damping of gravity waves due to percolation.” Coast Eng., 8,
33–49.
Liu P.L.-F., Lin P., Chang K-A. and Sakakiyama T. (1999). “Numerical modeling of wave interaction with
porous structures.” J. Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Eng., 125(6), 322–330.
Packwood A.R. and Peregrine D.H. (1980). “The propagation of solitary waves and bores over a porous bed.”
Coast. Eng., 221–242.
Sollitt, C.K. and Cross, R.H. (1972). Wave transmission through permeable breakwaters. Proc. 13th Coastal
Engineering Conf., ASCE, pp. 1827–1846.
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chap-26 20/9/2004 16: 27 page 213

Behaviour of suspended sediment in a shallow tidal estuary
Kiyosi Kawanisi
Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima, Japan
ABSTRACT: Observations of suspended sediment, current and water density distribution were
conducted in the Ohta Estuary (flood way), Japan. The water depth at the mooring site ranges
from 1 m to 5 m during the spring tide. The mooring observations demonstrate a semi-diurnal
stratification cycle driven by tidal straining of freshwater-induced horizontal density gradient. The
velocity profiles during the ebb deviate from logarithmic distribution. The velocity near the bottom
and the concentration of suspended sediment (SS) become large just before and after the lower
low water slack. As a result, large SS concentrations are intermittently generated. The well-mixed
condition around the lower low water slack is associated with the small depth and strong tidal
stirring. The transport processes of suspended sediment are controlled by the semi-diurnal and
spring-neap tidal energy cycles in addition to the river discharge.
1 INTRODUCTION
The flow in tidal estuaries is very complex, particularly due to tidal oscillations associated with
changes in depth, mean velocity, direction of flow and density gradients affected by salt, heat
and suspended particles. Transport processes of suspended sediment holds a key to understand the
water quality, biological productivity, and species diversity in estuaries.
The objective of this paper is to reveal the semi-diurnal and longer period characteristics of
suspended sediment (SS) in a shallow tidal estuary. An acoustic Doppler profiler (aDp; Nortek
Inc.) has been used to measure vertical profiles of velocity and SS concentration. The time series
of SS flux are estimated from the aDp data, and then the behavior of SS transport are demonstrated.
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 Study area and measurements

In addition to surface and bottom water density (salinity and temperature), vertical profiles of
velocity and acoustic backscattering were collected in the Ohta floodway in 2003 (Fig. 1). The Ohta
Estuary has a variable tidal range (about 4 m spring range and about 1 m neap range at the mouth).
The Ohta River divides into six branches in Hiroshima delta before discharging to Hiroshima Bay.
The freshwater runoff from the Gion gate, which is located at about 9 km upstream from the
mouth, is limited because the Gion gate, which acts as a sluice gate, is fixed at a distance 0.1 m from
the bottom. An acoustic Doppler profiler (aDp) operating at 1.5 MHz was used to measure vertical
profiles of mean velocity and backscattering strength. Using an internal compass and 2-axis tilt sen-
sor, the beam Doppler velocities were transformed into earth coordinates by an internal processor.
The downlooking aDp, CT, and CTD with turbidimeter (OBS) were deployed from June 24 to
July 10, 2003 (case1) and from December 1 to 25, 2003 (case2) in the floodway. The experiment
site, which is located at about 2.8 km upstream from the mouth, is plotted on Figure 1. The aDp
and CT were moored near the water surface, and the CTD with OBS was located at 0.3 m above
the bottom (mab). The bottom around the observation point is comparatively flat as shown in
Figure 1(b). The median diameter of the bottom sediment is 0.3 mm.
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Figure 1. (a) Ohta Estuary and (b) depth profile around the experiment site.
The aDp data averaged for 600 s were collected with 1500 s intervals at the cell-size 0.25 m.
The streamwise velocity u is positive during the flood and negative during the ebb. The sampling
intervals of CT and CTD are 600 s.
2.2 Determination of SS concentration from acoustic backscattering of aDp

The use of the aDp and aDv (acoustic Doppler velocimeter) to measure SS concentrations has been
made an attempt (Lynch et al. 1991; Kawanisi & Yokosi 1997). Following Thorne et al. (1991), the
observed aDp signal and desired concentration is given by
where <Pb > is the ensemble averaged rms pressure signal, " is the pulse length ψ is the near field
function, k0 is a constant that depends on the instrument and scattering function, r is the radial
distance along the beam, c is the mass concentration of SS. The parameters αw and αs is the water
and SS absorption coefficient, respectively. Although the near field function ψ is introduced to
account for the departure from spherical spreading within the transceiver near field, it is considered
that ψ = 1 within the profile range of aDp in the present study.
Linear regression of backscatter from the appropriate cell of the aDp against SS concentrations
obtained from water samples and OBS is used to calculate the parameter k0 . Although calibration
constants depend on particle size and composition, any incurred due to variation in these SS charac-
teristics is assumed to be less than other errors in gravimetric sampling. Despite such reservations
about sensitivities to particle size, the technique appears to be reliable when compared with other
methods.
3.1 Variability of stratification

The work required to bring about complete mixing through water column is given as
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Figure 2. Temporal variations of (a) bottom water density at 0.3 mab, (b) surface water density and (c) measure
of water column stratification in case2.
where h is the water depth, ρ is the water density and ρ̂ is the depth mean density. Simpson et al.
(1990) proposed φ as a measure of water column stratification. Assuming the density profile over
the water column is linear,
where ρ is bottom-surface density difference: (σt )b − (σt )s .

Figure 2 shows the time series of bottom sigma-t (σt )b , surface sigma-t (σt )s and φ estimated by
Equation 3 in case2. The thick line denotes low-pass-filtered φ. As the low-pass-filter, a spline-
wavelet-filter with a cuttoff at a period of about 30 hours is used. The variability of water density
is almost caused by the salinity variation. In case2, the river discharge is small; the mean discarge
QG through the Gion sluice is about 3 m3 /s.
Except for the neap tide, the diurnal spikelike decreases in the bottom density are observed. On
the other hand, the surface density indicates a semi-diurnal variation induced by tidal advection. The
change of stratification is mainly caused by tidal straining: Strain-Induced Periodic Stratification
(SIPS). The maximum of low-pass-filtered φ occurs 2 days behind the minimum of tidal range at
12:00 December 17.
3.2 Current and suspended sediment

The time series of SS concentration and water depth are shown in Figures 3 (case2) and 4 (case1). The
low-pass-filtered variation of SS concentration, which is denoted by thick line, demonstrates spring-
neap variation. As is seen in Figures 3 and 4,the SS concentration shows diurnal variation depending
on the diurnal inequability of tide. The Gion sluice was completely opened on July 8 because the
river discharge became large. Thus, the SS concentration shown in Figure 4 is very large after July 8.
The peaks of SS concentration correspond to the peaks of ebb and flood current (Fig. 5). This
suggests that the variation of the concentration is caused by resuspension of the bed sediment. The
tidal velocity is distorted from a trigonometric function, i.e., the velocity take maximum values just
before and after low water. This is a characteristic of tidal flow in shallow water. Near the bottom,
the flood current is larger than ebb current because of estuarine circulation. Moreover, the strong
stratification during the first half of the ebb tide brings about the difference of velocity profile
between the ebb and flood (Fig. 6). Kawanisi (2004) demonstrates that a log-linear velocity profile
almost always exists within 1 mab; although the departure from the logarithmic profile is small for
flood tides, the profile is almost linear during the first half of the ebb tides.
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Figure 3. Temporal variations of (a) SS concentration near the bottom (thickline denotes low-pass-filtered
concentration) (b) water depth and tidal range (thick line) in case2.
Figure 4. Temporal variations of (a) SS concentration near the bottom (thickline denotes low-pass-filtered
concentration) (b) water depth and tidal range (thick line) in case1.
Figure 5. Temporal variations of (a) measure of water column stratification, (b) SS concentration and (c)
longitudinal velocity near the bottom.
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Figure 6. Vertical profiles of the ebb and flood current, which are estimated by grouping the data into ebb
and flood tides.
Figure 7. Temporal variations of (a) transport rate of SS and (b) low-pass-filtered transport rate in case2.
3.3 Transport rate of suspended sediment

Transport rate of suspended sediment (SS) is estimated as the product of the depth integrated SS flux
and the mean width (250 m). Figure 7 shows the temporal variation of the transport rate in case2.
The transport rate during flood is larger than that during ebb tide, so that the low-pass-filtered
transport rate <cu> is positive (directed upstream) through the observation period. Moreover,
Figure 7(b) shows clearly that <cu> increases and decreases depending on the tidal range.
As shown in Fig. 8(a), the river discharge in case1 is about 10 times larger than that in case2.
Since the Gion sluice is completely opened on July 8, the transport rate shown in Figure 8 indicates
very large negative value after July 8. Figure 7(c) suggests that the temporal variation of <cu> in
case1 is tinged with the tidal range and the river discharge.
The 3D view shown in Figure 9 demonstrates that <cu> changes with the tidal range and the
mean discarge through the Gion sluice QG . At the observation site, the large tidal range generates
the upstream net transport of SS. The river discharge inhibits the tidal action for SS transport.
4 CONCLUSIONS
The vertical distributions of current and SS concentration in the Ohta Estuary have been inves-
tigated continuously during about one month. The data were obtained using an acoustic Doppler
profiler (aDp). In addition, the surface and bottom density were continuously measured by CT and
CTD with OBS. Study area has distinctive characters as follows: the Ohta floodway is connected
to other river branches; there is the sluice gate fixed at a distance 0.1 m from the bottom so the
freshwater runoff is limited.
The current near the bottom during the ebb tide is smaller than during the flood tide owing
to the baroclinic pressure gradient and SIPS (Strain-Induced Periodic Stratification). As a result,
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Figure 8. Temporal variations of (a) mean discharge through the Gion sluice (negative sign denotes
downstream), (b) transport rate of SS and (c) low-pass-filtered transport rate.
Figure 9. 3D view of net transport rate of SS (c) low-pass-filtered transport rate in case1.
the net transport of SS caused by the tidal flow is upstream against the river discharge. The net
transport rate is controlled by the tidal range and the river discharge (mean discarge through the
Gion sluice). The high concentration and transport rate of SS are intermittently generated, i.e, both
take maximum values just before and after the lower low water slack.
REFERENCES
Kawanisi, K. 2004. Structure of turbulent flow in a shallow tidal estuary. J. Hydraul. Engrg., ASCE 131(4):
360–370.
Kawanisi, K., & Yokosi, S. 1997. Characteristics of suspended sediment and turbulence in a tidal boundary
layer. Contin. Shelf Res. 17(8): 859–875.
Lynch, J. F., Gross, T. F., Brumley, B. H., & Filyo, R. A. 1991. Sediment concentration profiling in HEBBLE
using a 1-Mhz acoustic backscatter system. Mar. Geol. 99: 361–385.
Thorne, P. D., Vincent, C. E., Hardcastle, P. J., Rehman, S., & Pearson, N. 1991. Measuring suspended sediment
concentrations using acoustic backscatter devices. Mar. Geol. 98(1): 7–16.
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Testing of CEM wave prediction model for Lake Ontario
M.H. Kazeminezhad, A. Etemad-Shahidi & S.J. Mousavi

Structure and Hydro Structure Research Center, College of Civil Engineering, Iran University of Science
and Technology, Tehran, Iran
ABSTRACT: In this study the performance of wave prediction method given in the Coastal Engi-
neering Manual (CEM) is evaluated by comparing the predicted wave parameters with the observed
values. The data set used in this study comprises of fetch-limited wave data and overwater wind data
gathered from deep water location in Lake Ontario. Significant wave height and peak spectral period
are estimated using the data set of year 2002 and the accuracy of the CEM method is determined by
comparing the estimated values with the observed values. Results indicate that the CEM method
overestimates the significant wave height and underestimates the peak spectral period in this lake.
1 INTRODUCTION
The wave conditions are of great importance in coastal and offshore engineering works such as
harbor design, marine structures design and sediment transport estimation. In many applications
it is necessary to have long-term continuous wave time series measurement. However in many
situations there are no long-term measurements available and it is necessary to use proper wave
prediction methods for hindcasting.
During the past decades some numerical computer models for wave prediction have been
developed. However preparation of meteorological data and computer processing demand quite
heavy work from analyst (Goda 2003). Moreover, for preliminary or even for final design in some
cases, use of these models is not economical. Therefore, many engineers tend to use simplified
methods for wave prediction.
Several simplified wave prediction methods have been presented in the literature such as SMB
(Bretschneider 1970), Wilson (Wilson 1965), JONSWAP (Hasselmann et al. 1973), Donelan
(Donelan 1980 & Donelan et al. 1985), 1984 version of Shore Protection Manual (SPM) and
Coastal Engineering Manual (CEM 2003) wave prediction methods.
These methods have been evaluated in different situations. Bishop (1983) showed the accuracy
of the Donelan model is slightly superior to that of the JONSWAP and SMB models. Bishop et al.
(1992) showed the SPM 1984 model, tends to overpredict wave height and period. It should be
noted, wave prediction model introduced in the CEM has been recently replaced the SPM 1984
wave prediction model and the accuracy of this model has not been investigated yet. The purpose
of this study is to determine the accuracy of CEM model for estimation of wave characteristics in
a fetch-limited water body.
2 STUDY AREA
The data set used in this study comprises of fetch-limited wave data and overwater wind data gained
from Lake Ontario from April to November, 2002. The data set was gathered by National Data
Buoy Center (NDBC) in station 45012 at 43◦ 37 09 N and 77◦ 24 18W, where water depth is 145 m
(Fig. 1). Since maximum measured peak spectral period, TP , was 7.69 s, the minimum ratio of the
water depth to the wave length was 1.57 and most of the observed waves were deep water waves.
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30 km
Station 45012
Lake Ontario
Figure 1. Location of NDBC buoy 45012.
Wind and wave data were collected using 3 m discus buoy. Wave data was collected for 20 min
at 1 hour intervals, at a sampling frequency of 2.56 Hz. Wind data was also collected for 8 min at
1 hour intervals, at a frequency of 1.28 Hz. The wind speed, U , at buoy was measured at a height
of 5 m above the mean sea level. The buoy measured and transmitted barometric pressure; wind
direction, speed, and guest; air and sea temperature; and wave energy spectra. Significant wave
height, dominate wave period and average wave period were derived from wave energy spectra.
3 BACKGROUND
The wave generation is governed by three parameters. One of the parameters that affects the wave
generation is fetch length. Fetch is an area of the sea surface over which a wind with a reasonably
constant direction and speed is blowing. To use the CEM wave prediction formulas fetch length
must be calculated. In the CEM, fetch has been defined as a region in which the wind speed and
direction variations do not exceed 2.5 m/s and 15 degree from the mean, respectively. It is assumed
that a coastline upwind from the point of interest limits the fetch. According to the 1984 version of
the SPM and Bishop et al. (1992), to determine the fetch length for a certain direction, 30 radials
from the point of interest at 1 degree intervals are constructed and extended until they first intersect
the coastline, then fetch length is calculated as arithmetic average of extended radials.
Wind duration is the other parameter that affects the wave generation. Regarding to definition of
constant wind in the CEM, wind duration at ith hourly data point is equal to number of preceding
consecutive and acceptable hours which satisfies the following conditions:
where Ui = wind speed at ith hourly data point (m/s); U = average of preceding consecutive
hourly wind speed (m/s); Di = wind direction at ith hourly data point (degree); and D = average of
preceding consecutive hourly wind direction (degree).
The average of wind speeds and fetch lengths over the preceding consecutive and acceptable
hours, were used in the wave prediction model (Bishop 1983).
The third parameter that affects the wave generation is overwater wind speed. The overwater
wind speed which is used in the CEM formula must be adjusted for height and stability effects.
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Figure 2. Amplification ratio, RT , accounting for effects of air-sea temperature differences. (After
CEM 2003).
3.1 Adjusting winds observed overwater

The wind speed that is used in the CEM formulas must be measured at 10 m above the sea surface
therefore, the observed wind speed at any level, z, should be adjusted to 10 m level. The simple
approximation for level adjustment given in the CEM is:
where U10 = wind speed at 10 m above the sea surface (m/s); and Uz = wind speed at level z (m/s).
In the CEM, equation 3 is recommended for z near the 10 m (within z range of about 8–12 m)
but in the 1984 version of the SPM, this equation has been recommended for z less than 20 m.
According to the CEM, for fetches longer than 16 km, an adjustment for stability of the boundary
layer may also be needed. If the air-sea temperature difference is known, Figure 2 can be used for
the stability adjustment. As mentioned before, the buoy measured the temperature of sea and air.
In this study stability adjustment is applied to wind speed using Figure 2.
3.2 CEM wave prediction method

CEM method (CEM 2003) is a semi-empirical method that is developed based on dimensionless
wave parameters. In this method dimensionless wave height and period have been defined using
friction velocity and dimensionless time defined using wind speed. This method is appropriate for
simple situation where local effects are small and can be used for predicting the significant wave
height and the peak spectral period in fetch limited; duration limited and fully developed conditions.
In fetch limited condition, the wind duration must be greater than tmin , which is given as:
where X = fetch length (m); g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2 ); and U = stability compen-
sated overwater wind speed at height of 10 m (m/s).
In the fetch-limited condition, the equations for predicting wave parameters are:
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where Hmo = significant wave height (m); TP = peak spectral period (s); and u∗ = friction velocity
(m/s).
The friction velocity can be estimated as:
where CD = drag coefficient, is defined as:
Due to the large amount of data, first the duration of winds was calculated. Then the values of
tmin were calculated using equations 4. Before calculating tmin , the level and stability adjustment are
applied on wind speed. In order to select fetch limited hourly data points, hourly data points with
wind duration greater than the tmin , were selected. Moreover, in order to select important waves, all
hourly data points with measured significant wave height greater than 0.3 m, and measured peak
spectral period greater than 3 s were selected (Bishop 1983).
From 5148 hourly data points related to year 2002, 270 fetch-limited data points were selected for
evaluation the CEM wave prediction model. Figure 3a shows the comparison between observed
and predicted significant wave heights. As can be seen, this method overestimates the significant
wave height. The observed and calculated peak spectral periods are plotted in Figure 3b. This figure
shows that the CEM method tends to underpredict peak spectral period.
For statistical comparison of predicted and observed wave parameters, bias and scatter index
(SI) are used (Lin 2002). The bias is shown by mean error and the scatter index is defined as the
3 8
Predicted significant wave height (m)
Predicted peak spectral period (s)
7
6
2
5
4
3
1
2
1
0 0
0 1 2 3 0 2 4 6 8
Observed significant wave height (m) Observed peak spectral period (s)
(a) (b)
Figure 3. Comparison between observed and predicted wave parameters (a) significant wave height, (b) peak
spectral period.
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RMS error normalized by the mean observed value of the reference quantity:
where Oi = the observed values; Pi = the predicted values; and N = the number of observations.
Table 1 shows the average values of observed and predicted significant wave height, the scatter
index and bias for prediction of significant wave height.
It is interesting to note that if the calculated significant wave heights are all decreased by 15%,
they will have the same average value as the observed values and the scatter index will be reduced
to 25.1%. Table 2 shows the average values of observed and predicted peak spectral period, the
scatter index and bias for prediction of peak spectral period.
Tables 1–2 shows that CEM method predicts peak spectral period better than significant wave
height. It should be noted that if calculated peak spectral periods are all increased by 16%, the bias
and scatter index will be reduced to 0 and 15%, respectively.
In this study, it was assumed that the fetches are limited to a coastline upwind from the point
of interest. Therefore, assumed fetch length may be greater than real fetch length that leads to
overestimating the significant wave height and peak spectral period. Regarding to the results,
the CEM method overestimates the significant wave height and underestimates the peak spectral
period. Therefore, the errors can not be due to the fetch length assumption.
The accuracy of wave prediction depends on the validity of the methods to arrive at an “adjusted
wind speed” and on the empirical formulas used to relate wave parameters to the wind speed
(Bishop 1992). The wind speed profile including stratification effect is given by (SPM 1984):
where k = Von karman’s constant, approximately equal to 0.4; z0 = roughness height of the surface;
ψ = universal similarity function; L = Obukov stability length. Algebraic forms for ψ and L can
be found in the ACES Technical Reference (Leenhnecht et al. 1992).
Equation 3 is an approximation for level adjustment that is recommended for height values of
about 8–12 m (CEM 2003). In this study z is equal to 5 m and equation 3 has been used to adjusting
the level. Therefore the level adjustment method, which has been used in this study, is not very
accurate.
Table 1. Statistics of significant wave height.
Average observed Hmo Average calculated Hmo S.I. bias

(m) (m) (%) (m)
0.93 1.10 32.3 0.17
Table 2. Statistics of peak spectral period.
Average observed TP Average calculated TP S.I. bias

(s) (s) (%) (s)
4.35 3.75 19.9 −0.60
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To determine the effects of stability adjustment, wave parameters were calculated without using
the stability adjustment. The bias and scatter index were decreased to 0.14 m and 30.9% for sig-
nificant wave height, respectively and increased to −0.67 s and 20.7% for peak spectral period.
Comparison of these errors with values of tables 1–2 shows that using the stability adjustment,
increases the accuracy of wave period prediction and decreases the accuracy of significant wave
height prediction. Therefore, the observed errors are not due to the assumed adjustment.
Regarding to the equations 5–8, it can be seen that both significant wave height and peak spectral
period magnitudes are proportional to wind speed. If the observed errors in tables 1–2 were only
due to the “adjusted wind speed”, then both predicted significant wave height and peak spectral
period should be overestimated or underestimated. However results showed that the CEM method
overestimates the significant wave height and underestimates the peak spectral period. Therefore,
the observed errors are probably due to the equations used in the CEM which are not appropriate
for this lake. This is in line with the results obtained by Bishop et al. (1992) in Lake Ontario where
the SPM 1984 method overestimated the wave parameters.
5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
In this study, the performance of Coastal Engineering Manual wave prediction model has been
investigated. The fetch-limited wave data and overwater wind data gained from Lake Ontario
have been used for this purpose. Results show that this model tends to overpredict the significant
wave height and underpredict the peak spectral period. Using of stability adjustment has been
investigated and results indicate that stability adjusting just improves the accuracy of peak spectral
period prediction and not that of the significant wave height. Results showed that the obtained
errors can not be due to the fetch length assumption and adjusted wind speed.
REFERENCES
Bishop, C.T. 1983. Comparison of manual wave prediction models. J. of Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean
Eng., ASCE, 109(1): 1–17.
Bishop, C.T., Donelan, M.A. & Kahma, K.K. 1992. Shore protection manual’s wave prediction reviewed.
J. Coastal Eng., 17: 25–48.
Bretschneider, C.L. 1970. Wave forecasting relations for wave generation. Look Lab, Hawaii, 1(3).
Coastal Engineering Manual. 2003. Chapter II-2, Meteorology and Wave Climate. Engineer Manual 1110-2-
1100, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, DC.
Donelan, M.A. 1980. Similarity theory applied to the forecasting of wave heights, periods and directions. In:
Proceedings of Canadian Coastal Conference, National Research Council of Canada: 47–61.
Donelan, M.A., Hamilton, J. & Hui, W.H. 1985. Directional spectra of wind-generated waves. Philos. Trans.
R. Soc. Lond., A315: 509–562.
Goda, Y., 2003. Revisiting Wilson’s Formulas for Simplified Wind-Wave Prediction. J. of Waterway, Port,
Coastal and Ocean Eng., ASCE, 129(2): 93–95.
Hasselmann, K., Barnett, T.P., Bouws, E., Carlson, H., Cartwright, D.E., Enke, K., Weing, J.A., Gienapp, H.,
Hasselmann, D.E., Kruseman, P., Meerburg, A., Muller, P., Olbers, K.J., Richter, K., Sell, W. & Walden,
W.H. 1973. Measurements of Wind-Wave Growth and Swell Decay During the Joint North Sea Wave Project
(JONSWAP). Deutsche Hydrograph, Zeit., Erganzung-self Reihe, A 8(12).
Leenhnecht, D.A., Szuwalski, A. & Sherlock, A.R. 1992. Automated Coastal Engineering System Tech-
nical Reference. Version 1.07, Coastal Engineering Research Center, Waterways Experiment Station,
Vicksburg, MS.
Lin, W., Sanford, L.P. & Suttles, S.E. 2002. Wave measurement and modeling in Chesapeake Bay. Continental
Shelf Research., 22: 2673–2686.
Shore Protection Manual. 1984. 4th ed., 2vol, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.
Wilson, B.W. 1965. Numerical prediction of ocean waves in the North Atlantic for December, 1959. Deutsche
Hydrographische Z., 18(3): 114–130.
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chap-28 20/9/2004 16: 28 page 225

Multigrain coastal sedimentation model and its Terschelling

beach application
F. Li, C. Dyt & C. Griffiths

Predictive Geoscience Group, CSIRO Petroleum, Australia
ABSTRACT: In this paper, a three dimensional numerical model for long-term coastal sediment
transport has been developed. The model addresses the longstanding complex issue of coastal
morphology and grainsize distribution from a new angle, originally proposed by Guillen and
Hoekstra (1996). Guillen and Hoekstra’s published work involves a two-dimensional profile model,
which covers the area from the upper limit of storm waves to the edge of the outermost offshore
bar. In this paper we extend the 2D model to three spatial dimensions by introducing a wave
transformation and longshore sediment transport model utilising the transport model presented in
Li et al 2003, and widen the simulation zone to the depth of storm wave base. The modelling is
tested using recent field observations in Terschelling, Netherlands.
1 INTRODUCTION
Beach replenishments are the most common solution for shore erosion, due to its environmental and
economical advantages over the traditional hard measures. The location of the sediment dumping
area and the composition of grain sizes are extremely important for the success and effectiveness
of the whole replenishment project. This paper intends to address this issue based on both practical
experiences and contemporary coastal sediment transport theory.
Coastal morphological evolution has been the interest of people from two major disciplines, the
coastal engineers and marine geologists. In the coastal engineering world, with the tradition of
numerical modelling and the philosophy that if every detail is right then the whole picture won’t
be wrong, a lot of very sophisticated models for waves, currents, and sediment transport have been
developed. Among them many models can couple almost all relevant processes acting in the coastal
environment. If the timescale of the investigated system is at the same magnitude as its constituent
processes then those models will provide useful information. However, the models do not tell very
much about the equilibrium state of the system.
On the other hand, the marine geologists commonly approach the issue from a spatially larger and
temporally longer point of view, for instance, timescales of 102 ∼106 years. Their data set extends
from the characteristics of present day sediment to historical/geological evidences. Very often the
puzzle was solved inversely, e.g. infer the causes from the result. In fact the processes that are
most significant to short-term change may not be necessarily as significant to long-term evolution.
Most of the hydraulics details have little morphological meaning. The long-term shore progression
is characterised by rather gradual, apparently non-random developments so that, even though the
underlying processes are very complex and variable, the coastal response will be rather gradual;
the response or the process itself may be averaged or simplified. Processes that are negligible at the
smaller timescales can have significant long-term effects, for example, the global sea level change.
The present model approaches the longstanding, complex, issue of coastal morphology and
grainsize distribution from a new angle. It starts from the study of characteristic aggregation of
sediment at discrete locations across the cross-shore profiles. Pioneered by Guillen and Hoekstra,
1996, the strong links between grainsize distribution and the prevailing transport direction of each
sediment constituent under ‘average’ wave and storm climate are revealed. With the help of the
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latest field observations in Terschelling, Netherlands the present work a) extends the model to
three-dimensions by introducing a wave transformation model; b) widens the simulation zone to
the depth where the seabed sediment starts to be moved by the maximum storm waves.
2 EQUILIBRIUM CURVE BASED COASTAL SEDIMENT TRANSPORT MODEL
In the present model, sediment non-uniformity is generally treated by considering a number of

discrete grain classes with a representative grain size and density of the solid matter. In principle
the bed composition is described by the fractional contributions of each grain class pks to the volume
of solid.
3
where pks is the fraction
n of the ksth grain class by volume; vol ks (m ) is the volume of sediment of
the ksth fraction; ks=1 volks , is the total sediment volume. The sum of all fractions is unity.
The model is designed for wave-dominate shallow-marine sedimentation and beach erosion. At
surface, the coastal area is divided into three zones, the active zone 1# and 2# and non-active zone.
The active zone 1# includes entire surf zone for both fair weather and storm weather. It starts from
the upper limit of average storm waves, ends at the outside edge of the outermost offshore bar. The
active zone 2# extents from the offshore boundary of zone 1# to the maximum distance of sediment
dispersion. The remaining area is defined as a non-active zone.
Following Guillen et al. (1996, 1997) the present model assumes that, for each grain size
fraction, the cross-shore equilibrium of sediment distribution curve is a steady and characteristic
curve. It is independent of the availability of each grain size fraction, and it is only affected by
hydrodynamic conditions. The shape of the equilibrium distribution curves depends on the hydro-
dynamic processes acting in the region. Those curves reflect the general time-averaged equilibrium
energy dissipation in the active zone1# . The differential behaviour of grain size fractions reveals
the selective transport and diffusion processes taking place in the active zone 1# .
Compared with the active zone 1# the active zone 2# is a weak sediment transport zone, where
the rate of sediment transport is small and created by very low frequency extreme weather condi-
tions. The Terschelling field study shows an inverse, onshore fining, trend of sediment grain size
distribution.
For a given simulation area the present multigrain model starts from a wave transformation
model (Li et al., 2003). It calculates the representative maximum storm wave propagation over the
simulated offshore region to define the wave breaking line. The offshore boundary of the active
zone 1# is assumed to be a constant distance outside the breaking line, and this distance could be
estimated by analysing the offshore grain size distribution. Then the shore boundary of zone 1# is
estimated by the local wave conditions.
The model simulates only cross-shore sediment transport and redistribution. However, it has
been successfully implemented as a sub-routine in Sedsim, along with the existing long-shore sed-
iment transport module of Sedsim. Sedsim is a comprehensive process-based stratigraphic forward
model (Griffiths et al., 2001, Tetzlaff et al., 1989).
3 STUDY AREA AND MODEL RESULTS
Terschelling is along the barrier island on the Netherlands North Sea coast. The morphological
evolution is dominated by waves. For the past three decades Terschelling has been probably of the
most intensively investigated coasts in the world. Published studies (Hoekstra et al., 1994, van
Beek, 1995, Kroon et al., 1994, Guillen and Hoekstra, 1996, Guillen and Hoekstra, 1997, Hamm
et al., 2002, Ruessink and Kroon, 1994, Storms and Swift, 2003, Guillen et al., 1999, Grunnet and
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600
00 m
125
0m
Simulation area
18º
(147591, 601451)
Figure 1. Spatial distribution of the medium grain size, D50 , in µm. After Guillen et al. 1997.
Hoekstra, 2004) along with a large quantity of high quality data from well-planned field surveys
makes Terschelling a valuable place for a numerical model test.
3.1 Sediment distribution in the natural system

The coastal sediments of Terschelling show a relatively narrow range of textures. The medium
grain sizes, D50 , ranges from 140 to 290 µm. Typically, the coarsest material being located near the
shoreline. The finest sediment is found at a mean depth of 6–7 m, immediately outside the outmost
bar (D50 = 150–160 µm), as shown in Figure 1. Grain sizes then remain constant for a distance of
about 2 km in the offshore direction, before coarsening again (D50 = 170–200 µm at −13 to −15 m
depth). This distribution pattern was observed across the entire study area. The grain size isolines
in the nearshore zone are aligned approximately parallel to the shoreline, and no longshore change
in this basic pattern is observed.
3.2 Comparison between the original and supplied sediment

The D50 of the nourished sediment in Terschelling ranges from 180 to 226 µm (average = 196 µm)
and the standard deviation is about 5 µm. the 150–200 µm fraction is of the most abundant. Its con-
tribution represents about 50% of the total sediment. The original deposits prior to the nourishment,
showed a D50 of 165–178 µm and a standard deviation of 2–3 µm. The comparison between the
original and the nourished sediment indicates that the nourished sand is coarser (by about 25 µm)
and more poorly sorted. The finest grain size fractions (100–150 and 150–200 µm) are less and
the coarser fractions are more abundant in the supplied sediment.
The observed behaviour of the average coastline position (since 1965) at Terschelling indicates
that in a decadal time scale the shoreline is in a stable position, with a very weak trend of retreat
in the scale of 0.5 m/yr (Spanhoff, 1998). After the nourishment in 1993 an unexpectedly strong
seaward increase of shoreline has been observed that still continues, 15 m/yr.
3.3 Multigrain coastal sedimentation model results

The computation grid is 125 × 60 with a square cell size of 100 m. Four representative grain sizes
were selected to represent the seabed sediment as shown in Table 1. The equilibrium distribution
curves are based on Guillen and Hoekstra’s results and modified to suit four representative grain
sizes (the original curves were given in 6 fractions). Each curve plots a percentage distribution
pattern across the active zone 1# for its fraction of sediment. The four fractions of representative
grains are coded coarse, medium, fine and finest.
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Table 1. The sediment grain composition of the actual nourishment and the model representative grain
sizes and their percentages.
100–150 150–200 200–250 250–300 300–350 >350

Grain size fractions (µm) (µm) (µm) (µm) (µm) (µm)
Supplied sediment 4% 50% 29% 8% 5% 3%

Local averaged 9% 52% 24% 9% 4% 1%
Model representative grain sizes Finest Fine Medium Coarse
120 (µm) 155 (µm) 190 (µm) 210 (µm)
Model representation of supplied sediment 5% 20% 35% 40%
Model representation of local sediment According to the map in Figure 1

where Pi is the percentage of the grains at number i cross-shore sections, i=Ni=1 Pi = 1, the subscript
i is the section number in the offshore direction which indicates the relative distance of a section
from the onshore boundary of active zone 1# . Vol i is the active sediment volume at section number i.
Comparing the breaking line with the position of the minimum seabed medium grain size (Fig-
ure 1) the boundary between active zones 1# and 2# is identified as 250 m outside the representative
storm wave breaking line.
The offshore boundary of active zone 2# is calculated by comparing the storm wave orbital
velocity at seabed with the sediment entrainment velocity of the finest sediment fraction. In this
particular case it ends up around 3000 m from the shoreline.
In order to calibrate the model parameters the model was run for 15 years, based on the 1993
bathymetry, with no nourishment. Having been validated against the available long-term shoreline
evolution data, the model was used to predict the possible response of the coast to a variety of
nourishment plans, as seen in Figure 2. Table 2 gives the comparison of shoreline movement and
the annual change of sediment volume against those shore nourishment plans.
The model results (Table 2) show that in the next 15 years the Terschelling shore-face will
geographically suffer from net erosion. Without nourishment the averaged shoreline retreat rate
would be around 0.5 m/yr. The model also found that in order to combat shoreline erosion for
the next 10 to 15 years, at least 8 million cubic metres of sediment is required, given the current
composition of nourishment grain sizes. The tactics of large volume and less frequent sediment
injection outperforms that of small volume, frequent, nourishments.
The position of sediment dumping does affect the efficiency of nourishment. Using a waterline
nourishment strategy the upper shore-face will receive 50% of the total nourished sediment, 32.9%
by nourishing to the trough, and 26.9% by dumping outside offshore bar.
It must be noted that the model is aimed at predicting long-term (1–105 year) coastal evolution.
It will not replace the existing hydrodynamic models used in coastal engineering practices.
4 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
A three dimensional numerical model for long-term (timescale: 1∼105 years) coastal sediment
transport has been developed. The model attempts to address the longstanding complex issue
of coastal morphology and grainsize distribution from the viewpoint of equilibrium distribution
curves, originally proposed by Guillen and Hoekstra (1996).
Incorporated the information conveyed by sediment grain size distribution, with the existing
Sedsim wave transformation model and multigrain/multilayer sediment transport model, the present
model has been applied to evaluate different nourishment plans in Terschelling.
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Depth m initial profile a-a Depth m initial profile b-b

6 15 years after 6 15 years after
0 0
-6 -6
m
-12 -12
Depth m Depth m
0 1000 2000 3000
profile c-c 4000 0 1000 2000 3000
profile d-d
6 6
0 0
-6 -6
m
-12 -12
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 0 1000 2000 3000 4

0 0
-6 -6
m
-12 -12
Depth
0 m 1000 2000 3000 4000 Depth m
profile c-c 0 1000 2000 3000
profile d-d 40
6 6
0 0
-6 -6
m
-12 -12
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 0 1000 2000 3000 4

0 0
-6 -6
m
-12 -12
Depth
0 m 1000 2000 3000 4000Depth
0 m 1000 2000 3000 40
6 profile c-c 6 profile d-d
0 0
-6 -6
m
-12 -12
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 0 1000 2000 3000 4
Figure 2. The predicted morphological change over 15 years with three different locations of nourishment
dumping site. The solid lines are the initial contours, the dotted lines are the predicted after 15 years.
The model is robust and the short computer run-time permits efficient model calibration and
verification.
It was found that given the volume of sediment available the tactics of large volume less frequent
implementation is better than otherwise.
Given the grainsize composition of the nourishment (1993) the best dumping location is around
the waterline.
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Table 2. Predicted shore response to natural processes and the nourishment plans over 15 years.
Volume of % of volume
Shoreline sediment supplied Volume change remained on
movement in 15 years (m3 ) above −3.3 m upper face
Average
1965–1990 survey data −0.5 m/a 0 −110,000∗ –
Model predicted in 15 years from 1993
No sediment supply −0.5 m/a 0 −41,750 –
One-off trough nourishment 2.7 m/a 8,000,000 4,506,140 56.3%
in Jan. to Mar., 1993
Continuing nourishment 2.0 m/a 8,000,000 3,492,350 43.6%
1 to the trough
2 to the trough
around the waterline
Continuing nourishment to 5.9 m/a 32,000,000 8,602,640 26.9%
outside offshore bars
∗ Estimated by NOURTEC, 1994, based on the 1982–1991 data in this period the general trend of shoreline
retreat is about 1∼5 m/year.
The model can help to better assess long-term impacts and plan precautionary interventions. It
offers an alternative tool for coastal protection decision support and nourishment optimisation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank Dr Jorge Guillen, Instituto de Ciencias del Mar-CMIMA-CSIC, Spain
and Dr Gerben Ruessink, Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Research, Utrecht University, The
Netherlands, for providing Terschelling data and suggestions on the paper.
REFERENCES
Griffiths, C.M., Dyt, C., Paraschivoiu, E., and Liu, K. 2001. Sedsim in Hydrocarbon Exploration. In
Merriam, D., Davis, J. C. (Eds) Geologic Modelling and Simulation. Kluwer Academic, New York.
Grunnet, N.M. and Hoekstra, P. 2004. Alongshore variability of the multiple barred coast of Terschelling, The
Netherlands. Marine Geology, 203, 23–41.
Guillen, J. and Hoekstra, O. 1996. The equilibrium distribution of grain size fractions and its implications for
cross-shore sediment transport: a conceptual model. Marine Geology, 135, 15–33.
Guillen, J. and Hoekstra, O. 1997. Sediment distribution in the Nearshore zone: Grain size evolution in response
to shoreface nourishment (Island of Terschelling, The Netherlands). Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science.
45: 639–652.
Guillen, J., Stive, M.J.F. and Capobianco, M. 1999. Shoreline evolution of the Holland coast on decadal scale.
Earth surface processes and landforms, 24, 517–536.
Hamm, L., Capobianco, M., Dette, H.H., Lechuga, A., Spanhoff, R. and Stive, M.J.F. 2002. A summary of
European experience with shore nourishment. Coastal Engineering, 47, 237–264.
Kroon, A., Hoekstra, P., Houwman, K.T. and Ruessink, B.G. 1994. Morphological monitoring of a shore face
nourishment. NOURTEC, experiment at terschelling, The Netherlands. Int. Conf. Coastal Engineering,
Proceeding ICCE 94, Kobe. ASCE, New York, pp. 2222–2236.
Ruessink, B.G. and Kroon, A. 1994. The behaviour of a muliple bar system in the nearshore zone ofTerschelling,
The Netherlands: 1965–1993. Marine geology, 121 1870197.
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The numerical simulation of local scour around a large cylinder

due to wave-current action
Li Yucheng, Liu Deliang, Chen Bing, Dong Guohai & Li Lingpu

The State Key Laboratory of Coastal and Offshore Engineering, Dalian University of Technology,
Dalian, China
ABSTRACT: The local scour around a large-scale vertical circular cylinder due to combined wave
and current action is studied numerically in this paper. A numerical model is established using
a finite element method. The model is consisted of two sub-models: wave-current coupled model
and sediment transport model. The coupled wave-current field is obtained by iterative calculation
of the Wave fields and current field. Then the bed shear stress and the sediment transport rate could
be computed with the velocity of the water particle. After changing the bed topography the coupled
wave and current field can be recalculated. This procedure should be repeated until the topography
is steady. The topography near the cylinder in various cases is calculated in order to research the
effect of wave height and current velocity on the result of scour. The numerical results agree well
with the physical model test data.
1 INSTRUCTIONS
Large-scale structures are widely used in coastal engineering, such as the gravity platform, the
bridge pier, the artificial island and so on. The coupled wave and current field would be evidently
changed due to the existence of the large-scale structure, and such change causes the local scour
near the structure. The local scour is one of the main factors affecting the stability of the structure.
When the cylinder diameter D is much smaller than wavelength L, the existence of the cylinder
does not influence wave and current field. As the diameter of the cylinder becomes relatively larger,
wave diffraction must be taken into account. In the case of large-scale cylinder, the vortex shedding
and horseshoe vortex, which are responsible for the scour process in the case of small-scale, will
not exist. Therefore, the scour mechanism must be different between the above two cases. The
main reason responsible for the scour and deposition is that the sediment is suspended by wave and
transported by current.
Katsui and Tue (1988), Saito (1992) investigated the scour process around the large-scale cylinder
due to wave action experimentally. Sumer and Fredese’s (2001) study indicates that the scour mainly
depends on the diffraction parameter D/L and KC number. KC number is defined as KC = UmT /D,
where Um is the maximum value of the undisturbed orbital velocity of water particle at the bed
and T is wave period. Saito and Shibayama (1992), Katsui and Tue (1992), Zhao (2002) simulated
the scour process around a large-scale cylinder due to wave action numerically. Linear wave theory
was used in their numerical models.
A numerical model using a finite element method for simulating the local scour process around
the large-scale cylinder due to combined wave and current is established in this paper. The effect
of wave parameters and current velocity on the scour is analyzed.
2 NUMERICAL MODEL
A numerical model is established using a finite element method for simulating the local scour
around a large-scale vertical circular cylinder due to combined wave and current action. The model
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consists of two sub-models: wave-current coupled model and sediment transport model. Wave field
is calculated by solving the mild-slope equation combined with both wave and current. Current
field is calculated by solving the depth averaged shallow water equation. The coupling result has
been obtained by iterative calculation of the above two fields. Then the bed shear stress and the
sediment transport rate could be computed with the velocity of the water particle. After changing
the bed topography the coupled wave and current field can be recalculated. This procedure should
be repeated until the topography is steady.
2.1 Wave and current model

2.1.1 Wave field
The mild-slope equation combined with both wave and current is solved using a finite element
method to compute wave field. This equation can be written as follows (Kirby, 1984)
where F is frictional factor of the seabed, ϕ is velocity potential, C is wave celerity, Cg is group
speed, U is current velocity, k is wave number, ω is wave angular frequency in a space coordinate
system, σ is relative frequency in the coordinate system moving with the current, σ can be obtained
by the iterative calculation of relation of wave dispersion (Li, 2004).
The inconsecutive units are used on the boundary of incidence to separate the potential of inci-
dence from the total. Because the spongy layer areas are established on the boundary to eliminate
wave, the error got with the condition of radiant boundary and the phenomena of numerical reflec-
tion are effectively eliminated. The coefficient matrix of the system of equations is stored by index
method, and only the elements not equal to zero are stored. The method of BI-CGSTAB (Van Der
Vorst, 1992) is utilized in solving the complex linear system of equations.
2.1.2 Wave radiation stress

Wave radiation stress could be obtained by three equations as follows:
where G = 2kh/sinh(2kh) k is wave number, h is water depth. The superscript * means conjugated
complex number. The complex wave surface elevation is defined as η = −iωφ/g.
2.1.3 Bed stress and friction factor

The bed stress model is based on the numerical model suggested by Christoffersen and Jonsson
(1985). The bed shear stress τcwb due to combined wave and current consists of two components:
the wave shear stress τwb and the current shear stress τcb · τcwb = τwb + τcb : The shear stress τwb and
τcb are defined as
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where fw is the wave friction factor, fc is the current friction factor, Uwb is the wave particle velocity,
U is the depth averaged current velocity. The friction factor fc and fw must be computed by iteration
(Li, 2004).
2.1.4 Current field

The current field is based on the depth averaged shallow water equations. The terms of wave
radiation stress are added in the shallow water equations for taking the wave effect on the current
into account. The shallow water equations are written as
where ς is the water surface elevation due to current, u and v are the depth averaged horizontal
velocities at the x and y directions respectively, ρ is water density, Sxx , Syy and Sxy are the components
of wave radiation stress. τcbx and τcby are the bed stress components due to current at the x and y
directions respectively.
2.1.5 Iterative calculation

Firstly, presumed the value of current velocity is zero, the wave field can be computed by the
method suggested in section 2.1.1. Based on section 2.1.3 the friction factor fc and fw can be
obtained. Based on section 2.1.2 the wave radiation stress can be computed. Then the current field
can be calculated based on section 2.1.4. Repeat the procedure with the new current field until the
result is steady.
2.2 Sediment transport model

When the sediment grain is moving along a slope bed, the critical Sheields parameter is modified as
where θc0 is the critical Sheields parameter on a flat bed, β is the direction of bed slope, γ is the
angle between the direction of bed shear stress and the direction of the bed slope, µs is the static
friction parameter of the sediment.
The instantaneous bed load qb is calculated by the formulation of Engelund and Fredsoe
The bed load is time averaged over a wave period to obtain the time averaged sediment transport
T
rate q̄b = T1 0 qb dt .
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The bed level is updated after each morphological time step by solving the conservation equation
of sediment mass
where zb is the bed level, λ is the porosity of sediment, which is assumed to be 0.4, K is a diffusion
coefficient assumed to be proportional to |q̄b |, namely K = ε|q̄b |, ε is an experiment coefficient be
set at 0.5 in this paper.
After each time step, the wave and current field, the bed shear stress and the sediment transport
rate are recalculated all according to the changed bed topography. The procedure is repeated until
the bed topography is steady.
3 EXPERIMENT SETUP AND MAIN PARAMETER
The experiments are carried out in a wave basin with width of 5 m, length of 40 m and depth of
1 m. The still water depth is 16.7 cm.
A 5 × 6 m rectangular-shaped sand pit is established in the basin as the experiment area. Its depth
is 0.3 m. The cylinder is located in the center of the experiment area. The layout of the experiment
is shown in Figure 1.
The positive x is the direction of incident wave and the current has the same direction of wave.
The median diameter of the sediment used in experiment is 0.12 mm. The diameter of the cylinder,
wave height, wave length and the current velocity are shown in Table 1. Because the scour process
happens at the current direction continuously, the sediment is put into the sand pit during the scour
process at the upstream side to insure that the bed level at the upstream side does not reduce. The
Figure 1. Experimental setup.
Table 1. Main parameters.
Case (No.) Diameter (cm) Still water depth (cm) Current velocity (cm/s) Height (cm) Period (cm/s)
1 66.7 16.7 10.06 4.18 0.845

2 66.7 16.7 4.23 4.14 0.888
3 66.7 16.7 10.06 5.06 0.868
4 36.0 16.7 10.06 5.06 0.844
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topography near the cylinder is measured every two hours until the topography of the scour pit does
not reduce or the scour and the deposition alternately appear at the maximum scour point. This
indicates that the scour has reached its limit, and then this case of experiment is over.
4 NUMERICAL RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
The calculation for the cases as mentioned in Section 2 are carried out using the method in this
paper. Figure 2 shows the comparison of the numerical contour plot of the bed topography around
Figure 2. Comparison of computed and measured topography around the cylinder.
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6 6
5 5
4 4
3 case 1 3 case 2
2 2
1 1
scour depth
scour depth
0 0
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
-5 -5
-6 -6
-7 -7
-8 -8
8 6
5
6 4
case 3 3 case 4
4
2
2 1
scour depth
0
0 scour depth -1
-2
-2
-3
-4 -4
-5
-6 -6
-7
-8
-8
-10 -9
-10
-180 -150 -120 -90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 -180 -150 -120 -90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
degree degree
Numerical results Measured data
Figure 3. Comparison between computed and measured bed levels along the cylinder periphery.
the cylinder in the equilibrium stage with the measured data. The scour area agrees well with the
measured data, but the deposition area is closer to the cylinder than the measured data. The standing
wave pattern occurs in front of the cylinder, the concave and convex of the bed shear stress contour
alternately appear, so the homocentric arcs shape can be found at the bed plane. The scour pit at a
distance of 1/4 wavelength in front of the cylinder is the deepest except the mentioned maximum
scour depth area.
Figure 3 shows the comparison of computed and measured bed levels along the periphery of the
cylinder. The trend of the scour and the deposition agree well with measured data, scour occurs
at the wave incident side of the cylinder, deposition occurs at the rear side of the cylinder. The
calculated position and depth of maximum scour agree well with the measured data for all cases.
The maximum scour depths appear in the area θ = (45◦ ∼90◦ ) and θ = −(45◦ ∼90◦ ) in all four
cases. In this area, wave height and current velocity are relative large, so the relevant shear stress
at the bed and the sediment transport rate are relative large. The maximum scour depth increases
when wave height and current velocity increase according to the comparison of the numerical
results.
5 CONCLUSION
The local scour around a large-scale vertical circular cylinder is numerically studied in this paper.
A series of cases are calculated to investigate the effect of wave parameters and current velocity on
the scour process. The numerical results agree well with the tested data in general.
According to the results, scour occurs at the wave incident side of the cylinder, deposition occurs
at the rear side of cylinder. The maximum scour depths appear in the area θ = ±(45◦ ∼90◦ ). The
maximum scour depth increases when wave height and current velocity increase.
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REFERENCES
Chrisffersen, J.B. and Jonsson, I.G. 1985. Bed friction and dissipation in combined current and Wave motion.
Ocean Eng. 12: 387–423.
Katsui, H. and Toue, T. 1988. Inception of sand motion around a large obstacle. Proc, 21st, Int Coastal
Engineering Conference, ASCE, Costa del Sol-Malaga, Spain, 2: 1280–1294.
Katsui, H. and Toue, T. 1992. Bottom stress in coexistent field of superimposed waves and current and scouring
around a large-scale circular cylinder. Coastal Engineering in Japan 35(1), 93–110.
Kirby, J.T. 1984. A note on Linear Surface Wave-Current Interaction over slowly Varying Topography. J.
Geophys, Res. 84: 745–747.
Li, Y.C., LIU, D.L., CHENG, B. and LI, L.P. 2004. Wave Diffraction in a Diagonal Current around the
Large-scale Vertical Circular Cylinder. China Offshore Platform. 3: 1–9. (in Chinese)
Saito, E. and Shibayama, T. 1992. Local scour around a large vertical cylinder on the uniform bottom slope due
to waves and current. Proc. 23rd Int. Coastal Engineering Conference, ASCE, Venice, Italy, 3: 2799–2810.
Sumer, B.M. and Fredse, J. 2001. Wave scour around a large vertical cylinder, Journal of Waterway. Port,
Coastal and Ocean Engineering 127(3): 125–134.
Van Der Vorst, H.A. 1992. BI-CGSTAB: A fast and smoothly converging variant of BI-CG for the solution of
nonsymmetric linear system. SIMA, J. Sci. Stat. Comput. 13(2): 631–644.
Zhao, M. 2002. The local scour and topographical change around offshore structures due to wave action,
Doctoral dissertation, Dalian University of Technology. (in Chinese)
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chap-30 20/9/2004 16: 28 page 239

Bragg reflection of water waves with currents
M.C. Lin
Prof., Department of Engineering Science and Ocean Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taiwan
C.M. Hsu
Ph.D., Department of Engineering Science and Ocean Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taiwan
C.L. Ting
Assoc. Prof., Department of Engineering Science and Ocean Engineering, National Taiwan University,
Taiwan
ABSTRACT: A set of Boussinesq-type equations derived by Lin et al. (2004) is applied to study
the Bragg resonant reflection. These equations can simulate complicated wave transformations
in the presence of currents. A sponge layer is used to suppress the reflection of waves from the
boundary and a source function is employed to generate the incident waves and increase numerical
stability. The numerical results reveal that the current influences the reflected coefficients and
relative wavelengths. The reflected coefficient increase with following flows and decreases with
adverse flows. Number of ripples is between four and six; the reflected coefficients decrease as the
number of ripples increases, with the same following flow. The reflected coefficients may either
increase or decrease as the number of ripples increase, for a given adverse flow. Clearly, the Bragg
resonant reflection does not vary linearly. Therefore, the nonlinear Boussinesq equations are better
than the linear equations used previously.
1 INSTRUCTION
The complex ocean environments, with various bottom topography and ocean currents, are respon-
sible for the complexity of wave transformations in the near-shore region. This complexity has
attracted the attention of researchers, and much effort has been made in this area, which is briefly
reviewed below.
When waves propagate over rapidly-varying periodically undulating bottoms, Bragg resonant
reflection occurs when the incident wave-length is twice the wave-length of the bottom undulation.
At resonance, the intensity of transmitted waves is substantially reduced and most wave energy
is reflected. This interesting phenomenon has been investigated over several decades. Davies &
Heathershaw (1984) experimentally and theoretically investigated the Bragg resonant reflection.
They calculated reflected coefficients under various conditions of incidence as waves passed over
a horizontally sinusoidally undulating bottom. The theoretical findings agreed closely with the
experimental results. Mei (1985) studied the propagation of waves over shore-parallel sinusoidal
bars and developed a theory for predicting Bragg resonant reflection. Kirby (1986) theoretically and
numerically examined the Bragg resonant reflection of waves that travel over impermeable sinus-
oidal rippled bottoms. Their results agreed with the experimental results of Davies & Heathershaw
(1984). Mase et al. (1995) derived an equation for the propagation of waves over mildly-sloping
permeable rippled bottoms. They concluded that seabed permeability is responsible for considerable
dissipation of wave energy. Ting et al. (2000) numerically investigated the effects of current on Bragg
resonant reflection using the mild-slope equation. They determined that the maximum reflection
coefficient increases with the current velocity.
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Recently, Boussinesq equation has become the most popular equation in the prediction of wave
transformations. The effect of currents on wave propagations is also important in nearshore region.
Yoon & Liu (1989) investigated the interactions between waves and currents in shallow water. A
set of Boussinesq-type equations was derived in terms of the relative magnitude of wave particle
velocity and current velocity. Prüser & Zielke (1990) also examined wave-current interactions with
large-scale currents; however, the derived equations could only be applied to a relatively small wave
number. Chen et al. (1998) derived a set of Boussinesq-type equations incorporating current effects
to simulate the phenomenon of the blocking of waves by an adverse current flow. In their equations,
currents were assumed to be uniform over depth and have a magnitude as large as the wave celerity
in shallow water. The truncations of higher-order terms from these equations; O(εµ2 , µ4 ), made
them applicable only to weakly nonlinear and dispersive wave conditions. Lin et al. (2004) derived
a set of highly nonlinear Boussinesq-type equations, which simulate the propagations of waves that
are affected by currents. Only dispersive terms higher than O(µ2 ) are omitted. All other nonlinear
terms in the equations are maintained to describe more accurately the effects of currents on wave
transformations. The equations derived by Lin et al. (2004) refer to investigate the Bragg resonant
reflection.
2 MATHEMATICAL FORMULATIONS AND NUMERICAL METHODS
The Boussinesq-type equations including current effects derived by Lin et al. (2004) are shown as
below,
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In the above equations, ∇ is the horizontal gradient operator, defined as (∂/∂x, ∂/∂y); η(x, y, t)
is water surface elevation; x = (x, y) are the horizontal coordinates coincident with the still water
surface and z is the coordinate pointing vertically upward; t is the time; g is the gravitational accel-
eration; and h = h(x, y) represents the water depth. L0 , h0 and a0 represent the characteristic wave
length, water depth and wave amplitude, respectively. ε = a0 /h0 and µ = (h0 /L0 )2 are dimension-
less parameters describing the nonlinearity and the frequency dispersion of waves, respectively. The
terms U , U = (U , V ), represents current velocity. uα is the particle velocity at z = zα . The above
four parameters (β1 , β2 , γ1 , γ2 ) can improve the wave dispersive and shoaling characteristics, as
developed by Schäffer & Madsen (1995). By suitable selection of the values of β1 , β2 , γ1 and γ2 ,
the derived equations can be applied to large relative water depth h/L0 .
To discuss the dispersive property of waves, a one-dimensional constant water depth case is
considered by linearizing the Equations (1) and (3). Then, dimensional equations can be obtained
as follows;
where α = 0.5(zα /h)2 + zα /h, β = β1 − β2 , γ = γ1 − γ2 . In this case, a progressive sinusoidal wave

train and the associated particle velocity in complex forms are assumed, respectively, as
where η0 and u0 represent the amplitudes of the free surface elevation and the particle velocity,
respectively. Substituting Equation (7) into Equations (5) and (6) yield two algebraic equations in
terms of η0 and u0 with non-trivial solutions only if the determinants vanish. Then, the dispersion
relation, including current effects is obtained as
Different parameters yield different accuracies of wave dispersion. Here, the set (α, β,
γ) = (−0.39476, 0.03917, 0.01052), suggested by Schäffer & Madsen (1995), is adopted to yield
the dispersion relation associated with a Padé [4,4] approximant.
According to Madsen & Schäffer (1998), the parameters, β and γ, in Equation (9) are calculated
using the following specific numbers,
Figure 1 plots the dispersion relation with a Padé [4,4] approximant. The abscissa represents

the dimensionless wave number, kh, and the ordinate represents the Froude number, Fr = U / gh.
2
Every line illustrates a different value of h/L0 , where L0 = g/2πT and T is the period of the wave.
Wave blocking takes place at the end of every line. The wave cannot propagate forward. The bold
line indicates that the error in relation to the linear wave theory is under 5%.
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chap-30 20/9/2004 16: 28 page 242
8
h/L0=0.05
h/L0=0.10
6 h/L0=0.15
h/L0=0.20
h/L0=0.30
kh 4 h/L0=0.50
h/L0=0.90
5% error limit
2
0
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0
Fr
Figure 1. Dispersion relation using Padé [4,4] approximant.
A Fourth-order Adams-Bashforth-Moulton predictor-corrector scheme used by Wei & Kirby

(1995) was imposed to solve the problem. A staggered gird-cell is selected as the grid system in
the numerical calculations. In this work, numerical calculations are performed here all for a one-
dimensional problem. To eliminate the numerical instability caused by the numerical reflection at
incident boundary, a source function proposed by Wei et al. (1999) is added to the computational
domain. The Sommerfeld radiation boundary condition is applied to the outgoing waves at the
far-field boundary. However, in the numerical calculations, phase velocity is difficult to predict
accurately. Some wave energy may be reflected from the radiation boundary. Therefore, a damping
layer (sponge layer), proposed by Cruz et al. (1993), is applied at the end of the computational
domain, and a damping term is added to the momentum equation.
3 NUMERICAL RESULTS AND COMPARISONS
Figure 2 depicts the computational domain. A Cartesian coordinate system is used to describe the
domain. Surface waves that propagate from left to right over a sinusoidal rippled bed are considered.
The mean water depth, h(x, y), defined as the distance between the level of still water and the mean
position of the small ripples (denoted by dashed line in Fig. 2) equals h0 . The amplitude of the
ripples, D(x, y), is a constant. M is the number of ripples and S is the wavelength of the ripples.
The time step and spatial step used in numerical calculations are fixed at t = 0.005 sec and
x = 0.05 m, respectively. The incident wave amplitude a, is at a constant 0.005 m in all tests.
The method of proposed by Goda & Suzuki (1976) is commonly used to calculate the reflection
coefficient, R defined as the reflective wave amplitude (aR ) divided by the incident wave ampli-
tude (aI ).This method works well only when no-current flows. Currents in the field modify the
wavelengths and heights of the incident and reflected waves. Therefore, based on the difference
between the incident and reflected wave-lengths, a spatial Fourier Transform is applied to separ-
ate the incident and reflected wave heights. The wave-length can be obtained from the dispersion
relation for a given current velocity, water depth and wave period. The spatial Fourier Transform
can be implemented to distinguish between incident wave height and reflective wave height. These
two methods thus yield the reflected coefficients (R = aR /aI ). Selecting the experiments done by
Davies & Heathershaw (1984) verify the numerical calculations. The dimensions of wavy bottom
are D = 0.05 m, S = 1.0 m, M = 10 and h0 = 0.313 m.
Figure 3 show that the discrepancy between the experimental and numerical results is minor.
However, the error between theory and experiments is very evident, especially around 2S/L = 1.
The reflected coefficient peaks at 2S/L = 1 in the results of the theory. However, the experimental
and calculated peaks are less than 2S/L = 1. Although the theory is a simple method for predicting
the Bragg resonant reflection, it isn’t precise for a linear assumption in forecasting the complicated
phenomenon. The present model is consistent with the experimental results. In the experiments
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chap-30 20/9/2004 16: 28 page 243
z L
x
S.W.L.
h0 U h(x,y)
M = Number of Ripple Crests

S
D
Impermeable Sea Bed Surface
Figure 2. Layout of the wavy bottom.
1
Davies and Heathershaw (1984)
Miles (1981)
present model
0.8
0.6
R
0.4
0.2
0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
2S/L
Figure 3. Comparisons among experimental, theoretical and numerical results.
conducted by Davies & Heathershaw (1984), the reflected coefficient behind the wavy bottom was
about 0.1. In the numerical calculations, the sponge layer with the radiation boundary condition,
efficiently absorb the wave energy and avoid the numerical reflection of the wave. The results are
consistent with experiments and calculations.
The effect of the number of the ripples and currents on the reflected coefficients is elucidated.
Four Froude numbers Fr = −0.10, −0.05, 0.05 and 0.10 are considered to understand the effects of
currents. The number of ripples changes for a given h0 = 0.156 m and D/h0 = 0.16. Figure 4 plots
the effect of the currents and the number of ripples on the reflected coefficients. If the number of
ripples is less than four, then the reflected coefficients are almost linearly related to the current.
When the number of ripples is between four and six, a following current increases R while an
adverse flow reduces R. However, R slightly decreases as the number of ripples increases, for a
given favorable flow. When Fr is smaller than −0.05, the same trend is observed. R varies almost
linearly from 0.65 to 0.95 with the number of between six and eight. The variation in the relative
wave-length (2S/L) of the maximum R is considered. Most values of 2S/L are between 0.97 and
1.00, when no currents flow. The ratio 2S/L falls as the number of ripples increases. If the number
of ripples is between two and four, then 2S/L decreases as the number of ripples increases, for a
given flows. When the number of ripples exceeds four but is less than six, but 2S/L increases with
the number of ripples, given adverse flows. However, when the number of ripples is between six
and eight, inclusive 2S/L does not vary regularly with that number.
These results reveal that Boussinesq-type equations can be used to simulate wave transformations
over wavy bottoms with currents. The mathematical model includes the fully nonlinear terms in the
derived equations. A comparison between experimental and theoretical results indicates that the
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8 8
7 7
6 6
M
5
M
4 4
3 3
2 2
-0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1
Fr Fr
Figure 4. Effect of currents and number of ripples on reflected coefficients and relative wave-lengths.
assumptions of linearity are not a sufficiently accurate basis for the simulation. Highly nonlinear
equations should be used to predict the interactions among waves, ripples and currents.
4 CONCLUSIONS
The phenomena associated with the interactions between waves and currents that propagate over
varying depths are known to be very complex. The Bragg resonant reflections with current effects
are investigated using a set of highly nonlinear Boussinesq-type equations, as derived by Lin et al.
(2004). The equations can accurately simulate the nonlinear phenomenon. The results demonstrate
that the reflected coefficients do not increase with the number of ripples between four and six, for
a given following flow.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank National Science Council of the Republic of China for financially
supporting this research Contract No. NSC 92-2611-E-002-009.
REFERENCES
Chen, Q., Madsen, P.A., Schäffer, H.A. & Basco D.R. 1998. Wave-Current Interaction Based on an Enhanced
Boussinesq Approach. Coastal Eng. 33: 11–39.
Cruz, E.C., Yokoki, H., Isobe, M. & Wanatabe, A. 1993. Nonreflecting Boundary Conditions for Nonlinear
Wave Equation. Proc. Of Coastal Eng., JSCE 40: 46–50. (in Japanese)
Davies, A.G. & Heathershaw, A.D. 1984. Surface-Wave Propagation over Sinusoidally Varying Topography,
J. Fluid Mech. 144: 828–845.
Goda, Y. & Suzuki, Y. 1976. Estimation of Incident and Reflected Waves in Random Wave Experiments. Proc.
15th Int. Coastal Eng. Conf., Hawaii, ASCE: 628–650.
Kirby, J.T. 1986. A General Wave Equation for Rippled Beds. J. Fluid Mech. 162: 171–186.
Lin, M.C., Hsu, C.M. & Ting, C.L. 2004. A Study on Boussinesq Equation with the Presence of Currents.
Proc. 14th Int. Offshore and Polar Eng. Conf., Toulon, France: 602–608.
Madsen, P.A. & Schäffer, H.A. 1998. Higher Order Boussinesq-type Equations for Surface Gravity Waves:
Derivation and Analysis. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. A: 3123–3184.
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Mase, H., Takeba, K. & Oki, S.I. 1995. Wave Equation over Permeable Rippled Bed and Analysis of Bragg
Scattering of Surface Gravity Waves. J. Hydraulic Research 27: 587–601.
Mei, C.C. 1985. Resonant Reflection of Surface Waves by Periodic Sandbars. J. Fluid Mech. 152: 315–335.
Prüser, H.H. & Zielke, W. 1990. Irregular Waves on a Current. Proc. 22nd Int. Conf. Coastal Eng., Delft, The
Netherlands and ASCE, New York 1: 1088–1101.
Schäffer, H.A. & Madsen, P.A. 1995. Further Enhancements of Boussinesq-Type Equations. Coastal Eng. 26:
1–14.
Ting, C.L., Lin, M.C. & Kuo C.L. 2000. Bragg Scattering of Waves over Permeable Rippled Beds with Current.
Phys. of Fluids., 12(6): 1382–1388.
Wei, G. & Kirby, J.T. 1995. Time-Dependent Numerical Code for Extended Boussinesq Equations. J. of
Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Eng., ASCE 121(5): 251–261.
Wei, G., Kirby, J.T. & Sinha, A. 1999. Generation of Waves in Boussinesq Equation Models Using a Source
Function Method. Coastal Eng. 36: 271–299.
Yoon, S.B. & Liu, P.L.-F. 1989. Interaction of Currents and Weakly Nonlinear Water Waves in Shallow Water,
J. Fluid Mech. 205: 397–419.
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The depth-dependent radiation stresses and their effect on

coastal currents
Pengzhi Lin & Dan Zhang

Department of Civil Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore
ABSTRACT: In this paper, the newly derived depth-dependent (3D) radiation stresses are pre-
sented. After vertical integration, the 3D radiation stresses revert to the traditional 2D radiation
stresses. Since surface waves influence ocean currents through radiation stresses, these 3D radiation
stresses can be incorporated into the momentum equations for currents as the additional forcing
term. Two testing cases are performed with the use of the improved POM model which includes
the 3D radiation stresses. One case is the wave set-down and set-up when propagating onshore; the
other is the steady-wind-driven flow in a closed basin with a constant water depth. The numerical
results are consistent with theoretical analysis.
1 INTRODUCTION
Surface waves can influence ocean currents in many ways, one of which is the wave-current
interaction through radiation stresses. The concept of radiation stress was introduced by Longuet-
Higgins and Stewart (1960, 1961) when studying the amplitude variation of short gravity waves
on non-uniform currents. Whitham (1962) provided a direct derivation of these results obtained
by Longuet-Higgins and Stewart from the viewpoint of physics. It should be pointed out that
the conventional radiation stress was defined in the vertically integrated form. The coupling of
waves and currents is usually accomplished by including the wave-induced depth-averaged stress
as the forcing term in the momentum equations, which thus can not represent 3D flow circulation
correctly. In reality, since the effect of surface waves on currents lessens as water goes deeper, the
depth-dependent radiation stress needs to be derived to reflect the physics. Dolata and Rosenthal
(1984) attempted to derive 3D radiation stresses, but their results are different from two-dimensional
radiation stresses given by Phillips (1977) after vertical integration. Nobuoka et al (1998, 2002
& 2003) tried to establish 3D nearshore currents model based on vertical distribution of radiation
stress developed by the authors. However, their results are somewhat too complex to be applied
easily. Mellor (2003) introduced the depth-dependent radiation stresses when studying 3D current
and surface wave equations in sigma coordinates. In the paper, a simple depth-dependent radiation
stress is newly developed in Cartesian coordinates, which is proved true after vertical integration
and can be used easily as driving force for nearshore currents.
2 DEPTH-DEPENDENT RADIATION STRESSES
Let us begin with the Navier-Stokes equations of motion. ui (i = 1, 2) denotes horizontal velocities
and w means the vertical velocity in Cartesian coordinates. In this study, we assume water density
ρ is constant and fluid viscosity is neglected. Vertical momentum equations is
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ζ(x1 , x2 , t) represents any curved plane with water consisting of the same water particles and can
be defined as ζ(x1 , x2 , t) − x3 = 0, which leads to
The free surface is expressed as ζ0 (x1 , x2 , t) and the bottom is ζ−h = −h(x1 , x2 ). The atmospheric
pressure at the surface is taken as 0 for convenience. For a horizontal bottom of depth h, we can
obtain the following surface wave solution when neglecting all nonlinearities and friction
Where k = (k1 , k2 ) is a wave number vector and σ is the angular frequency. Now, we consider a
curved plane ζz (x1 , x2 , t) − x3 = 0 which consist of the same water particles throughout the motion
and being an equipotential level z = x3 at the beginning of the motion t = t0 :
Together with equations (2) and (5), we can get the following equation if nonlinear terms in (2) are
neglected.
To estimate the mean pressure at depth z, correct to the second order in (a|k|), we need to integrate
the vertical momentum equation (1) from z to the free surface ζ0 . We can have the flowing equation
when viscosity is ignored (Mei, 1989).
At the free surface, the kinematic boundary condition is
The time average of the mean water pressure is therefore,
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Based on Airy wave theory, the time average of the second term on the right of (11) is 0. If the
mean water level doesn’t change (it is assumed 0) with time, we get
Traditionally, the 2-D radiation stress is defined to be integrated from the bottom to the free surface.
Similarly, we can get the excess horizontal momentum flux from the unsteady motion in a water
column beneath a plane ζz within one wave period.
We now calculate the first part of equation (13). T is the wave period.
After the approximation
We can obtain
E is the wave energy density. Now let us calculate the second part of equation (13).
To obtain the value of the second part, we have only to add to Tij2 the quantity
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This term P always gives a positive contribution to Zx . Actually near the mean level P is almost
given by the hydrostatic pressure expression ρg(ζz − z ); therefore
So the total radiation stress beneath a plane ζz
By the vertical differentiation, we can get the depth-dependent radiation stress.
When water depth is large (|k|h > π), we have the following expressions.
So we can get the depth-dependent radiation stress for deep water as follows
When integrated from the bottom −h to the mean water level (it is assumed 0 in this study), equation
(22) gives
which is consistent with the same result obtained by Phillips (1977).
3 VERIFICATION OF 3D RADIATION STRESSES
3.1 Wave set-up and set-down

When waves propagate onshore, the mean water level has to change to balance the gradient of
radiation stress. Usually, the wave height increases continuously before breaking which leads the
radiation stresses to be larger. The mean water level has to be lower than the still-water elevation
to balance the gradient of radiation stresses. After wave breaks, however, the wave height becomes
less gradually towards the shoreline. The mean water level rises correspondingly to a level above
the still-water elevation.
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2
wave height
wave height (m)
1.5
0.5
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0.15
mean water level (m)
3D stress
0.1 2D stress
0.05
-0.05
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
distance from the deep water (x300m)
Figure 1. The variation of wave height and the mean water level. 3D stress represents depth-dependent
radiation stresses are employed; 2D stress denotes conventional radiation stresses are used instead.
This case can be tested by a single frequency wave propagating normally from deep to shallow
water. A rectangular water area (30 km × 30 km) is employed. The slope is constant with the
maximum depth 16 m and the minimum depth 1 m. The incident wave height is 1.2 m. The variation
of wave height is calculated by wave model SWAN and Princeton Ocean Model (POM) is employ
to simulate the change of the mean water level. In Figure 1, it is shown that the mean water level
lowers gradually when the wave height increases. The maximum depression happens when wave
breaks. In the surf zone, the mean water level rises above the still water level as the wave height
changes rapidly towards the shoreline. It can be seen that 3D radiation stresses can yield the same
result as the 2D radiation stresses.
3.2 The steady-wind-driven flow in a closed basin

When neglecting advection, coriolis, horizontal diffusion and cross terms, the momentum equation
requires a balance among the surface elevation gradient, the vertical diffusion of momentum, the
surface wind stress and the bottom friction terms. Huang (1993) got the analytic solution for a
constant vertical eddy viscosity and linearized bottom friction.
and u = horizontal velocity; η = surface elevation; KM = vertical eddy viscosity; g = gravity;

τw = wind stress; h = water depth; ρ = water density; and kl = linearized bottom friction coeffi-
cient. In the numerical simulations, the flowing parameters are used: ρ = 1000 kg/m3 , g = 9.8 m/s2 ,
τw = 1.0 N/m2 , KM = 0.03 m2 /s, kl = 0.005 m/s.
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0
wind only
-0.5 analytic
3D stress
-1
-1.5
water depth (m)
-2
-2.5
-3
-3.5
-4
-4.5
-5
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
current velocity (cm/s)
Figure 2. Velocity profile when water depth is 5 m. Solid line represents the analytic solution; dash line
represents the numerical result by POM; cross means 3D radiation stresses are considered in simulation.
0
wind only
-5 analytic
3D stress
-10
water depth (m)
-15
-20
-25
-30
-35
-40
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
current velocity (cm/s)
Figure 3. Velocity profile when water depth is 40 m. Solid line represents the analytic solution; dash line
represents the numerical result by POM; cross means 3D radiation stresses are considered in simulation.
However, when a wind blows over a stretch of water, wind-induced waves will influence the
velocity structure through radiation stresses. 3D radiation stresses can be incorporated into the
momentum equations as the forcing term. In Figure 2, the velocity profile doesn’t change sig-
nificantly since wind-induced wave is small and radiation stresses vary slowly down the depth in
shallow water. By comparison, the flow velocity structure in Figure 3 shows an obvious shift along
the depth. Different from the situation in shallow water, the same wind can induce stronger waves
in deep water and radiation stresses also attenuate rapidly downward.
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4 CONCLUSIONS
In this study, depth-dependent radiation stresses are newly derived. It can be seen that 3D radiation
stresses can yield the same results as 2D radiation stresses when studying the wave set-up and
set-down. They also can be used to link two-dimensional wave models and three-dimensional
circulation models. In nearshore zones, 3D radiation stresses are more suitable for predicting
wave-driven nearshore currents.
REFERENCES
Dolata, L. F. & Rosenthal, W., (1984). Wave setup and wave-induced currents in coastal zones. Journal of
Geophysical Research, Vol. 89, pp. 1973–1982
Huang W. R., & Spaulding M., (1995). “3D model of estuary circulation and water quality induced by surface
discharges”, J. of Hydraulic Engineering, Vol. 121, No.4, pp.
Longuet-Higgins, M. S. & Stewart, R. W., (1960). Changes in the form of short gravity waves on long waves
and tidal currents. J. Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 8, pp. 565–583
Longuet-Higgins, M. S. & Stewart, R. W., (1961). The changes in amplitude of short gravity waves on steady
non-uniform currents. J. Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 10, pp. 529–549
Mei, C. C., (1989). The applied dynamics of ocean surface waves, Singapore, World Scientific, 455–466
Mellor, G. L., (2003). The three-dimensional current and surface wave equations. Journal of Physical
Oceanography, Vol. 33, pp. 1978–1989
Nobuoka, H., Mimura, N. & Kato, H., (1998). Three dimensional nearshore currents model based on the
vertical distribution of radiation stress, 26th ICCE, ASCE, 829–842
Nobuoka, H. & Mimura, N., (2002). 3-D nearshore currents model focusing on the effect of sloping bottom
on radiation stresses, 28th ICCE, ASCE, 836–848
Nobuoka, H. & Mimura, N., (2003). Precise nearshore currents model using sigma coordinate system, Asian
and Pacific Coasts
Phillips, O. M., (1977). The Dynamics of the Upper Ocean, 2nd ed., Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, pp.
61–69
Whitham, G. B., (1962). Mass, momentum and energy flux in water waves. J. Fluid Mechanics, Vol.12, pp.
135–147
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chap-32 20/9/2004 16: 29 page 255

Hydraulic efficiencies of non-wave overtopping type seawall

installed on a mound
K. Murakami
Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Miyazaki University, Miyazaki, Japan
Y. Kamikubo
Dept. of Civil Engineering, Yatsushiro National College of Technology, Kumamoto, Japan
N. Takehana
Structural Eng. Dept. Kobe Steel, LTD, Hyogo, Japan
ABSTRACT: Hydraulic efficiencies of a non-wave overtopping type seawall installed on a mound

are investigated through the experiments with a two-dimensional wave tank. The seawall has a deep
circular cross section and it effectively checks a wave overtopping by reversing an incoming wave
motion on its curved face. A critical wave height, which is defined as a maximum wave height on
which no wave overtopping occurs at all, is measured on different incident wave period and mound
length. The wave reflection coefficient and wave pressure distributions on the seawall are also
measured when the wave with the critical wave height acts on the seawall. The characteristics of
the critical wave height, wave reflection coefficient, and wave pressure distributions are discussed
under various incident wave conditions as well as mound configurations.
1 INTRODUCTION
Many types of seawalls have been proposed in order to reduce a wave overtopping without losing
coastal scenery as well as coastal utilizations. (Inoue. 1974; Takata et al. 1979; Kono et al 1993)
Authors have been developing a non-wave overtopping type seawall with a deep circular cross
section (refer as Flaring Shaped Seawall (FSS); Figure 1). The seawall effectively checks a wave
overtopping by reversing an incoming wave motion on its curved face. The seawall satisfies no wave
Figure 1. Conceptual sketch of non-wave overtopping type seawall.
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Figure 2. Schematic of experimental model.
overtopping conditions with lower crest elevation compared to a conventional upright seawall, and
the seawall could secure a safe and excellent space on it. Basic characters of the FSS with a single
cross section, such as a checking effect of the wave overtopping, wave forces and wave reflections,
have been investigated through a series of experiments. (Murakami et al. 1996; Kamikubo et al.
2000).
In an actual design of the FSS, a mound will be constructed under the seawall corresponding to
the sea bottom topography as well as the ground condition of a construction site. An inadequately
designed mound brings an impulsive wave breaking pressure on the seawalls. Goda (1986) has
pointed out some relations between mound configurations and occurrence of impulsive wave pres-
sures. Furthermore, the wave breaking on the mound might impair the checking effect of the wave
overtopping on the FSS.
This study shows, through experiments, how a mound section set under the FSS affects the
checking effect of the wave overtopping, wave pressures and wave reflection.
2 EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS
The experiments were conducted with using a two-dimensional wave tank of 20 m in length, 0.6 m
in height and 0.4 m in width. Figure 2 shows a schematic of the experimental model. The offshore
water depth was maintained at h0 = 45 cm, and the FSS with a mound was installed at the water
depth of h = 15 cm. The height of the seawall, B, is 11.5 cm and its depth, D, is set as B/D = 2.
The experiments were carried out on a different sea bottom slope of tan θ = 1/20, 1/10 and 1/8.
The mound height was maintained at hM = 10 cm, and its length was changed from WM /d = 0 to 3,
where d is a water depth above the mound.
A critical wave height, H c, which is defined as the maximum wave height on which no wave
overtopping occurs at all, was measured. An incident wave period was changed in the range from
0.8 to 2 second. Both a reflection coefficient and a wave pressure were also measured each time
when a wave with the critical wave height acted on the seawall. The waveforms of the wave pressure
were obtained by using five pressure gauges of 8 mm diameter attached at the different locations
on the curved face of the seawall. The output signals of the pressure were recorded in a digital data
recorder with 500 Hz sampling frequency. The wave reflection coefficient was obtained by Healy’s
method.
3 HYDRAULIC CHARACTERISTICS OF NON-WAVE OVERTOPPING

TYPE SEAWALL
3.1 Critical crest elevation

Figure 3 shows characteristics of a relative crest elevation, hc/H c, in case of the sea bottom slope of
tan θ = 1/20 and 1/8, respectively. The relative crest elevation shows downward trends with increase
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2 2
1.5 1.5
1 1
WM /d=0 WM /d=0
WM /d=1 WM /d=1
0.5 WM /d=2 0.5 WM /d=2
WM /d=3 Bottom Slope tan θ =1/20 WM /d=3 Bottom Slope tan θ =1/8
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
2 πh/L 2 πh/L
Figure 3. Relative crest elevation against relative water depth. (The left figure is a result for tan θ = 1/20 and
the right is for tan θ = 1/8).
2
WM /d=0
WM /d=1
1.5 WM /d=2
WM /d=3
0.5
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
Hc/L
Figure 4. Relative crest elevation against a wave steepness.
of a relative water depth in the both cases. The FSS effectively checks the wave overtopping against
the wave with a short wavelength.
In a range of short waves, the relative crest elevation shows the downward trends with the
increase of the mound length. This means that the dissipation rate of the wave height due to wave
breakings on the mound is increased in accordance with the mound length. On the other hand, the
differences of the relative crest elevation on each mound length are relatively small in longer waves.
The values of the relative crest elevation on the bottom slope of tan θ = 1/20 are nearly same as
those of the crest elevation on tan θ = 1/8 and tan θ = 1/10. These results mean that the effect of the
mound length on the relative crest elevation seems to be large compared to the effect of the bottom
slope.
Figure 4 shows a relationship between the relative crest elevation and the wave steepness defined
as H c/L. The regression curves with an involution function of H c/L are also drawn. The relative crest
elevation decreases in accordance with the increase of the incident wave steepness. As mentioned in
Figure 3, the effect of the mound length on the relative crest elevation becomes large with increase
of the wave steepness.
Murakami et al. (1996) have already investigated the relative crest elevation of the FSS in case
of H0 /L = 0.012 and 0.036, where H0 /L means the incident wave steepness. The seawall is installed
on a sea bottom without any mound. In comparison with their results, the mound increases the
relative crest elevation of the FSS about 10%∼20% compared to the crest elevation of the seawall
without the mound.
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1
tan θ =1/20
0.8 tan θ =1/10
tan θ =1/8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
WM /L
Figure 5. Wave reflection coefficient against relative mound length.
0.4 tan θ =1/10 0.4 tan θ =1/10

T=1.0sec. T=2.0sec.
0.2 0.2
0 WM /d=0 0 WM /d=0
WM /d=1 WM /d=1
-0.2 WM /d=2 -0.2 WM /d=2
WM /d=3 WM /d=3
-0.4 -0.4
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
P/ρgHc P/ρgHc
Figure 6. Wave pressure distribution on the seawall. (The left figure is a result for T = 1.0 sec. and the right
is for T = 2.0 sec.)
3.2 Wave reflection of the seawall

Figure 5 shows characteristics of a wave reflection against a relative mound length, WM /L. The
regression curves with a function of WM /L are also drawn. The reflection coefficient of each bottom
slope decreases in accordance with the increase of the relative mound length. The values of the
coefficient differ depending on the bottom slope because the breaker height, breaking point and
breaker type are different on each bottom slope. The reflection coefficient of the seawall changes
in a range from 0.7 to 0.2, and this range roughly coincide with that of a rubble mound seawall
with 20%∼30% slope. (JSCE, 2000)
The wave reflection coefficient is closely related to the wave dissipation rate in front of the
seawall. Incident waves dissipate their energy on the mound due to wave breakings, formation of
vortexes and generation of turbulences. The dissipation rate of the wave energy becomes large with
increase of the relative mound length.
3.3 Wave pressures acting on the seawall

Figure 6 shows the wave pressure distribution in case of T = 1.0 sec. and 2.0 sec., respectively. An
incident wave with the critical wave height acts on the seawall. The wave pressure distributions in
short period of T = 1.0 sec. change their forms largely depending on the relative mound length,
because the breaker height, breaking point and breaker type are different on each mound length.
High wave pressures are observed when waves break just in front of the seawall.
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3 3
Bottom Slope tan θ = 1/20 Bottom Slope tan θ = 1/8
2.5 2.5
2 2
1.5 1.5
WM /d=0 WM /d=0
1 WM /d=1 1 WM /d=1
WM /d=2 WM /d=2
0.5 0.5
WM /d=3 WM /d=3
0 0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
WM / L WM / L
Figure 7. Maximum wave pressures acting on the seawall. (The left figure is a result for tan θ = 1/20 and the
right is for tan θ = 1/8.)
On the other hand, the wave pressure distributions in long period of T = 2.0 sec. show similar
forms on each mound length. In case of longer waves, incoming waves reverse their motion without
wave breakings and a standing wave motion is formed in front of the seawall.
Figure 7 shows the characteristics of the maximum wave pressure, Pmax /(ρgH c), against the
relative mound length in case of the bottom slope of tan θ = 1/20 and 1/8, respectively. The max-
imum wave pressures vary in the range from 1.5 to 2.0 in case of the gentle bottom slope of tan
θ = 1/20. The maximum pressures distribute relatively flat and their dependency on the relative
mound length seems small.
On the other hand, the maximum pressures vary largely depending on the relative mound
length in case of the steep bottom slope of tan θ = 1/8. The pressures tend to take an extreme
value corresponding to a specific relative mound length. In this case, plunger type breakers tend
to be observed on the mound and waves with a steep front surface hit the curved seawall face
impulsively.
The variation of the maximum wave pressures in case of WM = 0 is small in a wide range of
the incident wavelength, because there is not enough length on the mound to establish the wave
breaker with steep front face. The maximum pressures in the range from 2 to 2.3 are observed in
this experiment depending on the incident wavelength as well as on the bottom slope.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Hydraulic efficiencies of the FSS installed on a mound are investigated through the experiments
with a two-dimensional wave tank.
The relative crest elevation shows decrease tendencies with increase of the incident wavelength
as well as the relative water depth. The seawall effectively checks the wave overtopping in a wide
range of the incident wavelength. The mound increases the relative crest elevation of the FSS about
10%∼20% compared to the crest elevation of the seawall without the mound.
The reflection coefficient decreases in accordance with the increase of the relative mound length.
The values of the coefficient differ depending on the bottom slope because the breaker height,
breaking point and breaker type are different on each bottom slope.
The wave pressure distribution changes its form largely depending on the relative mound length
as well as the bottom slope in a range of shorter waves. On the other hand, the wave pressure
distributions show similar forms in the range of longer waves. The pressures tend to take an
extreme value corresponding to a specific relative mound length in case of a steep bottom slope.
The variation of the maximum wave pressures in case of WM = 0 is small on a wide range of the
incident wavelength.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research was funded by the Kyushu Construction Public Utility Association in 2003.
REFERENCES
Goda, Y. 1985. Random seas and design of maritime structures, University of Tokyo Press.
Inoue, M. 1974. Hydraulic characteristics of seawall with inverted slope. Proc. 21th Conf. on Coastal Eng.,
JSCE: 417–421.
JSCE. 2000. Design manual of Coastal Facilities: Committee on Coastal Engineering, Japan Society of Civil
Engineering.
Kamikubo, Y., Murakami, K., Irie & Hamasaki, Y. 2000. Study on practical application of a non-wave
overtopping type seawall. Proc. 27th Inter. Conf. on Coastal Eng., ASCE: 2215–2228 July 2000.
Kono, T. & Takano, S. 1993. Comparison of wave overtopping rate between seawalls with various kind of cross
section. Proc. 40th Conf. on Coastal Eng., JSCE: 681–685.
Murakami, K., Irie, I. & Kamikubo, Y. 1996. Experiments on a non-wave overtopping type seawall. Proc. 25th
Inter. Conf. on Coastal Eng., ASCE: 1840–1851 September 1996.
Takata, A., Yoshida Y. & Fujikawa, H. 1979. Relationships of sectional forms of seawall and wave overtoppin.
Proc. 26th Conf. on Coastal Eng., JSCE: 285–289.
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A numerical model for low-frequency harbor oscillation

induced by wave group deformation
S. Nakamura
Port and Airport Research Institute, Yokosuka, Japan
ABSTRACT: The computation of nearshore low-frequency oscillation is essential in calculating

harbor resonance, currents and topography change. A numerical model is proposed to calculate the
2D-H nearshore low-frequency oscillation. This model uses two equations, one is the long wave
equation driven by time and space variation of radiation stress and another is the time-dependent
mild-slope equation to calculate varying radiation stress by wave. The finite volume method is
used to solve the long wave equation, which has advantage to treat low frequency wave run-up
and shoreline move. Examples, low-frequency oscillation on the beach, around breakwaters and in
harbor topography are conducted.
1 INTRODUCTION
There are two factors to determine the oscillation of low-frequency wave in harbor and nearshore
area, one is the short wave field as a source of driving force, which is varying with time and
space due to wave groupiness and its deformation. Another is the topography and location of
coastal structure as the field of resonance. For the computation of low-frequency oscillation it is
important both to calculate short wave deformation including wave groupiness and low-frequency
water motion in harbor and on the beach. Several studies on the low-frequency wave generation by
wave groups have been done analytically (Symonds et al. 1982, Schäffer 1993) and numerically
(List 1992). These previous study use the radiation stress for driven force, which is calculated by
local wave height and direction on the assumption that wave propagate on free surface. However,
nearshore waves in field are affected by bottom profile and coastal structure, and then the radiation
stress is complicated by wave group deformation.
This study is based on the previous concept of forcing term of the radiation stress gradient,
but the general formula of radiation stress is used, and develops a feasible numerical cord for
harbor geography, which composed of two hydrodynamic models. One is the low-frequency wave
module based on the two-dimensional depth-averaged non-linear shallow water equations. Another
is the short wave module based on the time-dependent mild-slope equation, which gives surface
water motion for calculating the wave-by-wave radiation stress. A preliminary computation of wave
field and low-frequency oscillation on the beach with the constant slope, around breakwater with
constant depth and computation in harbor topography are conducted.
2 NUMERICAL SCHEMES
2.1 Low-frequency wave module

The low-frequency wave module is based on the two-dimensional depth-averaged non-linear
shallow water equations:
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$ $
where d = η + h is total water depth, η is low-frequency surface elevation, h is water depth, ui is
flow velocity, t is time, xi is horizontal coordinate, %α is Coriolis parameter, τi is bottom friction
and Fi is forcing term which is given gradient of radiation stress. To solve these equations, a finite
volume method (Nakamura & Dodd 1997, 1998) is used.
This method has advantage of facilitating of shoreline motion modeling. At the shoreline there
is no special treatment boundary of condition.
2.2 Short wave module

For the purpose to calculate the radiation stress tensor, this module computes the velocity potential
at sea-surface based on the time-dependent mild-slope equation:
where φ is the velocity potential at sea-surface, c is wave celerity, cg is group velocity, k is wave
number, n = cg /c, fD is the parameter of wave breaking which comes into effect after wave breaking
criteria of H /h = 0.65.
2.3 Radiation stress tensor and driving force term

The radiation stress tensor is calculated by the general expression of formula:
where η is surface elevation by wave, ui , w is horizontal water particle velocity and vertical velocity
and ρ is water density. Symbol – indicates time averaging with wave period.
The driving force term is:
The forcing term is varying with time and space according to wave group deformation.
2.4 Input wave

The input short wave of this model has groupiness. Characteristics of wave grouping in fields are
not clear. Then in this study, characteristics of incident wave is simplified to amplitude modulated
regular wave:
where a is the wave amplitude, ωg is the angler frequency of wave group, ω is the angler frequency
of wave.
3 NUMERICAL RESULTS
3.1 Preliminary computation of wave field and low-frequency oscillation

Preliminary verification of computation results are conducted by Nakamura (2003) for wavebreak-
ing and wave set-up in the case of constant slope with amplitude modulated regular wave, in which
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Figure 1. Surface elevation and velocity field at t = 350 s.
2.0
1.5
Elevation (m), Velocity (m/s)
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
Surface elevation
-1.5 Longshore velocity
Cross-shore velocity
-2.0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Time (s)
Figure 2. Time variation of surface elevation and velocity near the shoreline y = 200 m.
results are in good agreement with the wavebreaking criterion by Goda (1975) and wave set-up
with irregular wave, and wave diffraction around breakwater with constant depth, in which result
is in good agreement with theoretical result, and longshore current in the case of constant slope
with regular wave, in which result is in good agreement with analytical result by Longuet-Higgins
(1970). In this section, preliminary computational example of low-frequency oscillation (long-
shore current and mean surface variation) is conducted in the case of constant slope with obliquely
incident amplitude modulated regular wave, and in case of constant depth and breakwater.
The amplitude modulated regular waves are incident obliquely (10.6 degree) to the beach with
slope of 1/25, and the wave height and period are 3 m and 10 s in deep water respectively. The period
of wave groups is 50 s, which means one wave group consist 5 incident waves. The computational
domain is 1000 m long in the longshore and 500 m long in the cross-shore. The grid size is 5 m. The
time step is 0.1 s for short wave and variable time less than 1s for low-frequency oscillation. The
snapshot of wave induced current and mean surface elevation after 350 s is shown in fig. 1 in which
waves are incident at the upper boundary to right-hand side, and wave set-down occurs beneath
wave groups breaking at 250 m–350 m offshore from y-axis origin, and wave set-up occur near
the shoreline where initial shoreline is at 190 m. Figure 2 shows the time variation of the surface
elevation, longshore velocity and cross-shore velocity (negative on shoreward) near the shoreline,
pointed symbol x in fig. 1. Figure 3 shows the time variation in the wave breaking area, pointed
the triangle in fig. 1. The surface elevation and velocity change with the wave group period. Near
the shoreline in fig. 2, surface elevation fluctuates around 0.5 m heights, and the surface rise and
on-shoreward strong current occur in phase. This low-frequency oscillation of surface elevation
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2.0
1.5
Elevation (m), Velocity (m/s)

1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
Surface elevation
Cross-shore velocity
-2.0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Time (s)
Figure 3. Time variation of surface elevation and velocity in the wave breaking area y = 300 m.
Figure 4. Surface elevation (upper-half ), short wave height (lower-half ) and velocity field after t = 250 s.
and cross-shore current is observed in storm condition, which attends with incident wave run-up in
field. In this computation low-frequency motion and short wave motion are solved separately, but
short waves propagate on the raised surface and affect on the low-frequency motion recursively.
In the wave breaking area, fig. 3, surface fluctuates around still water level, and weak cross-shore
current occurs. The longshore current becomes large stepwise.
Next example concerns the diffraction and reflection of wave groups. The amplitude modulated
regular waves are incident normally to the entrance of port surrounded by breakwaters in the
constant water depth of 5 m, and the wave height and period are 1 m and 10 s respectively. The
period of wave groups is 50 s. The computational domain is 145 m long in the longshore and 170 m
long in the cross-shore. The grid size is 5 m. In fig. 4, the snapshot of wave induced current, mean
surface elevation (upper-half ) and wave height distribution (lower-half ) after 250 s is shown in
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2.0
Eta rms, Elevation (m), Velocity (m/s)

1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0 Etarms by wave groups

Surface elevation
-1.5 Cross-shore velocity
Etarms by regular wave
-2.0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Time (s)
Figure 5. Time variation of surface elevation and velocity at the entrance.
2.0
Eta rms, Elevation (m), Velocity (m/s)
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0 Etarms by wave groups

Surface elevation
Etarms by regular wave
-2.0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Time (s)
Figure 6. Time variation of surface elevation and velocity behind breakwater.
which waves are incident left to right, and in phase of high wave is passing to the entrance, and
wave set-down occurs in front of break waters, and wave set-up occur in the port. In this phase
inflow current is induced by gradient of radiation stress at the entrance. Figure 5 shows the time
variation of the wave height (the root square mean value of surface motion by wave), mean-surface
elevation and cross-shore velocity at the entrance where is pointed symbol x in fig. 4. Figure 6
shows the time variation behind breakwater, pointed the triangle in fig. 4. In both figs 5 and 6, the
variation of wave height in case of regular wave is drawn. The wave height, surface elevation and
velocity change with the wave group period. At the entrance in fig. 5, in-flow over 0.5 m/s occurs
in phase of high waves, and out-flow in phase of low waves. The mean-surface in raise about 0.3 m
and its fluctuation is small. Behind breakwater, the current along the breakwater and mean-surface
are fluctuate in same phase. In case of regular wave computation there are no such fluctuations of
mean-surface and velocity at the entrance and behind breakwater after stable wave condition.
3.2 Computation with harbor topography

A private marina in special harbor where is tidal flat, reefs, fishing port and industrial port has
tranquility problem of low-frequency oscillation even if protected by breakwater in the offshore.
Figure 7 shows the model result of low-frequency current oscillation in the case that wave groups,
1 m height 10 s period and 50 s group period, is incident along the fairway.
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Unit: m, m/s
1000 0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
500 0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 .
Figure 7. Oscillation of low-frequency current.
4 CONCLUSIONS
A feasible numerical model for low-frequency harbor oscillation has been proposed which is
composed of two hydrodynamic modules, to calculate the low-frequency motion induced by the
gradient of time-varying radiation stress which based on the two-dimensional depth-averaged non-
linear shallow water equations and to calculate the short wave deformation which based on the
time-dependent mild-slope equation.
First example shows the time evolution of low-frequency motion by wave group deformation
of wave shoaling, refracting and breaking on the beach. Second example shows the low-frequency
oscillation by wave group diffraction and reflection in the harbor. Time evolution analysis shows
characteristics of wave groups make low-frequency oscillation nearshore zone and in harbor. It
may be important to study wave group characteristics in the offshore to counter harbor tranquility
against low-frequency oscillation.
Application of special harbor topography is shown. To verify this model and to counter effectively,
field measurements of wave groups and low-frequency motion in simultaneously in harbor and
offshore will need.
REFERENCES
List, J.H. 1992. A model for the generation of two-dimensional surf beat. Journal of Geophysical Research,
97(C4): 5623–5635.
Longuet-Higgins, M.S. 1970. Longshore currents generated by obliquely incident sea waves, 1. Journal of
Geophysical Research, 75, 33: 6778–6780.
Nakamura, S. & Dodd, N. 1997. A numerical model of low frequency wave motion on a beach and over reefs,
Waves97.
Nakamura, S. & Dodd, N. 1998. Observation and simulation of low-frequency waves on two natural beaches,
Proc. 26th Int. Conf. Coastal Eng.
Nakamura, S. 2003. A numerical model for sculpture due to wave run-up and long period flow generated by
wave group deformation, Technical note of the port and airport research institute, 1062. (in Japanese)
Schäffer, H.A. 1993. Infragravity waves induced by short-wave groups. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 247:
551–588.
Symonds, G., Huntley, D.A. & Bowen, A.J. 1982. Two-dimensional surf beat: long wave generation by a
time-varying breakpoint. Journal of Geophysical Research, 87(C1): 492–498.
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chap-34 20/9/2004 16: 29 page 267

Field measurements on morphological change and tidal exchange

in a mangrove estuary
Y. Nihei & T. Nakamura

Dept. of Civil Eng., Tokyo University of Science, Chiba, Japan
ABSTRACT: To investigate the morphological features and seawater exchange in a mangrove

area, we have performed a long-term monitoring for the sill morphology and tidal exchanges at the
mouth of the Fukido River located in the Ishigaki Island, Okinawa, Japan. The observed results for
the sill topography indicate that the sill height increased rapidly in the two episodic events in which
the propagation of higher ocean wave and flood flow of inflow rivers occurred. The comparison
of the discharges before and after the episodic events shows that the river discharge after the event
with relatively higher sill height was smaller than that before the event with lower sill height. This
fact demonstrates that the tidal exchanges at the river mouth are appreciably influenced by the
variations of the bottom topography of the sill.
1 INTRODUCTION
Mangrove forests with complicated-shaped roots in tropical and sub-tropical coasts are generally
located next to nearshore zone. The tide circulations cause the exchange of seawater and substances
between a mangrove area and nearshore zone, and play an important role on a rich ecosystem of
mangrove area (Wolanski et al., 1992; 2001). The tidal exchange in a mangrove estuary is known
to be appreciably influenced by the morphological features of river mouth that a vast inter-tidal flat,
referred to be here as sill, often exists between the nearshore zone and mangrove area. However,
we have poor information on the morphological change of sills and tidal exchange because studies
on these processes in mangrove estuaries are few compared to those of temperate estuaries.
To clarify the morphological features and seawater exchange in a mangrove area, in the present
study, we have performed field measurements at the mouth of the Fukido River of the Ishigaki
Island, Okinawa, Japan. Here we have done a long-term monitoring for the temporal and spatial
variations of the sill morphology. We also measured the discharges at the river mouth and then
examined the relationship between the sill topography and the river discharge.
2 OUTLINE OF FIELD MEASUREMENTS
The field site chosen for this study was the mouth of the Fukido River located in the north-west part
of the Ishigaki Island, Okinawa, Japan. The Fukido River has a mangrove-fringed estuarine section
with the area of 0.2 km2 . In this region, the area in the swamp with densely vegetated mangrove trees
is about ten times as large as that in the main channel, named creek. In the mouth of the Fukido River,
as shown in typical riverine-forest type mangroves (Lugo & Snedaker, 1974), there exists a vast sill
which is exposed at low tides. The mangrove area is usually separated with the nearshore zone at
low tides due to the exposed sill, and therefore the temporal variations of the water elevation in the
creek was appreciably distorted in this field site (Nihei et al., 2002). In the present study, we have
conducted a long-term monitoring of the sill morphology and the measurement for river discharge.
To monitor the spatial variations of the sill morphology, we made 7 surveys of the leveling over
the sill from June in 2002 to December in 2003. We selected the domain of the surveys, enclosed
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N nearshore zone Ishigaki Is.
II'
‡U
II
(a) high tide (10:54am)
,
II
,
II I II'
‡U
I II
‡U
Stn.C1
creek (b) low tide (1:38pm)
Figure 2. Situations of the sill at high and low

tides (Dec. 4, 2002).
creek (Stn.C1)
outer sea (Ishigaki Harbor)
100m swamp
WELT
water elevation [m]
Figure 1. Field site and locations of measuring 2.0
stations.
1.0
creek 0
nearshore zone sill
-1.0
0 12 0 12 0
Aug. 19, 2002 Aug. 20 Aug. 21
Figure 3. Schematic view of a spatial distribution of
water elevation between creek and nearshore zone at Figure 4. An example of water elevation in the
a low tide. creek (Stn.C1) and the outer sea (Ishigaki Harbor).
with the dashed line in Fig. 1, in which Stn.C1 is situated at the boundary between the nearshore
zone and mangrove area. To display the situations of the sill, Fig. 2 represents the photographs taken
at high and low tides, indicating that the sill inundated at the high tide was partially exposed at the
low tides. To continuously measure temporal variations of the sill height, we use time sequences of
water elevation observed in the creek. The water elevation in the creek at a low tide becomes almost
constant due to the exposed sill as shown in Fig. 3. We may think of the water elevation at a low tide,
referred to be here as WELT, as the sill height. We therefore have deployed the memory-type pressure
gauge for the measurement of the water elevation at Stn.C1 from June 29, 2002 to the present.
For the measurement of the river discharge at the mouth of the Fukido River, we deployed the
moored buoy with a current meter at Stn.C1 from September 24 to December 5, 2002. The observed
current data in the surface layer can be translated into the river discharge with the numerical sim-
ulation using the shallow-water flow model, recently presented by the authors (Nihei et al., 2004).
3.1 Temporal variations of water elevation at low tides

To indicate the fundamental variations of the water elevation in the creek, an example of the time
series of the water elevations in the creek (Stn.C1) and outer sea is shown in Fig. 4. The measuring
station of the outer sea is located at the Ishigaki Harbor. We choose the mean sea level at the Ishigaki
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WELT [m] 1 2
0.05
-0.05
-0.15
-0.25
-0.35
June 29 Aug. 8 Sep. 12 Oct. 24 Dec. 2
2002
(a) water elevation at low tides (WELT)
precipitation significant wave

[mm/day] height [m]
50 6
significant 4
100 precipitation wave height
150 2
200 0
June 29 Aug. 8 Sep. 12 Oct. 24 Dec. 2
2002
(b) precipitation and significant wave height
Figure 5. Time series of WELTs and driving forces.
Harbor as the reference plane of the water elevation. At high tides, the water elevations in the creek
and outer sea were almost in agreement. On the other hand, at low tides, the water elevation in the
creek was higher than that in the outer sea, and became almost constant. As illustrated in the above,
the difference of the water elevations between the creek and outer sea occurs due to the vast sill
exposed at low tides.
Since the water elevation at low tides (WELT) is approximately constant as depicted with crosses
in Fig. 4, we can obtain a WELT in each tide. Figure 5(a) displays the time history of the WELTs
from June to December in 2002. The WELTs at the beginning and end of the period shown in Fig.
5(a) were about –0.25 m and –0.15 m, respectively. The WELT therefore increased about 10 cm
during this period. It is noteworthy that the rapid increases in the WELTs of about 10 cm appeared
in the two episodic events: the events 1 and 2 as depicted with arrows in Fig. 5(a), occurred on
7 September and 30 October, respectively. The WELTs after the event 2 decreased slowly and
approached to those before the event 2.
To examine the fundamental mechanism of the rapid increases of the WELTs, Fig. 5(b) illus-
trates the time sequences of the significant wave height and the daily precipitation which are
generally related with topographic deformation of river mouth. We use here the wave height
observed at the Ishigaki Harbor and the precipitation measured at Ibaruma, located near the Fukido
River, by the Meteorological Agency. The comparison of Figs 5(a) and 5(b) represents that in the
event 1, the significant wave height propagating from offshore exceeded 3 m due to the approach of
the typhoon no. 0216 to the Yaeyama Islands. From the results, we can find that, in the event 1,
the sediment deposition on the sill may be caused by the propagation of the higher ocean wave.
On the other hand, in the event 2, the total precipitation reached to about 200 mm. In the event 2,
therefore, the flood flow of inflow rivers may supply a large amount of sediments into the river
mouth. These facts indicate that the WELTs may increase intermittently through the propagation
of high ocean wave and the hydrologic event of inflow rivers.
3.2 Spatial distribution of sill topography

To investigate the spatial variations of the sill topography, Fig. 6 reveals the bottom topography
surveyed in June, September and December in 2002 along the lines I–I and II–II as depicted in
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z [m] June Sep. Dec.

2.0
1.0
0.0
-1.0
-2.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 [m]
Distance from Stn.I
(a) Line I – I'
z [m] Sep. Dec.
2.0
1.0
0.0
-1.0
-2.0
0 20 40 60 80 [m]
Distance from Stn.II
(b) Line II – II'
Figure 6. Bottom topography z surveyed in 2002. Figure 7. Bathymetry map in September, 2002.
∆z > 5cm ∆z < -5cm
Contour interval:5cm
N 0 0
N 0 -5
5 0
10 -5
-1
-10
0
5
10
10 15
5 10
-5 -5 -10
-1
0 10 5
-1
-10
0 10
10
25m 25m
(a) z Sep. z June (b) z Dec. z Sep.
Figure 8. Contour of the differences of bed level z.
Fig. 1. The transverse axis in the figure means the horizontal distance from the reference points
which correspond to Stns. I and II in the lines I–I and II–II , respectively. Such as the water
elevation, the mean sea level at the Ishigaki Harbor is adopted as the reference plane of the bed
level z. Since the survey along the line II–II was not conducted in June, the only results surveyed in
September and December are shown here. In the line I–I , the overall bed levels in September and
December were rather higher and more smoothly than that in June. In the line II–II , the increase
and decrease of the bed level were exhibited in the central and western parts, respectively. Figure 7
indicates the contour of the bottom topography surveyed in September, 2002. The contour lines
were almost normal to the main flow direction in the creek.
To compare the bottom topography among June, September and December in 2002, Fig. 8
displays the differences of the bed level z over the region enclosed with the dashed line in Fig. 7.
The values of z in Figs 8(a) and (b) are defined as z|Sep. − z|June and z|Dec. − z|Sep , respectively,
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former latter
obs.
fitting curve
Qmax [m3/s] Qmax [m3/s]
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Hmax[m] ∆H [m]
(a) flood tide
Qmax [m3/s] Qmax [m3/s]

15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Hmax[m] ∆H [m]
(b) ebb tide
Figure 9. Influences of the sill height on the maximum discharge in each flood and ebb tide Qmax .
where z|June , z|Sep. and z|Dec. represent the bed levels in June, September and December, respectively.
The positive and negative values of z mean the deposition and erosion, respectively. It is found
from Fig. 8(a) that the positive z was observed in the whole region except the central region.
This indicates that the deposition process on the sill was dominant from June to September, in
2002, giving qualitatively agreements with the results of the WELTs as illustrated in Fig. 5. In Fig.
8(b), although the negative and positive values of z appeared in the region, the spatially-averaged
z was almost zero, corresponding to the result that there was no appreciable differences of the
WELTs between September and December. From these results, therefore, we can confirm that the
temporal variations of the WELTs give qualitatively agreements with the tendency of the erosion
and deposition processes on the sill.
3.3 Influence of the variations of the sill height on river discharge

The river discharge is evaluated with the numerical simulation in which the observed results for
surface velocity are assimilated. The river discharge obtained here is used to examine the relation-
ship between the river discharge and the sill topography. Figure 9 indicates the variations of the
maximum discharge in each tide, Qmax , with the tidal range in the creek, H , and the high water
level Hmax , Qmax , H and Hmax are calculated in each flood and ebb tide. The observational period
of the river discharge included the event 2 in which the rapid increase of the sill height occurred
as shown in Fig. 5. In the figures, therefore, the observed results are separately displayed in the
former and latter of the observational periods, which correspond to before and after the event 2,
respectively. The correlation between Qmax and H in the former period was almost same as that in
the latter period, while there appeared the appreciable difference of the correlations between Qmax
and Hmax in two periods. Since H is the difference of the water elevation in high and low tides,
the effects of the sill height are included in H through the WELTs. On the other hand, Hmax is
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not directly related with the sill height. These facts demonstrate that the variations of the sill height
have a significant influence on the discharge at the river mouth.
4 CONCLUSIONS
We have done the field measurements of the sill morphology and the river discharge in the Fukido
River mouth, Ishigaki Island, Okinawa, Japan. The main conclusions in the present study are as
follows:
(1) We succeeded to measure the rapid increases of the sill morphology using the WELTs observed
with the memory-type pressure gauge. The spatially-averaged height of the sill rapidly increased
due to the propagation of higher ocean wave from offshore and flooding event of inflow rivers.
(2) The relationship between the maximum discharge in each flood and ebb tide, Qmax and the
tidal range in the creek, H had a better correlation than that between Qmax and the high water
level Hmax . This fact indicates that the tidal exchanges at the river mouth are closely related
with the bathymetry of the sill.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to express their deep thanks to Prof. Nishimura, Mr. Tsunashima, Dr. Sato
and Mr. Yamasaki, Department of Civil Eng., Tokyo University of Science, for their help in
conducting field observations and performing data analysis in the present study.
REFERENCES
Wolanski, E., Mazada, Y. and Ridd, P. (1992): Mangrove hydrodynamics in Tropical mangrove ecosystems
(eds. Robertson, A.I. and Alongi, D.M.), American Geophsical Union, pp. 43–62.
Wolanski, E., Mazada, Y., Furukawa, K., Ridd, P., Kitheka, J., Spagnol, S. and Stieglitz, T. (2001): Water
circulation in mangroves, and its implications for biodiversity (ed. Wolanski, E.), CRC Press, pp. 53–76.
Lugo, A.E. and Snedaker, S.C. (1974): The ecology of mangroves, Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics,
Vol. 5, pp. 39–64.
Nihei, Y., Nadaoka, K., Aoki, Y., Wakaki, K., Yai, H. and Furukawa, K. (2002): An intensive field survey of
physical environments in a mangrove forest, ISOPE2002, Vol. 2, pp. 357–361.
Nihei, Y., Kimuzu, A. and Sato, K.: Evaluation of River Velocity and Discharge with A New Assimilated
Method, IAHR-APD 2004 (submitted).
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Modeling of beach erosion and sediment transport under storm

condition
A. Rabiee, A. Yeganeh-Bakhtiary & A. Etemad-Shahidi

Centre of Hydrostructure Research, Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran, Iran
T. Yamashita
Disaster prevention Research Institute, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
M. Larson
University of Lund, Sweden
ABSTRACT: In this study a numerical model is presented to simulate shoreline migration at

stormy condition. Storm in nearshore region induces a large amount of bed sediment motion towards
offshore direction, and consequently a sever beach changes occurs during every winter. Field
observation data at Japan Sea, in particular, indicates the nearshore hydraulics is quite influenced
by wind during storm condition. In this model, the major physical processes occurring in coastal
area during a storm is well quantified; hence model is enabled to predict the shoreline changes due
to wave- and wind-induced sediment transport. Moreover the N-line model included the effect of
cross-shore sediment transport to predict the short-term beach changes during even a single storm
and its effect on the long-term shoreline migration.
1 INTRODUCTION
The stormy condition prevails several weeks intermittently during winter season in every year. In
such a condition, at a relatively short time a large amount of sediment moves along cross-shore
direction to the offshore; hence a sever bottom topography changes occurs in nearshore region,
which termed as the storm profile. The nearshore hydraulics is quite influenced by the wind during
storm season. In particular, at Japan Sea, field observations indicates that storm induces a very
strong undertow current that enhances from surf zone to offshore zone: it acts as the main agent of
moving sediments to offshore region [Yamashita et al. (1998)].
On the other hand, numerical simulation of shoreline migration is one of the great concerns of
coastal engineers in recent years. The present numerical models can be mainly divided into two
categories: (i) one-line; and (ii) N-line models. Models based on one-line theory are giving very
reasonable results, when longshore current is acting as the main agent of sediment transport. How-
ever, these models are not able to predict the beach changes correctly for stormy beach because they
are neglecting the dominant cross-shore transport [see Hanson and Larson (2000)]. To overcome
this shortcoming, the present study introduces a version of N-line model accounting for the effect
of cross-shore transport to predict the short-term beach changes during storm season and its effect
on the long-term shoreline migration.
The N-line model works by schematizing the interested beach area into compartments between
bottom contour lines in cross-shore direction. These compartments are then discretized into a finite
number of inter-coupled horizontal layers in the along-shore direction, as shown in Fig. 1. Each
contour compartment is formulated as a one-line model linked to adjacent compartments by cross-
shore sediment transport. In order to execute the N-line model for shoreline evaluation, the wave
propagation from offshore to the breaker line must be evaluated with accuracy compatible with
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Figure 1. Beach area division in N-line model.
that of the model. This is accomplished via appropriate techniques of calculation for the breaking
wave characteristics along shoreline, as well as the longshore and cross-shore sediment transport.
Wave-induced currents and corresponding sediment transport rates are calculated at the bound-
aries of each cell and contour line movement is evaluated by conservation of sediment mass within
the system. Longshore sediment transport at the cross-shore boundaries of each cell is calculated
using a bulk longshore transport formula and a cross-shore distribution of longshore transport. The
cross-shore sediment transport rate is calculated as a product of potential transport rate and the
actual local bottom slope relative to the local equilibrium slope. This transport is divided between
the layers based on a transport distribution across the surf zone. In the longshore direction the
transport rate is based on the redistribution between layers according to an across-shore transport
distribution function.
2 GOVERNING EQUATIONS
The governing equations express the mass conservation of sand along a compartment cell as follows:
in which zi,j = contour line position; qx = cross-shore sediment transport; qy = longshore sediment
transport rate; t = time; and x, y, z = cross-shore, longshore and vertical direction, respectively.
2.1 Cross-shore transport rate

Cross-shore sediment transport rate have been separated into two modes of transport, namely bed-
load and suspended load. Hence the total cross-shore transport rate qy per unit width is expressed as
Qs = suspended load; and Cb , Cs = calibration factor of bed-load and suspend load transport with
field data for actual local transport rate. With using the shallow water approximations for calculating
Shields parameter and introducing of some simplification, a relation between bed-load rate and
breaking wave height can be reached as follows: [see Yeganeh et al. (2002)]
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in which w = grains settling velocity; d50 = mean grain diameter; Ub = horizontal near bottom
orbital velocity; Uc = current velocity; Hb = breaking wave height; and Kq,, j,c = coefficients.
The suspended transport is calculated at each grid point with Bailard and Inman (1981) energetic
approach. Bailard’s formula for on-off-shore suspended sediment transport combines the near
bottom velocity with local bottom slope and sediment parameters as follows:
in which Cf = friction coefficient; p = sediment’s porosity; Ucw = fluid bottom velocity; and
εs = coefficients of suspended load efficiency (=0.024).
2.2 Longshore transport rate

Employing a bulk sediment transport expression and a cross-shore distribution of the longshore
transport rate, the longshore transport for each contour intervals qxk may be evaluated as follows:
in which Qx = bulk longshore transport rate; Ck = coefficient of cross-shore distribution of the long-
shore transport rate at every contour intervals; Cg = wave group speed; K1 , K2 = non-dimensional
parameter; and α = angle of breaking wave to local shoreline.
3 NUMERICAL EXPERIMENT
The simulated region covers an area of 4000 m in the alongshore and 500 m offshore directions
respectively, as shown in Fig. 2. For the sake of simplicity regular and parallel contour map has
been initially assumed. The beach bathymetry is represented by 18 contours ranging from a berm
height of 1 meter to the offshore contour of −17 meters. The y-coordinates of all contour lines are
measured from a fixed baseline. The input bathymetry defined by the 50 grid cells outlined by the
representative contours and cross-shore grid lines.
The input wave condition was chosen based on the observed data of year 2000. The input wave
condition is 5.0-m high with 8.0-seconds period and 0.5-m with 4.0-seconds equivalent to the
significant wave of representative year for the storm condition and swell condition respectively.
The wave angle was set to approximate the predominate direction.
Ogata Coast
0 1 (km)
1.0 St.01
N 300m
m
St.09 200m
m
St.03 St. 10 St.11
St.04 St.06 St.07 St.12 10m
10m
St.02 St.13
St.05 St.08
Naoetsu
Harbor
Ogata Wave Observatory
Simulation Area (OWO)
Figure 2. Schematic simulation area at Ogata Coast in Japan Sea.
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Line A
Line B
Figure 3. Nearshore current system in Japan Sea.
3.1 Wind-induced current system in Japan Sea

Field observations at the Ogata Wave Observatory pier (OWO) of Kyoto University in Japan Sea
indicates that wind storm influences strongly the nearshore hydraulics by inducing a strong current
system enhances to offshore zone. Yamashita et al. (1998), Kato and Yamashita (2000) and Baba
et al. (2002) have concluded that this current system is acting as the main agent of sediment
transport to offshore region and brings a very sever beach erosion during winter monsoon. The
following formulation is given for the best fitting of the observed data
in which V = local current velocity; A(x), B(y) = reproducing periodic variation function along-
shore and cross-shore respectively; Lc = periodic variation length (Lc = 800 m); h = local depth;
zb = breaking wave depth; a, b, c = fitting coefficients.
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0 0
500 500
Alongshore distance (m)

1000 1000
1500 1500
2000 2000
2500 2500
3000 3000
3500 3500
4000 4000
0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0
Cross-shore distance (m) Cross-shore distance (m)
(a) after 3-months, storm profile (b) after 12-month, swell profile
0 0
500 500
1000 1000
1500 1500
2000 2000
2500 2500
3000 3000
3500 3500
4000 4000
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0
Cross-shore distance (m) Cross-shore distance (m)
(c) after 15-months, storm profile (d) after 24-month, swell profile
Figure 4. Simulation of bed configuration.
4 RESULT & DISCUSSION
Assuming the beach is in equilibrium at the existing conditions, the sediment transport rates calcu-
lated for the significant wind-wave climate are prorated to seasonal equivalence as indexed in Figs 4
(b, d) as swell and Figs 4 (a, c) as storm profiles. Based on the wave time series, the cross-shore
sediment transport rate is calculated at each time step according to formulation provided in the
pervious sections. A best fit value on the calibration coefficient K is determined by minimizing
the differences between measured and calculated shoreline positions resulting K = 1/12.0.
It is evident from Fig. 4 that the offshore shift of sand from berm to the bar takes place during
storm season; whereas, during swell conditions the sand shifts back onshore and the berm grows
gradually. It can also be understand that the cross-shore sediment transport, caused by the storm-
induced current, produces a significant effect on bed configuration. Therefore, the model results
show clear seasonal variations of shoreline changes. The above analysis of the sediment transport
patterns estimated by the N-line model explains the erosional beach features from the offshore
depression and the accretional cusp developed on the adjacent side in surf zone.
5 CONCLUSIVE REMARKS
The model results show that it is possible to reproduce the overall spatial and temporal behavior of
shoreline variation related to seasonal cross-shore transport using a simple N-line model approach.
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The inclusion of cross-shore sediment transport in the simulation provides more accurate predictions
of the long-term shoreline changes, due to offshore losses during storms and extreme events and
longshore transport differentials. Also representing the beach by a series of contours eliminated the
One-line model restrictive limitation of constant beach profile and allowed the profile to change
shapes according to wave condition and storm induce nearshore hydrulics. It also enables modeling
of short-terms seasonal variations. Model tests to examine N-line model predications to seasonal
variations indicated the model’s ability to simulate formations of berm beaches during summer
swell and fore-beach erosion with formation of nearshore bars and the accretional cusp developed
on the adjacent side in surf zone during winter storms.
REFERENCES
Baba, Y., T.H. Yamashita, T., A., Yeganeh-Bakhtiary, A. and T. Gobuichi (2002): “Wave and wind-induced
sediment transport and shoreline migration under storm condition”, Proc. 49th Japanese Conference on
Coastal Eng. (JCCE), JSCE, pp. 591–595. (In Japanese)
Bailard, J.A. and D.L. Inman (1981): “An energetic bed-load transport model for plane sloping beach: local
transport”, Jour. Geophysical Research, No. 86, pp. 2035–2043.
Hanson, H. and M. Larson (2000): “Simulating Coastal Evaluation Using a New Type of N-line Model”, Proc.
27th Int. Conf. on Coastal Eng. (ICCE), ASCE, Sydney, Australia, pp. 2808–2801.
Kato, S. and T. Yamashita (2000): “Three-dimensional model for wind, wave-induced coastal currents and
its verification by ADCP observation in nearshore zone”, Proc. 27th Int. Conf. on Coastal Eng. (ICCE),
ASCE, Sydney, Australia, pp. 3777–3790.
Yamashita, T., H. Yoshioka, S. Kato, Lu Ming and T. Shimoda (1998): “ADCP observation of nearshore current
structure in the surf zone”, Proc. 26th Int. Conf. on Coastal Eng. (ICCE), ASCE, Copenhagen, Denmark,
pp. 787–800.
Yeganeh-Bakhtiary, A., T. Yamashita and M. Larson (2002): “Predication of Shoreline Migration in Storm
Condition with N-line Model”, Proc. of 5th Int. Conf. on Coasts, Ports & Marine St. (ICOMPAS), Ramsar,
Iran, pp. 138–141 (paper on CD-ROM).
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Pipeline floatation in liquefied soils under waves
B. Mutlu Sumer, Figen Hatipoglu & Jørgen Fredsøe

Technical University of Denmark, MEK, Coastal and River Engineering Section (formerly ISVA),
Lyngby, Denmark
Niels-Erik Ottesen Hansen

LIC ENGINEERING A/S, Hellerup, Denmark
ABSTRACT: This paper summarizes the results of an experimental and theoretical investigation
of (1) the critical pipeline floatation in a soil (liquefied under waves) and (2) the density of the
liquefied soil. In the experiments, the soil was silt with d50 = 0.078 mm. Pipeline models of 2 cm
diameter were used. Waves (with 17 cm wave height and 1.6 s wave period, the water depth being
42 cm) were used to liquefy the soil. The pipes with specific gravity smaller than 1.85 (near the bed
surface) −2.0 (near the impermeable base) floated when the soil was liquefied. A hydrodynamic
model has been developed to predict the density of liquefied soil. The model is based on the force
balance (in the vertical direction) for a soil grain settling in the liquefied soil.
1 INTRODUCTION
Field observations show that “undrained” granular soils (silt/fine sand) can be present on the ocean
floor in the so-called loose state. These soils are prone to liquefaction under waves due to buildup
of pore-water pressure. Likewise, “undrained” (silt/fine sand) backfill soils in pipeline trenches
also are prone to liquefaction for the same reason. The stability of pipelines buried in such soils is
of major concern in practice. Of particular interest is the potential for floatation of gas pipelines.
When buried in a soil which is vulnerable to liquefaction, the pipeline can float to the surface
simply because the density of the pipeline is smaller than that of the liquefied soil. Therefore it
is important to determine the “critical” pipeline density for floatation. It is also equally important
to determine the density of liquefied soil so that assessments could be made whether or not there
is potential for pipeline floatation for a given set of soil, wave and pipeline parameters. There are
reported incidents in the literature where sections of pipelines floated to the surface during storms,
Sumer and Fredsøe (2002, p. 445). From the literature (Sumer et al., 2004) there appears to be no
consensus regarding the reported/recommended values of the critical density for pipe floatation,
and the density of liquefied soil. The purpose of the present work is to study in a systematic manner
(1) the critical floatation density of a buried pipeline, and (2) the density of liquefied soil.
2 EXPERIMENTS
2.1 The experimental setup

The experiments were carried out in a wave flume, 0.6 m in width, 0.8 m in depth and 26.5 m in
length. Waves were produced by a piston-type wave generator. The water depth was maintained
at 42 cm. The soil was placed in a 0.175 m deep, 0.59 m wide and 0.9 m long perspex box (with
transparent walls), located at a distance 12 m from the wave generator. The box was placed in the
flume so that the soil surface was flush with the false bottom of the flume. Pore-water pressure
was monitored at four depths, z = 5.5, 7.5, 12.5 and 17 cm, during the course of the pipe floatation
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tests, z being the vertical distance measured downwards from the mud line. Rosemount, model
1151 DP Alphaline, pressure transducers were used in the pore-water pressure measurements. More
information about the experimental set-up can be found in Sumer et al. (1999). In the tests, the
process of liquefaction/compaction was videotaped from the side.
2-cm-diameter perspex pipes were used as pipeline models. The length of these pipeline models
was 0.57 m, slightly smaller than the wall-to-wall width of the silt box. Small pieces of metals were
placed in the pipes to obtain desired values of the pipe density that were to be tested. (These small
pieces were distributed evenly along the length of the pipe to ensure a uniform distribution of the
load on the soil). The two ends of the pipes were then “sealed” with rubber corks. The range of the
specific gravity of pipeline tested in the experiments was sp = γp /γ = 1.47−2.05.
The way in which the test set-up was prepared for a typical test is as follows. The silt box was
filled with water. The pipeline models (three pipelines with different densities for each experimental
run) were then placed in the water at a desired depth. They were 18 cm apart. (Three pipelines rather
than a single one were used for each run to reduce the number of runs). The pipelines were held in
position by suspending them with nylon strings. The soil was placed in the water gently by hand,
rubbing it between the fingers to get rid of air bubbles, and crushing soil lumps to ensure an even
soil texture across the entire box. Then the flume was filled with water. The strings (which were
holding the pipelines) were subsequently cut, and the waves were switched on. In this way the
pipeline models were free to move when the soil was liquefied. The waves were stopped when
the liquefaction/compaction process came to an end. (The latter lasted about 7 minutes). If the
pipeline model was floated to the surface of the bed, it could be detected quite clearly. Otherwise,
the soil was “excavated” carefully to determine the pipe’s final burial depth. A total of 24 pipes
with different specific gravities were tested in the experiments.
2.2 Test conditions

The soil used in the tests was silt with d50 = 0.078 mm and the geometric standard deviation
σ = 2.7. Other properties of the soil are as follows. The specific gravity of soil grain s =
γs /γ = 2.721; the coefficient of lateral earth pressure k0 = 0.41; the maximum void ratio emax =
0.941; the minimum void ratio emin = 0.499; the specific weight of liquefied soil during liq-
uefaction γliq = 18.15−19.91 kN/m3 ; the specific gravity of liquefied soil during liquefaction
sliq = γliq /γ = 1.85−2.03. Before- and after-the-test values of various soil properties, on the other
hand, are as follows.
Before-the-test values: The void ratio e = 0.77; the total specific weight of soil γt = 19.35 kN/m3 ;
the total specific gravity γt /γ = 1.97; the submerged specific weight of soil γ = γt − γ =
9.54 kN/m3 ; the porosity n = 0.435 and the relative density Dr = (emax − e)/(emax − emin ) = 0.387.
After-the-test values: The void ratio e = 0.55; the total specific weight of soil γt = 20.70 kN/m3 ;
the total specific gravity γt /γ = 2.11; the submerged specific weight of soil γ = γt − γ =
10.89 kN/m3 ; the porosity n = 0.354 and the relative density Dr = 0.885.
Finally the wave properties are as follows. The wave height is H = 17 cm; the wave period
T = 1.6 s; the water depth h = 0.42 m; the wave length (from the linear wave theory) L = 2.89 m.
3.1 Pipeline floatation

Figure 1 displays the critical specific gravity of pipeline for floatation obtained from the present
experiments, represented by Line A. The pipeline floated in the area to the left of Line A in Fig. 1,
while it sank in the area to the right of Line A. From Fig. 1, it is seen that the “critical” specific
gravity of the pipeline for floatation, sp,cr (Line A) is not a constant set of value, but rather a function
of the burial depth, z, and is represented for the present tests by the following expression
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Figure 2. Maximum accumulated pore

Figure 1. Results of pipe floatation test. pressure.
with sp,cr = 1.85 at the mud line, increasing to a value of sp,cr = 2.03 at the impermeable base. The
pipe floats when sp < sp,cr , and it sinks when sp > sp,cr .
As mentioned previously, the burial depth of the pipeline at the termination of its travel upwards
(as well as downwards) also was measured. It was found that this depth, when plotted against the
specific gravity of pipeline, coincided precisely with Line A in Fig. 1. This implies that the pipe
stops (in its travel upwards or downwards) at the depth where its specific gravity is equal to the
critical specific gravity for floatation sp = sp,cr . The latter indicates that the pipeline acted as a
hydrometer, the instrument to measure density of liquids.
3.2 Specific gravity of liquefied soil

The specific gravity of liquefied soil, sliq = γliq /γ, in the present tests was obtained in three dif-
ferent ways: (1) From the floatation tests where the pipe is considered to act as a hydrometer; (2)
From direct measurements; and (3) From the force balance equation corresponding to the critical
condition for the pipe floatation.
In the floatation tests, the pipe can be considered to have acted as a hydrometer. Therefore the
density of the liquefied soil, sliq = γliq /γ, was obtained from sliq = sp,cr where sp,cr is given in Fig. 1,
Line A. The latter data indicates that the density of the liquefied soil is not constant, but increases
with the depth as given in Eq. 1, taking the value of 1.85 at the mud line and reaching the value of
2.03 at the impermeable base, for the present tests.
The specific gravity of the liquefied soil was also measured directly by collecting samples from
the soil during liquefaction. The way in which the samples were collected is as follows. Small,
thin-wall cylindrical cups (3.8 cm in diameter and 1.9 cm in height and 0.35 mm in wall thickness)
were used to collect samples from the soil during the liquefaction phase. The samples were taken
at two different depths, z = 0.5 cm and 5 cm. (Samples could not be taken from depths larger than
5 cm because of the experimental constraints.) Five samples were collected at each depth. The
samples were dried in the oven. Wet and dry weights of the samples were determined. From
the latter, the density of the liquefied soil was obtained. The density values did not vary between
the measuring depths. The overall average specific gravity (over a sample of size 30) was found to
be sliq = γliq /γ = 1.925 with a standard deviation of 0.02. The manner in which the samples were
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collected in these tests was not precise enough to resolve the depth variation exhibited in Fig. 1.
Nevertheless, the difference between the value obtained by direct measurements and that from the
floatation tests for the interval z = 0.5–5 cm, is less than 2.5%.
The third method involves the equation of force balance for the pipe (in the vertical direction)
corresponding to the critical condition for floatation. This equation reads
in which D is the pipe diameter, Lp the pipe length, γp the pipe specific weight and p the accumulated
pore-water pressure in excess of the static pore-water pressure. The first term on the left-hand side
of the equation is the weight of the pipe, the first term on the right-hand side of the equation is the
buoyancy force and the last term is the pressure gradient force on the pipe (directed upwards).
From the preceding equation, the pipe specific gravity corresponding to the critical condition
for the pipe floatation will be
This equation enables the critical pipe specific gravity to be calculated from the measured pore-
water pressure distribution, corresponding to the liquefaction state of the soil. Figure 2 displays
this distribution. As seen, the variation is linear for z < 14 cm and it bends slightly as z increases
beyond z = 14 cm. Since the pipes in the floatation experiments are buried for z (measured from
the mud line to the centre of the pipe) <14 cm, the straight-line portion of the variation in Fig. 2
can be used to calculate the gradient ∂(p/γ)/∂z.
Once the critical pipe specific gravity is calculated from Eq. 3, this value is set equal to the
specific gravity of the liquefied soil, sliq = sp,cr ; see the discussion in the preceding paragraphs.
From Fig. 2, the pressure gradient is found to be = 0.93, and therefore the specific gravity of the
liquefied soil will be sliq = 1.93 for the range 5 cm < z < 14 cm. Apparently, the variation of the
specific gravity of the soil with the depth illustrated in Fig. 1 is not resolved in this approach.
No clear explanation has been found for this. Nevertheless, the value found for sliq agrees quite
well with those described in the previous two subsections. Particularly, the difference between the
specific gravity obtained from the force balance (1.93, for the range of z = 5–14 cm) and that from
the floatation tests (1.9–2.0 for the same range of z, see Fig. 1) is, on average, 1%.
4 A MATHEMATICAL MODEL
As indicated in the preceding section, an upward-directed pressure gradient will be generated in

the liquefied soil (Fig. 2). This pressure gradient will gradually drive the pore water upwards while
the soil grains settle due to gravity. Now, the force balance equation for a soil grain settling in the
liquefied soil reads
The first term represents the weight of the grain, the second term the buoyancy force, the third term
the drag on the grain and the fourth term the pressure-gradient force on the grain (an upward force
in excess of the static situation). Here, it is assumed that the grains have spherical shapes (with the
diameter equal to d50 ). In the preceding equation, γs is the specific weight of sediment grains, CD
the drag coefficient and w the fall velocity of grains. It may be noted that the drag force is actually
∼(V − w)2 in which V is the vertical component of the velocity corresponding to the seepage-flow
driven by the upward-directed pressure gradient. However, it can be shown that V is one order of
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magnitude smaller than w, and therefore can be neglected for the present test conditions (Sumer
et al., 2004).
Soil which can undergo residual liquefaction (i.e., the liquefaction caused by the buildup of
pore-water pressure as in the present application) is normally an “undrained” soil, such as very
fine sand and silt. Therefore, the drag on the grains can be assumed to be in the Stokes regime.
Hence, replacing the drag force with the Stokes-regime drag force, the preceding equation reads
in which ν is the kinematic viscosity and g the acceleration due to gravity. The kinematic viscosity
ν and the fall velocity w are functions of solid concentration, c (e.g., Cheng, 1997):
in which ν0 and w0 are, respectively, the kinematic viscosity and the fall velocity with dilute
concentrations. (c is the volume concentration). For a single grain settling in water with zero solid
concentration, Eq. 5 reduces to
The accumulated pore-water pressure, p, in excess of the static pore-water pressure, reaches the
overburden pressure value at the onset of liquefaction:
From Eqs 5–8, the following equation is obtained
This is the first equation of the model. The specific gravity of the liquefied soil, on the other hand,
can be written in terms of the solid concentration as
Given the quantities γs /γ, γt /γ and k0 , the solid concentration c can be calculated from Eq. 9, and
subsequently the specific gravity of the liquefied soil can be obtained from Eq. 10.
The model was calibrated so that the calculated value of sliq matched sliq = 1.94, the depth-average
value corresponding to the range 1.85–2.03, measured in the present tests (see Section 3.2). In this
calibration exercise, the exponent n was taken as the calibration coefficient. The latter assumes a
constant value for very fine sand or silt. Baldock et al. (2004, Fig. 5) give n = 4.5 for sieve grain
size d < 0.1 mm. In the previous research, n was determined on the basis of sedimentation and
fluidization experiments. Cheng (1997) demonstrated that n is also a function of the grain specific
gravity, s, and found that n decreases with decreasing s. The present upward-directed pressure
gradient plays essentially a similar role; namely it is as if the grains have a reduced specific gravity
due to the upward-directed pressure gradient. Therefore, it is expected that n should assume values
smaller than 4.5. The calibration exercise indicated that n = 2.7.
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Figure 3. Specific gravity of liquefied soil. Model results. γs /γ = 2.65. Silty sand with emax = 0.9 and
emin = 0.3.
Figure 3 presents the model results for the specific gravity of liquefied soil for two values of
k0 . In the figure, Floatation and Sinking areas are also marked. sliq decreases with increasing γt /γ.
This is explained as follows. The force that keeps the particles in “suspension” in the liquefied soil
is the upward-directed pressure-gradient force (the second term on the left hand side of Eq. 5. This
force is proportional to γ /γ (or alternatively γt /γ), see Eq. 8. The larger the value of γt /γ, the
larger the pressure-gradient force, the more “dilute” the mixture of soil and water, and therefore
sliq should decrease with increasing γt /γ. The variation with k0 can also be explained in the
same way.
5 CONCLUSIONS
• Model pipelines were used to investigate the pipe floatation in a soil liquefied by waves. The
experiments indicate that pipes with a specific gravity smaller than 1.85–2.0 float, the critical
pipe specific gravity for floatation (the lower bound, 1.85, corresponding to the initial pipe
position near the surface of the bed, and the upper bound, 2.0, to that near the impermeable
base).
• The pipe floats (or sinks) to a depth where the pipe specific gravity is equal to the critical pipe
specific gravity for floatation.
• The specific gravity of liquefied soil varies with depth; it is 1.85 at the surface of the bed and
2.03 at the impermeable base for the present tests.
• A mathematical model (based on the force balance in the vertical direction for a soil grain
settling in the liquefied soil) has been developed to predict the specific gravity of liquefied soil
for “undrained” soils such as fine sand and silt.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This study was partially funded by the Commission of the European Communities, Directorate-
General XII for Science, Research and Development FP5 specific program “Energy, Environment
and Sustainable Development” Contract No. EVK3-CT-2000-00038, Liquefaction Around Marine
Structures LIMAS.
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REFERENCES
Baldock, T.E., Tomkins, M.R., Nielsen, P. and Hughes, M.G. (2004). Settling velocity of sediments at high
concentrations. Coastal Engineering, vol. 51, 91–100.
Cheng, N.-S. (1997). Effect of concentration on settling velocity of sediment particles. ASCE J. Hydraulic
Engineering, vol. 123, No. 8, 728–731.
Sumer B.M., Fredsøe, J., Christensen, S. and Lind, M.T. (1999). Sinking/Floatation of pipelines and other
objects in liquefied soil under waves. Coastal Engineering, vol. 38/2, October 1999, 53–90.
Sumer, B.M. and Fredsøe, J. (2002). The Mechanics of Scour in the Marine Environment. World Scientific,
552 p.
Sumer, B.M., Hatipoglu, F., Fredsøe, J. and Hansen, N.-E.O. (2004). Critical floatation density of pipelines in
soils liquefied by waves. Submitted for publication.
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Numerical simulation of fully nonlinear wave propagation
B. Teng, X.T. Zhang & D.Z. Ning

State Key Laboratory of Coastal and Offshore Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, China
ABSTRACT: In this paper, the problem of fully nonlinear water wave propagation in numerical
wave tank (NWT) is solved using the three-dimensional desingularized Eulerian Lagrangian time-
domain approach method (the DELTA method). In the desingularized approach, the fundamental
singularities generating in the flow field are placed outside the flow field, so the singularity distri-
bution can be replaced by isolated Rankine sources with the reduction in programming complexity
and CPU time. The developed model is applied to the fully nonlinear water wave propagation
in a wave tank having bottom topography. The numerical results keep good agreements with the
corresponding experimental data. The present technique can be extended to solve the problem of
fully nonlinear wave-body interaction.
1 INTRODUCTION
Accurate predictions of nonlinear wave loads acting on large offshore or coastal structures are of
practical importance in the design and operation of these structures. Although intensive efforts
have been made in evaluating the wave loads, this problem has not been completely solved. The
major difficulties associated with the nonlinear free surface simulations are: (a) the complicated
nonlinear free surface boundary conditions that have to be satisfied on the unknown instantaneous
free surface; (b) various types of numerical instabilities; (c) appropriate numerical open-boundary
conditions which can simulate the open-sea conditions; (d) substantial CPU time unless some
approximations are used.
The use of fully nonlinear time-dependent free surface boundary conditions for two-dimensional
water waves was first introduced by Longuet-Higgins and Cokelet (1976), who adopted a mixed
Eulerian-Lagrangian (MEL) time stepping technique. The two-dimensional MEL method was sub-
sequently extended by Dommermuth & Yue (1987) to study the motion-induced nonlinear waves
by axisymmetric bodies. Later, Cao et al. (1991) used similar time-stepping techniques and the
so-called desingularized boundary integral equation method (DBIEM) to study the nonlinear waves
generated by free surface pressure disturbances. Alternatively, Yang and Ertekin (1992), and Boo
(2002) used the Eulerian approach for nonlinear numerical wave tank (NWT) simulations. Recently,
Celebi et al. (1998) and Kim et al. (1998) investigated fully nonlinear wave interactions with a sta-
tionary vertical cylinder in a three-dimensional NWT with side and end beaches and their numerical
results for a series of higher harmonics. Scorpio and Beck (1998) used a desingularized method
with multipole expansion acceleration technique to reduce the computer storage and CPU time.
In this paper, the problem of fully nonlinear water wave propagation in numerical wave tank
is solved using the three-dimensional desingularized Eulerian Lagrangian time-domain approach
method (the DELTA method). In the desingularized approach, the fundamental singularities gen-
erating in the flow field are placed outside the flow field, so the singularity distribution can be
replaced by isolated Rankine sources with the reduction in programming complexity and CPU
time. The developed model is applied to the fully nonlinear water wave propagation in a wave tank
having bottom topography. The numerical results keep good agreements with the corresponding
experimental data. The present technique can be extended to solve the problem of fully nonlinear
wave-body interaction.
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Figure 1. Coordinate system and boundary surfaces.
The origin of the Cartesian coordinate system is placed in the plane of the undisturbed free surface
with the x-axis positive in the propagation direction of incoming waves and the z-axis positive in the
opposite direction of gravity as shown in Figure 1. In Figure 1, % denotes the whole fluid domain
in the wave tank. n is the unit normal vector pointing out of the fluid domain. SF , SW , SB , SI , SO
denote the boundary surface of instantaneous free surface, side wall, bottom, inflow and outflow
of the wave tank, respectively.
The fluid is assumed to be inviscid and incompressible. The problem is started from rest so that
the flow remains irrotational. Inside the whole domain, a velocity potential φ(x, y, t) exists and
satisfies the Laplace equation:
On the instantaneous free surface, both the fully nonlinear kinematic and dynamic boundary con-
ditions must be satisfied. The semi mixed Eulerian-Lagrangian schemes of the nonlinear kinematic
and dynamic boundary conditions on the free surface are directly given here by:
where η(x, y, t) denotes the wave elevation on the instantaneous free surface and g is the gravitational
acceleration. δ/δt = ∂/∂t + VP ·∇ is the time derivative following the moving node and the VP vector
equals to (0, 0, δη/δt). On the inflow boundary SI , the velocity potential is specified theoretically.
On the bottom SB and sidewall SW , the non-penetrating condition, namely, zero-normal-velocity
condition is also satisfied. On the outflow boundary SO , open boundary condition with artificial
damping is employed properly to remove the wave reflection.
The velocity potential and wave elevation are set to be φ = η = 0. A time stepping procedure is
used in which a mixed boundary value problem is solved at each time step. At each time step, the
value of the potential is given on the free surface and inflow boundary (Dirichlet boundary condition)
and the value of the normal derivative of the velocity potential (Neumann boundary condition) is
known on other boundary surfaces. After the mixed boundary value problem is solved, the free
surface elevation, potential and its normal derivative are updated.
3 NUMERICAL IMPLEMENTATION
3.1 Desingularized boundary integral equation method (DBIEM)

A DBIEM is used to solve the mixed boundary value problem for the potential at each time step. The
kinematic and dynamic free surface boundary conditions are then integrated in time. Desingularized
Rankine sources are distributed on an integration surface. This surface is offset from the physical
problem boundary so that it is moved outside of the fluid domain by a small distance. The potential
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anywhere in the fluid domain can then be calculated by integrating the influence of the sources on
the integration surface as following:
where xc is a field point in the fluid domain. xs is a source point on the integration surface, σ(xs )
is the strength of the source located at xs , G(xc ; xs ) is the Rankine source Green function, and % is
the integration surface. The Green function for the three-dimensional problem is G(xc ; xs ) = −1/
|xc − xs |. Applying the appropriate Dirichlet and Neumann boundary conditions to Eq. (3), Eq. (3)
yields the integral equations that must be solved for the unknown source strength σ(xs ) as following.
Here d is the Dirichlet boundary surface with the known velocity potential φ0 (xc ) at the point
xc , and n is the Neumann boundary surface with the known normal velocity χ(xc ) at the point
xc . After the integral equations are solved, the fluid velocities can be found without the need of
numerical difference:
In addition, we can use simply isolated sources rather than a distribution to obtain the equivalent
accuracy because of the desingularization. This greatly reduces the complexity of the form of the
influence coefficients that make up the elements of the kernel matrix. The integral Eqs. (4) and
(5) can be replaced by a discrete summation of N isolated singularities located at a small distance
away from the corresponding control point.
Cao et al. (1991) proposed the desingularized distance as Ld = ld Dmα , where ld is a parameter
that reflects how far the integral equation is desingularized, Dm is a measure of the local mesh size
(typically the square root of the panel area in three-dimensional problems) and α is a parameter
that must be chosen carefully. Cao et al. (1991) found values of ld = 1.0 and α = 0.5 to be about
optimum and also suggested the singularities to be moved in the direction normal to the boundary
surface. Lalli (1997) studied the desingularized distance on the accuracy of the numerical results
in detail.
The advantage of DBIEM is that the derivatives of the velocity potential φ can be calculated
analytically according to Eq. (6) and more accurately compared to the numerical difference in
higher-order boundary element method (HOBEM) or constant panel method (CPM).
3.2 Time stepping scheme

In the fully nonlinear free surface problem, the discrete integral equation requires the time dependent
boundary conditions. The general form of the dynamic and kinematic free surface conditions can
be rewritten as:
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The wave elevation η(x, y, t) at each time is firstly represented as a B-spline function as following:
where m, n, M , N , Bi,m (x) and Bi,m (y) are the B-spline function degree, control number and B-spline
basis function along the x- and y-directions, respectively. ci,j is the tensor-product coefficients of
B-spline function. So, the spatial derivatives of wave elevation η(x, y, t) in the Eq. (9) at each time
step can be obtained according to Eq. (10).
The Adams-Bashforth-Moulton method (ABM4) is adopted in the nonlinear wave simulation in
this paper. ABM4 scheme is a predictor and corrector method and expected to be more accurate and
robust at the expense of more CPU time. In this method, the velocity potential and wave elevation
are first predicted by the Adams-Bashforth method as following:
and then they are iteratively corrected by the Adams-Moulton algorithm:
3.3 Wave generation and absorption

The analytical waves are inputted on the inflow boundary surface. The velocity potential and wave
elevation are gradually increased with time in order to reduce the initial transient state. For instance,
the modulated potential φM (t) = fM (t)φ(t) with the modulation (or ramp) function:
where Tm is the modulation time. The modulation function satisfies the initial calm water condition.
In the present NWT simulation, the artificial damping is applied to both the dynamic and kinematic
free surface conditions inside the damping zone in front of the outgoing boundary.
The waves are damped out as much as possible before they reach the truncation boundary. For a
correct efficiency of the damping zone, the value of the coefficient must be tuned with respect to
the waves to be absorbed. Cointe et al. (1990) propose:
where ω and k are the wave frequency and wave number, x0 is the starting coordinate of the damping
zone, and α is the coefficient to be selected.
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0.025
5T
0.020 6T 0.014
7T Experiment
0.015 8T
Wave elevation (m)
Present
0.012
0.010
Amplitude (m)
0.005 0.010
0.000
0.008
-0.005
-0.010 0.006
-0.015
0 5 10 15 20 25 0.004
x (m) 0 5 10 15 20 25
x (m)
Figure 2. Wave elevation along the centerline of
wave tank at different times. Figure 3. First harmonic wave amplitude.
4 NUMERICAL RESULTS
The numerical example of the present model is applied to Whalin’s experiment. Whalin (1971)
conducted a series of laboratory experiments concerning wave convergence over a bottom
topography in a wave tank. The horizontal dimension of the wave tank used in the experiment
is 25.603 m × 6.096 m. The equations approximating the topography are given as follows:
where G(y) = [y(6.096 − y)]1/2 . Here the length variables x and y are measured in meter. Due to
the symmetrical relation, we discretized only the half domain of the wave tank in order to speed
up the computation. At the inflow boundary, the linear waves with wave period T = 3 s and wave
amplitude A = 0.0068 m are input. The length of the damping zone is equal to one wave length.
726 nodes are used to discretize the free surface, 54 nodes on the inflow boundary, 726 nodes on
the bottom and 1089 nodes on the side wall surface of the wave tank.
The modulation time TM is equal to twice the wave period, the coefficient α in Eq. (15) is 1.0
and the time step t = T /48 in our simulation for the wave propagation. The CPU time for each
time step is about 400 s. The wave elevations η at different times along the centerline of the wave
tank are shown in Figure 2. It can be seen from Figure 2 that the simulation results keep stable after
about 7 wave periods.
In order to compare the numerical results obtained by the present method with Whalin’s exper-
imental data, we adopt the Fourier analysis to the wave elevation along the centerline of the wave
tank when the computation becomes stable after several wave periods. The first, second and third
harmonic wave amplitudes are shown in Figures 3, 4 and 5, respectively. From these three figures,
it can be seen that the numerical results keep good agreements with the corresponding experimen-
tal data. It can also be seen that although the waves at the inflow boundary of the wave tank are
linear, the higher harmonics become significant because of the nonlinear feature focusing on the
shoal. The simulation results are satisfactory because the fully nonlinear kinematic and dynamic
conditions are satisfied on the instantaneous free surface.
The problem of fully nonlinear water wave propagation in numerical wave tanks is solved using
the three-dimensional desingularized Eulerian Lagrangian time-domain approach method. In the
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0.008 0.006
Present Present
0.006
0.004
Amplitude (m)
Amplitude (m)
0.004
0.002
0.002
0.000
0.000
-0.002 -0.002
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
x (m) x (m)
Figure 4. Second harmonic wave amplitude. Figure 5. Third harmonic wave amplitude.
desingularized approach, the fundamental singularities generating in the flow field are placed
outside the flow field, so the singularity distribution can be replaced by isolated Rankine sources
with the reduction in programming complexity and CPU time. The developed model is applied to
the fully nonlinear water wave propagation in a wave tank having bottom topography. The numerical
results keep good agreements with the corresponding experimental data. The present technique can
be extended to solve the problem of fully nonlinear wave-body interaction. It can be expected to
save CPU time in assembling the coefficient matrix if the multipole expansion accelerated method
(Scorpio and Beck, 1998) is applied to the present numerical method. It is also felt that a very
efficient large scale matrix solver needs to be developed for studying the longer time evolution of
fully nonlinear waves in our numerical wave tank.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research project is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under the
grant No. 50025924.
REFERENCES
Boo, S.Y. 2002. Linear and nonlinear irregular waves and forces in a numerical wave tank, Ocean Engineering
29(5): 475–493.
Cao, Y., Schultz, W.W. and Beck, R.F. 1991. Three dimensional desingularized boundary integral methods for
potential problems, Int. Journal of Num. Meth. Fluids, 12, 785–803.
Celebi, M.S., Kim, M.H. and Beck, R.F. 1998. Fully nonlinear 3-D numerical wave tank simulation, Journal
of Ship Research, 42(1), 33–45.
Cointe, R., Geyer, P., King, B., Molin,B. and Tramoni, M. 1990. Nonlinear and linear motions of a rectangular
barge in a perfect fluid, Proc. 18th ONR Symp. Naval Hydrodyn., Ann Arbor: 85–99.
Dommermuth, D.G. and Yue, D.K.P. 1987. Numerical simulation of nonlinear axisymmetric flows with a free
surface, Journal of Fluid Mechanics 178: 195–219.
Kim, M.H., Celebi, M.S. and Kim, D.J. 1998. Fully nonlinear interactions of waves with a three dimensional
body in uniform currents, Applied Ocean Research 20: 309–321.
Lalli, F. 1997. On the accuracy of the desingularized boundary integral method in free surface flow problems,
Int. J. Numer. Meth. Fluids 25: 1163–1184.
Longuet-Higgins, M.S. and Cokelet, C.D. 1976. The deformation of steep surface waves on water: I-A
numerical method of computation, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Ser.A 350: 1–26.
Scorpio, S.M. and Beck, R.F. 1998. A multipole accelerated desingularized method for computing nonlinear
wave forces on bodies, Journal of Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering 120: 71–76.
Whalin, R.W. 1971. The limit of applicability of linear wave refraction theory in a convergence zone, Res.
Rep., H-71-3, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways Expt. Station, Vicksburg, M S.
Yang, C. and Ertekin, R.C. 1992. Numerical simulation of nonlinear wave diffraction by a vertical cylinder,
Journal of Offshore Mechanical and Arctic Engineering 114: 36–44.
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Wetting and drying scheme for POM and its applications to

San Francisco Bay
Y. Uchiyama
Port and Airport Research Institute, Yokosuka, Japan
ABSTRACT: A wetting and drying scheme (WDS) is developed to incorporate into a three-
dimensional sigma-coordinate coastal ocean model with proposing an extended logarithmic profile
within bed boundary layers to accurately simulate hydrodynamics in extremely shallow coastal seas.
While WDS is simplistically formulated, it conserves water mass and has a good agreement with
the analytical solution. The model is also applied to San Francisco Bay, California, which has
considerably large intertidal areas, and is confirmed its accuracy by comparing observed data with
the model-generated tidal elevations and currents.
1 INTRODUCTION
Estuarine intertidal mudflats and salt marshes have been recognized to play a significant role in
marine environment and aquatic ecosystems. Efforts have been made to investigate hydrodynamics
and associated sediment transport as well as chemical substances attached to the sediment particles
on intertidal areas (e.g., Uchiyama et al., 2001; Talke and Stacey, 2003). A key factor dominating
hydrodynamics on intertidal areas is wetting and drying processes since they affect suction of
pore water in bed sediments influencing on sediment suspension, evaporation related to thermal
and salinity environments of overlaying seawater, rapid movement of tidal currents resulting in
formation of highly turbid “tidal bore” on the bed, and so on (Whitehouse et al., 2000). These facts
imply that it is important to resolve micro-structure in the bed boundary layer in order to precisely
assess sediment suspension and deposition.
In the present study, a wetting and drying scheme (WDS) is developed to incorporate into a
three-dimensional σ-coordinate ocean model to simulate hydrodynamics in estuaries including
intertidal areas such as mudflats and salt marshes (WD-POM). Attentions are paid particularly to
mass conservation and hydrodynamic processes near the bed by adapting an extended logarithmic
law so as to exactly predict vertical profiles of currents and turbulent structure in extremely shallow
seas. WD-POM is at first applied to a run-up problem of non-linear long-waves on a sloping beach
and is compared to the analytical solution. Next WD-POM is used to calculate tidal currents in San
Francisco Bay, California, which has large intertidal area of about 200 km2 while the total surface
area is 1240 km2 . The accuracy of WD-POM is then confirmed by the harmonic analysis of the
measured and the model-generated tidal currents.
2 METHODS
2.1 Brief description of Princeton Ocean Model

Princeton Ocean Model (POM) is based on a set of primitive equations consisting of the continu-
ity equation, the 3D Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes equations, the heat and salinity transport
equations, Mellor-Yamada level 2.5 turbulence closure model for vertical eddy motion, and the
Smagorinsky-type formulation for horizontal eddy diffusivity with the Boussinesq approximation
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and the hydrostatic assumption. The governing equations are transformed from the 3D Cartesian
coordinate into the 2DH orthogonal curvilinear coordinate and the vertical σ coordinate to follow
terrestrial topographies. The mode split technique is used in POM to solve the governing equations;
it comprises the external mode to compute fast-moving 2DH surface gravity waves and the internal
mode to estimate 3D vertical structure of currents, heat, salinity and turbulence. Several other
techniques are also used to reduce computational times but they are not essential to the present
study (for the detail, see Blumberg and Mellor, 1983).
2.2 Wetting and drying scheme

The WD-POM is configured for a pre-selected computational domain that contains both wet and
dry grid cells. A land mask function (LMF) is created to mask out all land cells during model
simulations. The LMF is assigned zero for all land cells and unity for all water cells. Technically
no flux is allowed at the land-sea interface. The value of LMF at each grid cell is re-evaluated
at each external time step based on a set of wetting/drying criteria. In the wetting and drying
calculation presented here, the first step is to define three sub-depth scales, dcr , dmin , and δ, prior
to the simulations:
The second step is to scan local water depth at each grid cell, Di, j = Hi, j + ηi, j , where Hi, j is a
vertical level in z-coordinate below MSL (mean sea level) and ηi,j is a water elevation above MSL
in z-coordinate at a certain external time step. If Di, j ≤ dcr , where dcr is a critical depth below which
WDS is applied, the grid cell is regarded as potentially dry and WDS is immediately applied. In
WDS three conditions are introduced to evaluate each of the potentially dry cell to be wet or dry by
examining the four adjacent grid cells; 1) if the water elevations at all of the four cells are less than
ηi, j , 2) if the water depths in all of the four cells are less than dcr , or 3) if all of the four cells are
effectively dry (LSM = 0). If at least one of these three conditions is satisfied, the potentially dry
grid is considered effectively dry and is subsequently removed from the computational domain; the
LMF is set to be 0. Otherwise the grid cell is considered wet and remains in the simulation to be
scanned again at the next time step; the LMF is held 1. When a cell becomes effectively dry, water
elevation ηi, j is stored in the memory and used in the next flooding. This procedure allows us to
conserve the total water volume in the whole computational domain during the simulations.
The minimum depth, dmin , is used to avoid the zero depth because the σ-transformed primitive
equations do not accept zero or negative water depths. When the horizontal grid spacing is sparse
or the time step is set relatively large, the water surface may rapidly descend and be on or below the
seabed during an external time step. Whereas WDS itself guarantees mass conservation in the whole
domain, it might sometimes fail if one employs no-zero dmin . However, the simulations become
significantly robust with no-zero dmin particularly when an external time step is set larger or very
sparse horizontal grid spacing is configured. In WD-POM, if the water depth D of a potentially
dry cell is rapidly dewatered and becomes less than dmin during one single time step, the cell is
considered effectively dry, the local water depth is held dmin , and LMF is set zero. Introducing dmin
is likely equivalent to defining a thin sub-layer on the bed as used in Zheng et al. (2003; ZH03
hereafter), but the present method seems more flexible since users can control the performance of
WD-POM by adjusting the value of dmin .
2.3 Extended logarithmic law for bed boundary layer representation

The last sub-depth scale in Eqn. (1), δ, is the most important one since it is used to retain the
logarithmic velocity profile near the bed. In other words, δ is necessary to reflect micro-structure
within or above the bottom boundary layer and indispensable to correctly estimate bed shear stresses
and resultant velocity profiles. In the original version of POM as well as the other versions used
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in the previous works by ZH03 and Xie et al. (2003), the boundary condition for the horizontal
currents at the seabed is expresses as:
where KM is vertical eddy diffusivity, U and V are horizontal 3D velocities, Cd is bed friction
coefficient, κ is the von Karman constant, σkb-1 is the lowest σ level for the horizontal current
velocities, and z0 is the roughness height usually being 1 cm in estuaries. In the intertidal areas,
variations in the water elevation η may be comparable to or greater than the water depth H relative
to MSL, so that D must be used instead of H in Eqn. (3). In simulations of estuarine tidal currents,
grid spacing may usually be logarithmically decreased towards the bed to resolve the bed boundary
layer; the value of −0.991 for σkb-1 is employed for the San Francisco Bay simulation. The extended
logarithmic law represented by Eqn. (4) is therefore introduced to reproduce the structure of the
bottom boundary layer properly.
Equation (4) omits the pre-designated maximum value for Cd , which is originally set to avoid the
boundary layer structure broken when depth is lowered to be extremely shallow, and introduces δ/z0
in the denominator. This procedure is explained technically that it corresponds to elevating the grid
system vertically at δ. In hydrodynamics no discrepancy is occurred because the bed shear stress
used to the bottom boundary condition and the estimation of other fluxes are evaluated between
the bed and the lowest grid points defined as (1 + σkb-1 )D/z0 + δ/z0 . In practice the smaller value
of δ we set, the more accurate estimation of the bed shear stresses can be achieved; the smallest
value of δ = z0 is recommended as expressed in Eqn. (5).
Together with Eqn. (5), leaving the determination of l unchanged, the vertical eddy diffusivity must
be slightly altered so that:
where SM , q and l are respectively the stability function, the square root of TKE multiplied by 2,
and the turbulent macro-scale. The final result seems equivalent to the 1D model for the oscillatory
boundary layer proposed by Mellor (2002). As illustrated in Figure 1, the structure of the bottom
boundary layer (Cd ) based on the original logarithmic law is much different from that based on
the extended log-law particularly if δ = z0 is employed and (1 + σkb-1 )D/z0 + δ/z0 approaches z0 .
Apparently the original log-law has remarkable error in estimation of Cd near the bed and the
extended log-law is found to precisely replicate the structure of the bed boundary layer. Note that δ
is not used in the σ-transformation, so that δ is independent of D and can be set zero if simulations
do not include intertidal inundation and drainage.
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(a) vertical profile of Cd (b) vertical profile of velocity, U
Figure 1. Comparison between the original B.C. and the new B.C. using the extended logarithmic law.
(a) superposition of water surface (b) shoreline positions
Figure 2. Comparison of the results from WD-POM and CG58.
Whereas WDS presented here is formulated simplistically, it guarantees mass conservation and
can control numerical robustness in accordance with the value of dmin , and replicates the benthic
boundary layer precisely particularly when computations are carried out for estuaries that have
extremely shallow or intertidal areas. The numerical solution derived from WD-POM is next
compared to the analytical solution for run-up of non-linear long-waves on a sloping beach (Carrier
and Greenspan, 1958; CG58 hereafter). Figure 2 (a) indicates superposition of water surfaces
reproduced by the model at several phases and by CG58 at the phases of 0 and 2π. The model-
generated water surfaces seem to have reasonable agreement with those by CG58 although minor
noises, that may be caused by reflected waves from the moving boundary, are produced near the
shoreline, suggesting WD-POM is capable of simulating the wetting and drying accurately. Similar
agreement is also found in the temporal variations in the shoreline positions calculated by the model
and CG58 as shown in Figure 2 (b).
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Figure 3. Bathymetric map of San Francisco Bay, California, USA (left) and the computational grid alignment
using the horizontal orthogonal curvilinear transformation (right).
Table 1. Four dominant components of harmonic constituents for tidal currents (OBS: observed, MDL:
model-predicted, DIF: difference between OBS and MDL).
Major Axis (cm/s) Orientation (◦ ) Phase Epoch (◦ )
Locations OBS MDL DIF OBS MDL DIF OBS MDL DIF
Richmond M2 75.8 68.6 −7.2 118.8 105.2 −13.6 176.4 170.8 −5.6
S2 21.6 19.3 −2.3 116.0 105.4 −10.6 172.8 168.1 −4.7
K1 23.3 21.7 −1.6 121.6 105.5 −16.1 161.8 157.9 −3.9
O1 16.7 14.0 −2.7 120.2 105.4 −14.8 155.0 148.7 −6.3
Oakland M2 52.5 48.6 −3.9 99.8 103.7 3.9 326.6 325.6 1.0
S2 14.6 16.7 1.9 102.0 103.4 1.4 318.1 318.2 0.1
K1 10.4 11.8 1.4 100.0 105.1 5.1 298.6 309.7 11.1
O1 4.5 6.0 1.5 110.7 106.8 −3.9 277.2 297.2 20.0
The model is next applied to San Francisco Bay (Figure 3), California, which has the surface area
of about 1,240 km2 and is encompassed by intertidal mudflats of about 200 km2 . South Bay is often
described as “a tidally oscillating lagoon with density-driven exchanges with the northern reach”,
and North Bay including San Pablo Bay and Suisun Bay has huge influx from the Sacramento-San
Joaquin drainage basin. The simulation is conducted for 40 days by solely imposing the astronomical
tidal elevations on the open boundary condition off Golden Gate (west of the bay mouth). The scaling
factors are set as dcr = 20 cm, dmin = 5 cm, and δ = z0 = 1 cm, respectively. The model-generated
water elevations and 3D horizontal velocities in the whole computational domain are decomposed
into 17 dominant harmonic constituents and compared to the observed data as listed in Table 1.
It is validated that the model successfully reproduces propagation of surface gravity waves and
a tidal currents observed by NOAA-NOS (2003) in San Francisco Bay. Mass conservation check
is next performed as represented in Figures 4 and 5. The volume influx at the open boundary is
almost equal to the volumetric change integrated for the whole computational domain, indicating
that the water mass is basically conserved except during the spring tide. Although some spiky but
minor errors are found during this period, it returns to have a value of about zero (i.e., no error is
measured) immediately after the spring tide.
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Figure 4. Volume influx at the open boundary, Vin , and volumetric change, Vc .
Figure 5. Errors in volume per unit area of dry cells, (Vin − Vc )/Adry : Adry is drained area.
Figure 6. Distributions of 2DH current velocities, water elevations, and dry cells at ebbing phase (left) and
high slack phase (right) during spring tide.
Instantaneous distributions of 2DH current vectors, water surface elevations, and dry cells at
two phases during the spring tide, at ebbing and high slack phases, are displayed in Figure 6. The
current fields are realistic and agree with the results by Cheng et al. (1993); the water surface rises
and descends to inundate and drain out intertidal areas fringing the bay and strong currents are
formed along the deeper channel.
A wetting and drying scheme for a three-dimensional terrain-following coastal ocean model is
developed by considering mass conservation and computational robustness. An extended logarith-
mic law for intertidal simulations is proposed to precisely reproduce the structure of bed boundary
layer particularly on intertidal areas. The model performance is validated by comparing to the CG58
theory and the observed tidal current data in San Francisco Bay to demonstrate a good agreement.
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A residual current field, a vorticity budget, mixing processes around the interfaces between inter-
tidal and deeper areas, and detailed hydrodynamics induced by wetting and drying, etc. should be
investigated in the future.
REFERENCES
Blumberg, A.F. and Mellor, G.L., 1983. Diagnostic and prognostic numerical circulation studies of the South
Atlantic Bight, J. Geophys. Res., 88: 4579–4593.
Carrier, G.F. and Greenspan, H.P., 1958. Water waves of finite amplitude of a sloping beach, J. Fluid Mech.,
4: 97–109.
Cheng, R.T., Casulli, V. and Gartner, J.W., 1993. Tidal, residual, intertidal mudflat (TRIM) model and its
application to San Francisco Bay, California, Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Sci., 36: 235–280.
Mellor, G.L., 2002. Oscillatory Boundary Layers, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 32: 3075–3088.
National Ocean Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOS-NOAA), 2003. http://www.
co-ops.nos.noaa.gov/.
Talke, S.A. and Stacey, M.T., 2003. The influence of oceanic swell on flows over an estuarine intertidal mudflat
in San Francisco Bay, Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Sci., 58: 541–554.
Uchiyama, Y., Kuriyama, Y. and Katoh, K., 2001. Suspended sediment and morphological response on Banzu
tidal flat, Japan, Proc. 4th Int’l Conf. Coastal Dynamics, ASCE: 1038–1047.
Whitehouse, R.J.S., Soulsby, R.L., Roberts, W. and Mitchener, H.J., 2000. Intertidal Processes, In: Dynamics
of estuarine muds, Thomas Telford, London, UK: 163–168.
Xie, L., Pietrafesa, L.J. and Peng, M., 2003. Incorporation of a mass-conserving inundation scheme into a
three dimensional storm surge model, J. Coastal Res., 1–17.
Zheng, L., Chen, C. and Liu, H., 2003. A modeling study of the Satilla River Estuary, Georgia. I: Flooding-
drying process and water exchange over the salt marsh-estuary-shelf complex, Estuaries, 26 (3): 651–669.
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Hydrodynamics of a perforated circular caisson and suction pipe

of a seawater intake structure
K. Vijayalakshmi, R. Sundaravadivelu, S. Neelamani & K. Murali

Research Scholar, Professor, Associate Professor & Assistant Professor
Department of Ocean Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, INDIA
ABSTRACT: Seawater intake structures are important coastal structures required for the intake
of seawater for various coastal-based industries like thermal power plants, desalination plants,
chemical plants and coastal aquaculture. Physical model study was carried out on a seawater intake
well model consisting of an impermeable cylinder encircled by a circular porous cylinder in the
Department of Ocean Engineering, IIT Madras, India in a wave flume of 2 m wide, 1.7 m deep
and 30 m length to determine the effect of porosity of a seawater intake caisson on wave forces on
the well and water surface fluctuations around the intake well. The experimental investigation was
carried out for random waves in a constant water depth of 0.7 m by varying the porosity of outer
caisson from 4.54% to 19.15%. This paper presents the simple predictive formulae for wave loads
and water surface fluctuations around the well due to regular waves.
1 INTRODUCTION
A good seawater intake structure should supply seawater continuously with minimum technical
problems and cost of the structure should be minimum so that huge source of seawater is accessible
to small scale to large-scale industry. Recently the open sea type seawater intake, consisting of
pile supported approach trestle joining an intake pump house at the seaward end and a sump at the
land ward side has received more attention. In this system, the main difficulty is that the suction
pipe is exposed to direct wave attack; sucks considerable amount of sediments, inlet is exposed
to air due to significant water surface fluctuations, especially if the water is drawn in the vicinity
of surf zones. A perforated caisson encircling the suction pipe can be used to solve the above
problems. A clear understanding of the wave loads on the inner cylinder and outer caisson and
water surface fluctuations at the interior and exterior regions of the perforated caisson are required
for design. To achieve this objective, a physical model study was performed on a perforated circular
caisson (500 mm) encircling a vertical suction pipe of 50 mm OD (Figure 1) for regular waves. The
present study focuses on the effect of porosity on wave loads on the perforated circular caisson
and the inner cylinder and water surface fluctuations around the intake well. The effect of porosity
on wave forces on the well and water surface fluctuations at a few points around the vicinity of
seawater intake caisson were studied. The magnitude of water surface fluctuations around the well
is important in the selection of the deck elevation. Specific references on the present problem
are scarce. Neelamani et al (2000) have experimentally investigated the water surface fluctuations
around the vicinity of the perforated square caisson by varying the porosity of outer caisson from
4.24% to 14.6%. Neelamani et al (2002) have studied the effect of porosity on water surface
fluctuation inside the perforated square caisson by experimental investigation varying the porosity
of outer caisson from 1.62% to 16.94%. Darwiche et al (1994) have numerically investigated on the
forces and water surface fluctuations around a vertical cylinder encircled by a semi porous circular
caisson.
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0.1375m 0.1375m
Wave
Inner cylinder 10 m
absorber
(0.05 m dia)
2m H7 H5
H4 H6 H2
Porous caisson
(0.05 m dia) H3
Wave maker
Wave
absorber
1.7m
SWL
H4 H2
0.7m H7 H5
Force balance (six component) Flume bed

30m
Figure 1. Perforated circular caisson encircling a vertical cylinder.
Table 1. Flume dimensions and wave characteristics.
Parameter Dimensions
Flume length 30 m
Flume width 2m
Flume depth 1.7 m
Water depth 0.7 m
Type of wave generator Flap type
Wave used in this study Regular and Random
Incident wave height, H 0.05 m to 0.30 m
Wave period, T 1 to 3 sec
Diameter of the inner cylinder 0.05 m
Diameter of the outer caisson, D 0.5 mf
Porosity of outer caisson, P 0%, 4.54%, 10.42%, 14.11% and 19.95%
Table 2. Different ranges of normalised parameters.
Parameter Dimensions
Incident wave steepness, Hi /L 0.006–0.112

Relative water depth, d/L 0.094–0.452
Scattering parameter, Dc /L 0.067–0.323
Relative wave height, Hi /d 0.049–0.425
2 EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP AND PROCEDURE
The dimensions of the flume and the characteristics of the waves used for the study are given in
Table 1.
The different ranges of the normalized hydrodynamic parameters obtained are given in Table 2.
Figure 1 shows the definition sketch of the present experimental investigation. Porosity of the
outer caisson was provided by drilling 3.175 cm diameter hole, uniformly on the outer surface of
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the caisson. Incident wave height (H1 ) was measured at the central position of the model with the
model removed from the flume. Six more wave probes were used in the study, one (H2 ) was kept
at the leading edge of the caisson at about 2 cm from the front face of the model to measure wave
run-up on the caisson, one (H4 ) at the trailing edge of the caisson at around 2 cm away from the
rear face of the model, three wave probes (H5 , H6 , H7 ) were kept in between caisson and vertical
cylinder to measure water surface fluctuations inside the perforated circular caisson, H5 and H7 at
a distance of 13.75 cm from the centre of the vertical cylinder and one wave probe (H3 ) was kept
in-phase with the structure so as to separate out drag and inertia forces acting on the perforated
circular caisson. The model was located at a distance of 10 m away from the wave generator and a
rubble beach to dissipate wave energy is located at the tail end of the wave flume. The whole model
was fixed on the six-component force balance to measure the in-line wave forces on the porous
caisson. The inner cylinder was fixed at the top and the wave loads acting on it were measured by
a two-component load cell attached to it at the top. Standard conductance type wave gauges were
used for the measurements of incident and scattered wave fields. Regular waves were generated
for 60 seconds and the data were collected for 60 seconds at a sampling rate of 40 Hz.
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
3.1 General
The effect of relative wave height (H/d), Scattering parameter (D/L) and Porosity of the outer cais-
son on the wave forces on the porous caisson and the inner cylinder and water surface fluctuations
around the vicinity of the well were investigated. Based on these understanding, simple formulae
to estimate the wave loads on the porous caisson, wave loads on the inner cylinder and wave height
at locations 2 to 7 (marked as H2 , H3 , H4 , H5 , H6 and H7 in Figure 1) were proposed. The force
estimates are presented as force ratios on the porous caisson and inner cylinder. The force ratio
(FX1C /FXC ) on the outer caisson is defined as the force on the porous caisson to that on a nonporous
caisson. Force ratio on the inner cylinder (FX2P /FXP ) is defined as the force on the inner cylinder
protected by the porous caisson to that on an isolated cylinder. The wave height estimates are pre-
sented as wave height ratios at different locations around the vicinity of the intake well. The wave
height ratio is defined as the ratio of between the wave heights at a location in the presence of the
perforated caisson to the wave height in the absence of the caisson.
3.2 Wave force time series on the outer caisson and inner cylinder
Typical plots for the in-line force time series on the outer porous caisson and the inner vertical
cylinder for d/L = 0.452 and Hi /L = 0.096 for different porosities of the outer circular caisson
(P = 4.54%, 10.42%, 14.11% and 19.15%) are given in Figure 2(a). Figure 2(b) shows typical plots
for the in-line force time series of the inner vertical cylinder. It is seen that with increase in porosity
of the caisson the force on the porous caisson reduces and that on the inner cylinder increases.
3.3 Predictive formula for the force ratio on the perforated circular caisson
Multiple regression analysis was carried out with force ratio as dependent variable and porosity
(P), relative cylinder diameter (Dc /L) and relative wave height (Hi /d) as independent variables to
develop predictive equations to find out the force ratio on the outer perforated circular caisson due
to regular waves. The following predictive equation is obtained:
With R = 0.982, R2 = 0.964 and Se = 0.0308. All these equations are valid for 0.049 < Hi /d < 0.425,
0.067 < Dc /L < 0.323 and 0% < P < 19.15%.
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200 p=0% 200

p=4.54%
100 100
0 0
200
p=19.15%
-100 -100
100
-200 -200
200 200 0
p=10.42% p=14.11%
100 100 -100
0 0 -200
15 16 17 18 19 20
-100 -100
-200 -200
4 4
p=4.54% p=10.42%
2 2
0 0 4
p=19.15%
-2 -2 2
-4 -4
0
4 4
p=14.11% p=100% -2
2 2
-4
0 15 16 17 18 19 20
0
-2 -2
-4 -4
Figure 2(a) & (b). Wave force time series on the outer caisson and inner cylinder.
3.4 Predictive formula for the force ratio on the inner cylinder
Multiple regression analysis was carried out to predict the wave forces on the inner cylinder due
to regular waves. This yields the following simple empirical formula:
With R = 0.9744, R2 = 0.9494 and Se = 0.0089. All these equations are valid for
0.049 < Hi /d < 0.425, 0.0067 < DP /L < 0.032 and 0% < P < 19.15%.
The high values of correlation coefficient and low values of standard error of estimate indicate
better reliability of these predictive equations in the estimation of force ratio on the perforated
caisson and inner cylinder.
3.5 Comparison of the predicted and measured wave loads on the outer porous caisson and
inner cylinder
A comparison of the predicted and measured force ratios on the outer caisson and inner cylinder
are presented in Figure 3(a) & 3(b). The prediction of force ratio appears well. From these figures,
it is clear that a force reduction to the extent of 20% to 80% on the porous caisson and 85% to
20% on the inner cylinder can be achieved for the range of porosities considered 4.54% to 19.15%,
which is very encouraging.
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1 1
Predicted Predicted
P=0% P=0%
P=4.54% P=4.54%
0.8 0.8
P=10.42% P=10.42%
P=14.11% P=14.11%
Fx2p /Fxp (Measured)

Fx1c /Fxc (Measured)
P=19.15% P=19.15%
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 Outer Caisson 0.2 Inner Cylinder
Fx1c = 1–0.03447P–0.38902
Fxc
( DL ) +0.1182(Hd )
c
Fx2p
Fxp
= 0.0209P+12.1425 ( DL )−0.2272( Hd )
p
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Fx1c /Fxc (Predicted) Fx2p /Fxp (Predicted)
Figure 3(a) & 3(b). Comparison of the predicted and measured wave loads.
1.5
p=4.54%, H=0.05m, T=1.0s wp5 wp6 wp7
1
Wave Elevation (cm)
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Time (s)
Figure 4. Typical time history for wave elevation at locations 5, 6 and 7 (wp5, wp6 and wp7).
3.6 Time series of water surface fluctuations

Figure 4 is a typical time series showing the water surface fluctuations at location 5, 6 and 7 for a
porosity of 4.54% of the caisson. This plot is given for a wave height of 0.05 m and period T = 1.0 s.
It is seen that the fluctuation at location 7 is more than that at location 5.
3.7 Predictive formulae for the water surface fluctuations

MRA was carried out on the measured average wave height ratios, H2 /H1 to H7 /H1 . The incorp-
oration of D/L, H/d and porosity does not improve the predictive formulae for all locations 2 to 7. In
order to obtain a similar type of predictive formulae, the effects of these parameters were neglected.
It is found that the magnitudes of the present water surface fluctuations at locations 3, 5 and 7 are
comparable to the results of Dawiche et al (1994), though Darwiche et al have investigated with a
semi porous circular caisson, encircling a circular inner cylinder. Darwiche et al (1994) have found
that the wave height around location 7 is higher than at location 5 and also the maximum wave
height is at the leading edge of the outer perforated caisson, similar to the present observed results
at location 5. Figure 5 is a plot to compare the predicted and measured wave heights at locations
H2 , H3 , H4 , H5 , H6 and H7 . It is seen that the comparison is pretty good at these locations around
the vicinity of the structure.
The predictive formulae for the wave height at different locations, the correlation coefficient,
R and the standard error, Se are presented in Table 3. The magnitudes of R and Se of the various
predictive equations of the water surface variations show that for practical application, these
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0.6 0.4 0.3

Predicted Predicted Predicted
0.5 p=4.54% p=4.54% 0.25 p=4.54%
p=10.42% 0.3 p=10.42% p=10.42%
0.4 0.2 p=14.11%
p=14.11% p=14.11%
p=19.15% p=19.15% p=19.15%
H5
0.3 0.2 0.15
H2
H4
0.2 0.1
0.1
0.1 H2=1.29 H1 H4=0.95 H1 0.05 H5=0.699 H1
R=0.99 R=0.98 R=0.92
Se=0.015 Se=0.015 Se=0.022
0 0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
H1 H1 H1
0.4 0.4 0.5
Predicted Predicted Predicted
p=4.54% p=4.54%
0.4 p=4.54%
0.3 p=10.42% 0.3 p=10.42% p=10.42%
p=14.11% p=14.11% p=14.11%
p=19.15% p=19.15% 0.3
p=19.15%
H6
H7
0.2 0.2
H3
0.2
0.1 0.1
H6=0.744 H1 H7=0.88 H1 0.1 H3=1.18 H1
R=0.93 R=0.96 R=0.98
Se=0.02 Se=0.02 Se=0.017
0 0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
H1 H1 H1
Figure 5. Comparison of measured and predicted wave height as a function of incident wave height at locations
H2 (m) to H7 (m) around the intake well.
Table 3. Predictive formulae for the wave heights at locations H2 to H7

around the vicinity of the structure.
Location Predictive
(refer Figure 1) formula R R2 Se
2 H2 = 1.29 H1 0.99 0.98 0.015

3 H3 = 1.18 H1 0.98 0.97 0.017
4 H4 = 0.95 H1 0.98 0.96 0.015
5 H5 = 0.70 H1 0.92 0.84 0.022
6 H6 = 0.74 H1 0.92 0.86 0.020
7 H7 = 0.88 H1 0.96 0.91 0.019
predictive formulae are accurate and reliable. The value of Se is maximum for locations 6 and
7, which is due to the fact that the porosity has a slight influence at these locations, which is
omitted to present a uniform pattern of the predictive equations for all locations. It is important to
note that the above equations are only applicable for the normalised hydrodynamic and structural
parameters studied in the present case.
4 CONCLUSIONS
The in-line forces on the outer caisson and inner cylinder and the water surface fluctuations inside
and outside the perforated circular caisson at 7 different locations were measured for regular waves
by varying the porosity of outer caisson. Based on this study, simple predictive formulae were
obtained. The salient important conclusions of this study are:
1. A wave force reduction of 15% to 85% on the outer caisson is achieved when the porosity of the
outer caisson is increased from 4.54% to 19.15%. A wave force reduction of 30% to 85% on
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the inner cylinder is achieved when the porosity of the outer caisson is decreased from 19.15%
to 4.54%.
2. The in-line force on the outer porous caisson and inner cylinder can be estimated using the
predicted empirical formulae for regular waves.
3. The porosity (from 5% to 20%), Hi /d (from 0.049 to 0.425) and D/L (from 0.067 to 0.323) do
not significantly influence the wave height ratios (H2 /H1 to H7 /H1 ) at different locations, except
in between the inner vertical cylinder and the back side of the outer perforated caisson, H7 /H1 .
4. The wave height just in front of the perforated caisson is about 1.29 times the incident wave
height, which could be considered in the selection of the minimum clearance between the
bottom of the deck and the design water level.
REFERENCES
Darwiche et al 1996. Wave Interaction with Semi-Porous Cylindrical Breakwater. Journal of Waterways,
Harbors and Coastal Engineering, ASCE 120(4), 382–403.
Neelamani et al 2000. Wave Forces on and Water Surface Fluctuations around a Vertical Cylinder Encircled
by a Perforated Square Caisson, Ocean Engineering, Volume 27, pp. 775–800.
Neelamani et al 2002. Wave Forces on a Seawater Intake Caisson. Ocean Engineering, Volume 29, pp.
1247–1263.
Vijayalakshmi et al 2003. “Wave Loads on a Perforated Circular Seawater Intake Caisson”, International
Conference on Coastal and Ocean Technology, December 10–12, COT-2003, 529–538.
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chap-40 20/9/2004 16: 31 page 309

The shapes of large surface waves on the open sea
D.A.G. Walker, P.H. Taylor and R. Eatock Taylor

Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, UK
ABSTRACT: Ocean surface waves are both random in time and non-linear. For a linear random
model of the sea surface, the average shape of a large crest is found to be the scaled auto-correlation
function, as is shown mathematically by Lindgren (1970) and Boccotti (1983). Using measure-
ments of random waves the applicability of this simple result is discussed. Stokes-type corrections
have been incorporated in an approximate but robust manner, valid at least locally in space and
time. A giant wave, called the New Year wave, recorded at the Draupner platform in the North
Sea at 15:20 on 1st January 1995, is discussed. In a sea-state with a significant wave height of
approximately 12 m, a freak wave with a peak elevation of 18.5 m above still water level was unam-
biguously recorded. It is concluded that new physics, not incorporated in standard approaches to
offshore engineering design, is likely to have played an important role in the generation of this
freak wave.
1 INTRODUCTION
The Draupner platform is situated in the Norwegian sector of the North Sea in water of 70 m depth.
Two twenty-minute surface elevation time series from the Draupner platform were considered in this
study, each having an average wave period of 12.5 seconds, corresponding to an average frequency,
fZ , of 0.08 Hz. The first time series, recorded from 15:20 on the 1st January 1995, contains the New
Year wave, and the second was recorded one hour later from 16:20. The significant wave heights
for these two records are 11.92 m and 12.04 m respectively and the sampling rate for both is 2.1 Hz.
The data was measured using a downward looking laser device. These two wave records from here
on will be referred to as Draupner 1520 and 1620 data sets. A study of freak waves with reference
to the New Year wave has been undertaken by Haver and Jan Andersen (2000) and Prevosto and
Bouffandeau (2002).
Experimental data, recorded in a three-dimensional offshore wave basin at HR Wallingford Ltd,
is also studied here. The wave basin at Wallingford has a plan area of 25 m × 25 m and operates
with a working depth of 2 m. One ten minute experimental time series is studied here and this
series is for an irregular wave test with a peak frequency of 0.8 Hz and a significant wave height
of 0.13 m. The data were recorded near the centre of the tank using a sampling rate of 25.6 Hz. A
detailed description of the experimental setup and a discussion of the data recorded are given by
Ohl et al. (2001).
The time series plots for the three above mentioned data sets are shown in Figure 1. All data
analysed here display obvious non-linear behaviour. The shapes of the crests are consistently sharper
and larger than their trough equivalents. A ‘design wave’ called NewWave has been shown to be
an acceptable local model for the linear contribution to large waves. Waves in nature are, however,
non-linear and so the significance of the dominant non-linear contributions has been assessed.
Furthermore, spectral analysis has identified unique features of the New Year wave distinguishing
it from a typical large wave.
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Draupner 1520 wave record

20
10
η (m)
-10
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Draupner 1620 wave record
20
10
η (m)
-10
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Experimental wave record
0.15
0.1
0.05
η (m)
0
-0.05
- 0.1
-0.15
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (s)
Figure 1. Time series plots for the three studied data sets.
(a) Ordered crest-trough comparison (b) Ordered crest-trough comparison

20 14
1520 wave record 1520 wave record
18 1620 wave record 1620 wave record
12
16
14 10
Ordered crest elevation (m)
Ordered crest elevation (m)
12
8
10
6
8
6 4
4
2
2
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Ordered trough depression (m) Ordered trough depression (m)
Figure 2. Ordered crest elevation plotted against ordered trough depression for the Draupner 1520 and 1620
wave records. A 1:1 line is shown (dashed line). (a) Measured data. (b) Linearised data (discussed later).
2 CREST-TROUGH COMPARISON
The magnitude of the crest-trough asymmetry in a large wave is best illustrated by sorting the peak
crest elevations and peak trough depressions into ascending order and then plotting them – i.e.
plotting the nth largest crest against the corresponding nth largest trough. Such plots for the two
Draupner wave records are shown in Figure 2(a), where a dotted 1:1 line has been included to help
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illustrate the asymmetry of the waves. It is worth emphasising that there is no particular temporal
relationship between the nth largest crest and the nth largest trough.
Both data sets produce largely predictable results, with crest-trough asymmetry increasing as
the size of the crests and troughs increase. It is perhaps curious to note that for very small crests
and troughs (with an elevation or depression < ∼1 m) the size of the trough depression is actually
greater than the corresponding crest elevation. Uncertainty in the true location of the mean sea
level could possibly be the cause of this. Indeed, when handling time series containing a relatively
small number of waves, one must ensure that averaging takes place over a whole number of periods
when removing any tidal contribution, otherwise small errors can be introduced.
A major drawback to presenting such results for the Draupner data is that there are comparatively
few instances of large waves within the data. Hence towards the top end of such ordered data sets,
there is considerable sample variability which could obviously lead to misleading results. For
the HR Wallingford experimental data, where there are many more waves, a similar crest-trough
comparison departs the 1:1 line at a constant rate which does not suddenly increase or decrease
towards the top end of the ordered data set.
3 NEWWAVE COMPARISON
In regions such as the North Sea and the Gulf of Mexico the design of offshore structures is
principally concerned with the environmental loads and peak free surface elevations generated by
extreme storms. As an alternative to running many hours of random time domain simulation, the
convenient ‘design-wave’ known as NewWave can be utilised. This method models the irregular
shape and random background of large ocean waves as a set of independent wavelets of random
amplitude. A linear NewWave involves the superposition of these wavelets with an extreme crest
being generated when many of the wavelets composing the spectrum come into phase. Here it will
be demonstrated that NewWave shows good agreement with the average linear profile of a wave
record.
The linear NewWave is the scaled auto-correlation function which is defined by:
where σ is the standard deviation of the wave record. From a consideration of a Stokes water
wave expansion, it can be easily shown that the odd harmonics in a non-linear wave (which will
be dominated by the linear contribution) can be readily extracted from a time series using the
expression:
where ηC is the average large crest profile (crest elevation taken as positive) and ηT is the average
large trough profile (trough depression taken as negative). To obtain ηC and ηT the largest 50% of
crests and troughs have been averaged. Figure 3 compares the ηodd profile (which is approximately
the average linear profile) with the NewWave profile for the HR Wallingford data. The agreement
is good in the local vicinity of the extreme peak, with NewWave reproducing many of the features
of the averaged linear wave shape. One noticeable discrepancy is that the ηodd profile is slightly
narrower around t = 0. This is likely to be caused by the third harmonic contribution included
in ηodd .
Worse agreement is found for the two Draupner data sets, with large errors developing and
growing away from t = 0. This can perhaps be partially attributed to statistical variability, as for
the Draupner data there are a comparatively small number of large waves and each of these large
waves is highly variable. In addition, for the 1520 wave record which shows the most extreme
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Comparison of average linear profile with NewWave profile

Average linear profile
1 NewWave profile
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Time (s)
Figure 3. Comparison of the average linear profile with the NewWave profile for the HR Wallingford data.
The dotted lines represent ± two standard deviations either side of the average linear profile. For both profiles
the crest amplitude has been normalised such that the peak crest elevation equals 1.
deviations from the NewWave profile, the presence of the highly non-linear New Year wave could
lead to an appreciable third order contribution in the ηodd profile. Of course, one may suggest that
the sea state is simply different somehow and that the NewWave model does not work. However,
NewWave has been extensively verified for both experimental and field data (see Jonathan and
Taylor 1997, Taylor and Williams 2002), and so it seems reasonable to conclude that NewWave is
a valid model for the underlying linear data and that the discrepancies observed are the result of
statistical variability and/or a large third harmonic contribution. In Section 4 the NewWave profile
is modified to incorporate non-linear corrections up to fifth order and a comparison is made with
the New Year wave.
4 SECOND AND THIRD ORDER CORRECTIONS
Having demonstrated that NewWave is an acceptable model for the shape of a typical linearised large
wave in the local vicinity of the peak crest, attention is now turned to the non-linear contributions
not considered thus far. It is hoped that an assessment of non-linear effects will help explain the
large deviations from the NewWave model observed for the Draupner data. Here simple Stokes-
type corrections are sought in preference to using the full interaction kernel of Dean and Sharma
(1981) for the second order terms. A mathematical technique is outlined that enables the second
and third order sum contributions to a wave record to be temporally decomposed. All analysis in
this section is carried out on the Draupner data only.
The first three terms of a Stokes wave expansion are:
where b(t) = Bka(t)2 , c(t) = Ck 2 a(t)3 and ηL (t), η2 (t) and η3 (t) are the linear, second order sum and
third order sum contributions respectively. Here k is the wavenumber, ϕ is some arbitrary phase
variation, and B and C are non-dimensional constants.
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An expression for the second order sum contribution will first be derived. For this purpose it is
convenient to use a Hilbert transform, which introduces a ninety degrees phase shift into a signal.
Thus the Hilbert transform of the linear record (ηL (t) = a(t) cosϕ(t)) is given by:
The second order sum contribution can be expressed in terms of the linear record and its Hilbert
transform as:
Similarly, it can be shown that the third order sum contribution is given by:
A number of techniques could potentially be employed to find the coefficients Bk and Ck 2 ,

which from here on will be referred to as D2 and D3 respectively. The approach followed here
involves estimating the linear contribution by accounting only for the second order corrections,
and then performing a search to find the value of D2 that sets the skewness of the linear time series
to zero. From equations 3 and 5 and neglecting the third order contribution, the linear time series
can be expressed as:
In order to proceed further it is necessary to make the assumption that the linear record and its
Hilbert transform (ηL and ηLH in brackets on the right-hand side of equation 7) are approximately
equal to the entire record and its corresponding Hilbert transform (η and ηH ) respectively. This
assumption is reasonable provided |ηL | >> |η2 | + |η3 |. Hence:
To obtain η in these expressions the raw data must be high-pass filtered at some suitable cut-off
frequency (found through a spectral decomposition of the signal) so as to remove any second order
difference (set-down) contribution.
For our purposes here, skewness is most simply defined by the following summation over all
data points:
where σ is the standard deviation of the linear record. It should be noted that three values of D2
will result in zero skewness although only one will be physically acceptable.
The linear record defined by equation 8 can be easily computed and the coefficient D2 that
results in zero skewness can be found. It is suggested in some publications (Taylor and Williams
2002) that a suitable wavenumber to use when analysing field data is that which corresponds to the
peak frequency – i.e. the frequency of the most energetic waves. However, from an inspection of
the spectra of the studied data, it is clear that there would be considerable ambiguity in defining a
peak frequency value. Here an alternative approach is used whereby a suitable wavenumber value
is sought through a comparison of the D2 value computed for zero skewness with the appropriate
Stokes second order coefficient. The wavenumber value computed can then be used to calculate
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Table 1. Table of second order coefficient values for the Draupner

1520 and 1620 data sets. D2 values are given to three significant
figures.
Data set kd D2 (for zero skewness)
Draupner 1520 (including freak) 1.6 0.0193

Draupner 1520 (excluding freak) 1.6 0.0137
Draupner 1620 1.6 0.0146
a third order Stokes coefficient and hence find the constant D3 . The first three terms of a Stokes
water wave expansion for finite water depth are given by (Fenton 1990):
where S = sech(2kd), d is the water depth and a and ϕ have the same definitions as before.
Upon computing D2 for the two Draupner data sets, it was found that a suitable kd value for
the calculation of the third order coefficient, D3 , for both data sets is 1.6. For this particular water
depth (70 m) both the second and third order coefficients are very insensitive to the exact kd value
used in the calculation.
Because of the variability associated with the New Year wave, together with its highly non-linear
structure, it seems sensible to exclude the New Year wave when computing the coefficient D2 for
the 1520 data. For comparison, D2 is computed for the 1520 data both including and excluding the
New Year wave.
The results yielded from the above analysis for the two Draupner data sets are given in Table 1.
Using a kd value of 1.6, the second and third order sum coefficients determined from the Stokes
water wave expansion are 0.0157 and 0.000320 respectively. Hence the first three terms in the
Stokes wave expansion for the Draupner data can be approximated as:
Excluding the New Year wave, the two data sets have a comparable D2 coefficient for zero
skewness (∼0.014). The effect of including the freak in the 1520 data increases the size of the
second order sum coefficient by 41% (from 0.0137 to 0.0193).
For comparison with Figure 2(a), Figure 2(b) shows a plot of ordered crest elevation against
ordered trough depression for the linearised Draupner wave records computed using equation 8
and the D2 values found for zero skewness (0.0137 for the 1520 data and 0.0146 for the 1620
data). With the exception of the upper few points in each ordered data set, the plots now show
comparatively little asymmetry, deviating only slightly from the 1:1 line for all crest and trough
sizes.
5 FIFTH ORDER NEWWAVE
The NewWave model is now modified to include non-linear corrections up to fifth order. The
Stokes coefficients defined by Fenton (1990) are used and suitable expressions for the temporal
contributions for all non-linear terms up to fifth order have been derived, again using the linear
wave record and its Hilbert transform – similar to the approach used to derive equations 5 and
6. For the computation of the Stokes coefficients kd = 1.6 has again been used. Figure 4 shows
a comparison of the fifth order NewWave profile with the linear NewWave profile and the New
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Comparison of 5th order NewWave with linear NewWave Comparison of 5th order NewWave with New Year wave
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
η (m)
η (m)
0 0
-5 -5
-10 -10
-15 -15
-40 -20 0 20 40 -40 -20 0 20 40
Time (s) Time (s)
Figure 4. A comparison of the fifth order NewWave profile with the linear NewWave profile and the New
Year wave. For both plots the fifth order NewWave profile is represented by the dotted line.
Year wave. A linear amplitude of 14.7 m has been chosen for the NewWave as this corresponds
to an amplitude of 18.5 m in the fifth order corrected profile, which is the amplitude of the New
Year wave. By including non-linear corrections up to fifth order the peak crest of the NewWave
profile has increased by 26% (from 14.7 m to 18.5 m) whereas the deepest troughs have reduced
in magnitude by 17% (from 10.0 m to 8.3 m). The agreement between the fifth order NewWave
profile and the New Year wave close to the peak is surprisingly good, with the broad banded nature
of the freak wave being captured well. However, the troughs either side of the peak crest are still
predicted to be too deep – the actual trough depths are 6.5 m and 7.1 m.
Assuming the standard Rayleigh distribution for linear crest amplitude and taking the linear crest
amplitude to be 14.7 m, it is found that the New Year wave is approximately a 1 in 2 × 105 wave
for this particular sea state (with a significant wave height of ∼12 m).
6 SECOND ORDER DIFFERENCE CONTRIBUTION
The second order difference (set-down) contribution will now be investigated for the Draupner
1520 and 1620 data. From a spectral decomposition of the data, it is found that the second order
difference contribution can be extracted by low-pass filtering the data at 0.04 Hz (for both the 1520
and 1620 data) – i.e. set all frequency components above this cut-off value to zero. This cut-off
frequency has been chosen so as to maximise the set-down contribution and minimise the linear
contribution that is passed through the filter. Time series plots for the largest waves in the Draupner
1520 and 1620 data sets together with their second order difference contributions for three different
filtering frequencies are shown in Figure 5.
For the largest wave in the 1620 data, a set-down is observed in the second order difference
contribution, and this set-down remains for progressively lower filtering frequencies. This is what
one would expect for a free wave on the open sea, and this is observed for all large waves (largest
10%) analysed in the two Draupner data sets, with the exception of the New Year wave. The second
order difference contribution to the New Year wave exhibits a substantial set-up, which is entirely
unexpected. One might conclude that some linear contribution must have passed through the filter
causing the apparent set-up. However, this hypothesis is soon dispelled through low-pass filtering
at progressively lower frequencies, where one still finds the set-up present. No explanation of this
anomalous behaviour can be offered at this time.
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Largest wave in 1520 record Largest wave in 1620 record

20 20
15 15
10 10
η (m)
η (m)
5 5
0 0
-5 -5
-10 -10
240 260 280 300 360 380 400 420
Time (s) Time (s)
Set-down contribution Set-down contribution

0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
η (m)
η (m)
0 0
-0.2 -0.2
-0.4 -0.4
240 260 280 300 360 380 400 420
Time (s) Time (s)
Figure 5. Time series plots for the largest waves in the Draupner 1520 and 1620 data sets together with
their set-down contributions (positioned beneath) for three different filtering frequencies; 0.04 Hz (solid line),
0.03 Hz (dashed line) and 0.02 Hz (dotted line).
7 CONCLUSIONS
Both experimental and field data have been used to explore the shapes of large surface waves.
NewWave has been proposed as a reasonable model for the linear contribution to large waves and
the experimental data presented supports this proposal. Stokes-type corrections have been used
to approximate any non-linearity present, and a technique has been developed that enables the
magnitude of the second and third order sum contributions to be estimated. In addition, a set-up
has been anomalously observed in the second order difference contribution to the New Year wave,
hence suggesting that new physics has indeed led to the generation of this freak. The suggestion of
such new physics has initiated plentiful debate and active research internationally.
The results and discussion presented here are drawn from a much larger investigation into the
physics and statistics of non-linear water waves. Further results will be published in due course.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Sverre Haver of Statoil and Clifford Ohl of HR Wallingford Ltd, who
have kindly provided the data studied here. The first author is supported through an EPSRC-Shell
industrial CASE award.
REFERENCES
Boccotti, P, 1983, Some new results on statistical properties of wind waves, Applied Ocean Research 5,
pp.134–140.
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chap-40 20/9/2004 16: 31 page 317
Dean, R.G., and Sharma, J.N., 1981, Simulation of wave systems due to nonlinear directional spectra, Int.
Symp. on Hydrodynamics in Coastal Engineering, Trondheim, Norway, pp.1211–1222.
Fenton, J., Nonlinear Wave Theories, 1990, The Sea, Volume 9 – Ocean Engineering Science, John Wiley and
Sons Ltd, pp.3–25.
Haver, S., and Jan Andersen, O., 2000, Freak waves: rare realizations of a typical population or typical
realizations of a rare population?, Proceedings of the tenth International Offshore and Polar Engineering
conference, Seattle USA.
Jonathan, P., and Taylor, P.H., 1997, On irregular, non-linear waves in a spread sea, Journal of Offshore
Mechanics and Artic Engineering, 119, pp.37–41.
Lindgren, G, 1970, Some properties of a normal process near a local maximum, Ann. Math. Statist. 41,
pp.1870–1883.
Ohl, C.O.G., Taylor, P.H., Eatock Taylor, R., and Borthwick, A.G.L., 2001, Water wave diffraction by a cylinder
array. Part 1: Regular waves, J. Fluid Mech. 442, pp.1–32.
Ohl, C.O.G., Taylor, P.H., Eatock Taylor, R., and Borthwick, A.G.L., 2001, Water wave diffraction by a cylinder
array. Part 2: Irregular waves, J. Fluid Mech. 442, pp.33–66.
Prevosto, M., and Bouffandeau, B., 2002, Probability of occurrence of a “giant” wave crest, Proceedings of
OMAE2002 28446.
Taylor, P.H., and Williams, B.A., 2002, Wave statistics for intermediate water depth – NewWaves and symmetry,
Proceedings of OMAE2002 28554.
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chap-41 20/9/2004 16: 56 page 319

Investigation on model law of air bubbles breakwater
Yongxue Wang, Guoyu Wang, Guangwei Li & Yongzhou Cheng

State Key Laboratory of Coastal and Offshore Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, China
ABSTRACT: Based on the theoretical analysis of air bubbles breakwater and its influence factors,
the model test is designed and the model law is explored in the paper. The tests were conducted
both in the large wave-current tank and small wave-current tank in the State Key Laboratory of
Coastal and Offshore Engineering, Dalian University of Technology. The amount of air required
and transmission coefficients are measured in the regular wave action with model scales of 1:30,
1:15 and 1:10 respectively. Through the extrapolation of testing results with different scales, the
empirical model law of air bubbles breakwater is given. The research work is very informative for
further investigation on the behaviors of air bubbles breakwater and the technique of model testing.
1 INTRODUCTION
The air bubbles breakwater consists of a submerged perforated pipe and an air compressor which is
fixed on the working craft or on the shoreside station, and the pipe may be either suspended in the
water or placed upon the sea floor outside the protected area. When the air bubbles breakwater is on
the work status, the compressed air will be transported to the pipe. As the compressed air is emitted
into the water through the orifices, a lot of air bubbles are formed in the water, and the bubbles will
ascend and expand, producing an air curtain along the whole pipe. Under the influence of the air
curtain, at one hand, the track of the wave particle will be destroyed, and the wave energy will lost.
In a certain circumstance, it may reduce 80% of the wave height. At the other hand, the surface
tension of the bubbles also play an important role in the wave attenuation. The surface tension will
increase as the bubbles ascend, which partly attenuate the wave energy. Additionally, the incident
wave will partly reflect in front of the air curtain, and the height of the transmission waves will be
reduced in some extent.
It is evident that the air bubbles breakwater has the advantage of easy installation, lower invest-
ment in the primary stage and no hindrance for ships entering the harbour. Furthermore, the wave
force on the pipe is weak because their section area is small and that they could be placed in a
sufficient water depth. Therefore, the pipe can be fixed by anchors or cables strained by the pre-
fab heavy block. For the advantages above, it is very reasonable for the air bubbles breakwater
to attenuate waves in the condition of deep water and short wave length, especially for the short
time accidental cases. For example, it can be used in protecting the harbour in the open sea area,
shutting the entrance during the surge, protecting the waterway when the ships passing through and
protecting the sea area for construction or salvaging.
The research about the air bubbles breakwater can be ascended to the beginning of the 20th
century. Since Brasher, the American, proposed the air bubbles breakwater firstly in 1907 based
on the idea of using the air curtain to reduce waves, many researchers have done a lot of works on
the air bubbles breakwater and the relative theory. In 1915, the Standard petroleum company used
the structure in Calif. But for the reason of its unsatisfied result, the interest on the air bubbles
breakwater was weaken. It was not until 1936 when Thysse in Delft pointed out that the main
mechanism of the breakwater is the surface horizontal currents produced by the air bubbles that the
more investigations on the breakwater and the relative theory were conducted. During the second
world war, fundamental research was carried out by White and Taylor in England, because the
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method was seen to have potential as a movable breakwater for military purpose. As a result of
their work, it was the first time to predict the amount of air required to produce a certain surface
current, and the speed of current required to reduce waves with certain wave length. However,
the theory assumed that waves are sinusoidal form with infinitesimal amplitude and did not take
account of wave height or the possibility of partial wave damping.
Taylor (1955) investigated the wave-damping effect of the surface currents mathematically. In
his work, two types of current were considered: a current with uniform velocity and another
with velocity decreasing linearly and vanishing at the water depth, both of which had the similar
effect except that the mean velocity of the former required was greater than the latter. Kobus
(1968) had also done some work on the theory of the surface current produced by the air curtain.
Bulson (1961) investigated the speed, power and thickness of horizontal currents produced by an air
curtain in deep water based on large scale tests, and concluded that the orifice size and spacing, and
manifold arrangements were not influential factors, and that current thickness apparently varies
logarithmically with a function of manifold depth. Green (1961) researched the performance of
the air bubbles breakwater experimentally, and came with the conclusion that the transmission
coefficient decreased with the increasing of the relative depth (L/d), and it could not attenuate
more than 50% wave energy with unlimited quantity of air when the relative depth was greater than
3. German and Japan also did some experimental work about the air bubbles breakwater (Laurie,
1955, Anon, 1956). Bulson (1968) summarized the analytical and experimental studies carried out
by himself and others, and gave the design formulae about the air bubbles breakwater. It could
be consulted to design the speed and the width of the surface current produced by the air bubbles
breakwater and the amount of air required to dissipate the waves with certain wave length.
Although it has been a long time since the research work had been carried on the mechanism
of wave-damping and design theory on the air bubbles breakwater, the progress about the air
bubbles breakwater is very limited, and the information that could be applied in engineering is
scarce, due to very complicated phenomena on the interaction between the air bubbles and waves.
Additionally, there is no model law about the interaction between the compressed air with high
velocity and the waves so far. The existing relations of the amount of air required between the
prototype and the model differ enormously, which results in the great difficulties of calculating
the amount of compress air required from the model to the prototype. Based on the model tests
with difference scales under certain experimental conditions, the performance of the air bubbles
breakwater is investigated and the scale relations of the amount of air required between the model
and the prototype are expect to be proposed, which would be useful for providing the design
parameters of the air bubbles breakwater through model test.
2 MODEL TESTS DESIGN
In the model test of air bubbles breakwater, waves are designed by the Froude Law. The difficulty is
that no model law is available on the interaction of waves with the compressed air with high velocity
presently. In order to investigate the relation of the air amount required for the prototype and the
model in the same wave attenuation, the regular wave model tests with scale of 1:30, 1:15 and
1:10 have been conducted in the state key laboratory of coastal and offshore engineering, Dalian
university of technology.
The tests with the scale of 1:30 have been conducted in the small flume with 22 m length, 0.4 m
width and 0.6 m depth in the laboratory. The water depth is 0.4 m. There is a wave generator
at one end of the flume, and a wave absorber at the other end. The perforated pipe of the air
bubbles breakwater model was placed on the floor of the flume, and the pipe was connected
with an air compressor with the power of 0.25 m3 /min by pipeline. The perforated pipe is made
up of the organic glass tube, and the length of the pipe is 0.4 m, the inner diameter of the pipe
is 8 mm. The tests with the scales of 1:15 and 1:10 have been conducted in the large flume of
the laboratory, with 69 m in length, 2.0 m in width and 1.8 m in depth. The perforated pipe is also
made up of the organic glass tube, and the length of the submerged pipe is 2 m. The inner diameter
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Figure 1. Sketch of the test flume.
Figure 2. The air bubbles breakwater on active state with scale of 1:15.
Table 1. The wave parameters and experimental condition of the tests with different scales.
Water depth Wave height Wave period Air amount Orifice diameter
Scale (m) (cm) (s) (m3 /h) (mm)
1:30 0.4 11.8 0.73, 0.91, 1.10 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 0.5

1:15 0.8 23.6 1.03, 1.29, 1.55 10, 20, 30, 40 0.7
1:10 1.2 35.5 1.26, 1.58, 1.91 10, 15, 20, 30, 40 0.7
of the pipe is 8 mm, and the spacing of the orifices is 10 mm. The amount of air required in the
tests is provided by an air compressor with the power of 3.0 m3 /min. Figure 1 is the sketch of the
flume and the model in the tests.
In the tests, the compressed air is forced by the compressor to eject through the perforated
pipe. Then a subulate air curtain forms, which will promote the wave to break up. In this way,
the breakwater can reduce the waves. The flow meter and the pressure gauge are fixed on the
appropriate position to measure the air flow rate and the air pressure. Figure 2 is the air bubbles
breakwater on active state with the scale of 1:15.
The wave height of the prototype is 3.55 m, and the corresponding wave period is 4 s, 5 s and 6 s
respectively. The wave parameters and the experimental conditions of the model tests with three
scales are listed in Table 1. As shown in Figure 1, two wave gauges are placed in front of the
air curtain to record the wave surface signal. The Goda’s two points method is used to separate
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the incident wave height (Yu, 2000). Similarly, another two wave gauges are placed behind the
curtain to separate the transmission wave height. In this way, the coefficient of transmission can
be calculated with high accuracy. In each case study, the wave parameters are repeated three times
respect to the given air flow rate, and the average value are obtained.
3 DATA ANALYSIS
The two points method is used to deal with the tests data of the three different scales, and the
transmission coefficients of the air bubbles breakwater can be calculatd. Assuming that all of the
air provided by the compressor could be transformed to the bubbles, and with the conversion of
the air amount to the quantity per meter, the relations between the quantity of air amount and the
transmission coefficients with the different scales can be obtained.
3.1 The performance of wave-damping

From the data listed in Table 2, the figure about the transmission coefficients and the wave period
with different air amount under a certain test scale can be obtained. When the scale is 1:15, the
calculated data of the transmission coefficients are shown in Figure 3.
From the relations shown in Figure 3, it is obvious that the transmission coefficients increase
with the increasing of the wave period, and that the quantity of air plays a very important role of
wave-damping. The transmission coefficients decrease with the increasing of the quantity of air.
Especially acted with the short wave period (T = 4 s), the performance of the breakwater can be
improved evidently when the air amount increases. But as to the long wave period, the depressing
of the transmission coefficients is very limited with the same added quantity of air. The data of 1:30
and 1:10 scale reveals the same conclusion. It is easy to see that the performance of wave-damping
Table 2. The air amount required in prototype and the air amount scale.
T Ct Prototype 1:10 x 1:15 x 1:30 x
4 0.6 26.56 16.39 0.2096 14.32 0.2282 11.45 0.2474

0.7 22.65 12.61 0.2544 10.01 0.3017 7.55 0.3230
0.8 18.75 8.83 0.3270 5.70 0.4396 3.65 0.4810
5 0.8 33.74 18.22 0.2677 16.67 0.2604 11.19 0.3244
6 0.85 41.93 18.93 0.3453 17.15 0.3301 8.69 0.4626
Figure 3. The transmission coefficients with scale of 1:15.
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is mainly lied on the air amount, and that also influenced by the wave period. In order to reduce
the waves in the same extent, the longer the wave period is, the more air amount is required.
3.2 The similarity relation

From the tests data listed in Table 2, the linear fit lines of the relation between the quantity of air
Q and the transmission coefficients Ct with a certain test scale can be drawn. The data and the fit
results are shown in Figure 4 when the wave period is 4 s (T = 4 s). The results indicate that the
transmission coefficients decrease with the increasing of the quantity of air under the condition of
any test scale. In order to reduce the waves in the same extent, the larger the scale is, the larger
quantity of air is needed. From the linear fit relations shown in Figure 4, the air amount of different
scale respective to the transmission coefficients with value of 0.6, 0.7 and 0.8 can be obtained by
the interpolation.
The results of the fitted data about the air amount and the transmission coefficients with different
scales are shown in Figure 5, and the logarithmic fitted curves about the data are shown together.
The quantity of air required in the prototype (λ = 1) corresponding to the different transmission
coefficients respectively can be obtained by extrapolation from the fitting function.
Similarly, the quantities of air in the prototype can be obtained by the same methods when the
wave is 5 s and 6 s respectively.
Figure 4. The linear fitted lines of Q−Ct (T = 4 s).
Figure 5. The fitted curves of the air amount and the scale.
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3.3 The scale of the air amount

Gathering the data of the air amount in prototype QP and model Qm , the relation of the scale of the
air amount and the geometrical scale can be obtained by the following equation.
The air amount required in the prototype and the model are listed in the Table 2 together with the
relation between the scales of the air amount and the geometry, which is denoted by the letter x.
4 CONCLUSIONS
The wave-damping performance of the air bubbles breakwater is discussed in the paper based on
the model tests with the scale of 1:10, 1:15 and 1:30. The model law of the air amount is obtained
by the extrapolation of the relation of the air amount with different scale, and it is significant for the
farther model test. The results of the experiments indicate that the performance of the air bubbles
breakwater can be improved well by the increasing of the air amount when the wave period is
relative short, e.g. T = 4 s. But for the long wave period, the effect of the breakwater is limited.
There is some hypothesizes in the calculation of scale, and a method of extrapolation is selected.
Therefore, the model law proposed still needs some prototype verification.
REFERENCES
Anon, 1956. Pneumatic breakwater trials. The Dock and Harbour Authority 36(426): 364.
Bulson, P.S. 1961. Currents produced by an air curtain in deep water. The Dock and Harbour Authority
XL1(487): 15–22.
Bulson, P.S. 1968. The theory and design of bubble breakwaters. Proceedings of Eleventh Conference on
Coastal Engineering: 995–1015.
Green, J.L. 1961. Pneumatic breakwaters to protect dredges. Journal of the Waterways and Harbours Division,
Proc. ASCE 87(WW2): 67–87.
Kobus, H.E. 1968. Analysis of the flow induced by air-bubble systems. Proceedings of Eleventh Conference
on Coastal Engineering: 1016–1031.
Laurie, A.H. 1955. The German experiments on pneumatic breakwaters. The Dock and Harbour Authority
36(416): 61–64.
Taylor, S.G. 1955. The action of a surface current used as a breakwater. Proc. Royal Society A 231: 466–478.
Yu, Y.X. 2000. Random wave and its applications for engineering. Dalian: Dalian university of technology
press. In Chinese.
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Variability on velocity structures due to internal waves near

the mouth of Mutsu Bay
R. Yamanaka
Faculty of Environment and Information Sciences, Yokohama National University, Japan
S. Nishida & K. Nakatsuji

Department of Civil Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka University, Japan
ABSTRACT: The Mutsu Bay is a semi-enclosed bay located at the northern Japan. It connects
to the Tsugaru Strait through the Tairadate Strait. Field measurements of current and density
fluctuations were conducted in the mouth of Mutsu Bay from 1995 to 1998. The tidal features in
the Mutsu Bay were almost similar in all years. However, the internal structure of flow and density
in the mouth of Mutsu Bay were much different with each other. In the present study, the generation
mechanisms of such different internal structures are investigated in detail by field surveys in 1999
and 2000, and 3-D numerical simulations. It is found that the flow and density structures in Tsugaru
Strait are affected by the occurrence of headland eddies and internal waves which are induced by
the tidal flow in the Tsugaru Strait.
1 INTRODUCTION
The Mutsu Bay is a semi-enclosed bay approximately 50 km wide and 40 km long, located at the
northern Japan, as shown in Fig. 1. It connects to the Tsugaru Strait through the Tairadate Strait
of 10 km wide. The Tsugaru Strait connects the Pacific Ocean to the Japan Sea. We have carried
out field surveys in every summer from 1995 to 1998 to clarify the water exchange through the
mouth of Mutsu Bay. The results showed that the internal structures of flow and density in the bay
mouth change while the tidal features in the Mutsu Bay are almost similar, and suggested that local
climate around the bay and flow structure in the strait remarkably affected the water exchange of
the bay (Nishida et al., 2000). Moreover, there seems to be a relationship between the flow and
density structures and a distribution of a sea surface level in Tsugaru Strait. The mechanism of
generation of the fluctuations of the flow and density structures has not been clarified.
In the present study, we carried out field surveys in the mouth of Mutsu Bay in 1999 and 2000
under the conditions of different sea-surface levels between the Pacific Ocean and the Japan Sea for
clarifying the hydrodynamics in the Tsugaru Strait on water exchange of Mutsu Bay. A numerical
simulation using a three-dimensional primitive baroclinic flow model has done for discussing the
structures of internal waves.
2 FIELD OBSERVATIONS
2.1 Methods of field observations

An observation line (E-E’ line) of the field survey is shown in Fig. 1. The measurements using
the ADCP and the STD were carried out for 13 hours namely; one cycle of semi-diurnal tide on
August 31, 1999 and August 29, 2000 in order to obtain a fluctuation of flow structure and density
distribution and time series of fluxes in the bay mouth.
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Figure 1. Topographic features around Mutsu Bay and observation lines.
(cm) Aomori (cm) Aomori

120 Hakodate
120 Hakodate
Fukaura 100 Fukaura
100
80 Shimokita
80 Shimokita
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
-20 -20
-40 -40
Observation period -60 Obs ervat ion pe riod
-60
-80 -80
8/30 12:00 8/31 0:00 8/31 12:00 9/1 0:00 9/1 12:00 8/28 12:00 8/29 0:00 8/29 12:00 8/30 0:00 8/30 12:00
(a) in 1999 (b) in 2000
Figure 2. Change of tide observed around Mutsu Bay.
Time changes of tide of Mutsu Bay are shown in Fig. 2. The locations of tide gauges at Shimokita,
Hakodate, Aomori and Fukaura are shown in Fig. 1. The tide at Aomori, located in Mutsu Bay,
is dominated by semi-diurnal component at each observation period, are shown in Fig. 2(a) and
Fig. 2(b). However, the tidal features at Shimokita, Hakodate and Fukaura, located outside of Mutsu
Bay, are quite different; namely, a semi-diurnal tide dominated on August 31, 1999 and diurnal
tide dominated on August 29, 2000.
2.2 Observation results

Figure 3 shows observed flow vectors and density distributions at flood tide along E–E transect
line. The vectors indicate the horizontal currents, i.e. the upward arrow represents a northward flow,
while rightward arrow does a eastward flow. The flow structure varies not only vertically but also
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-20 -20
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
-40 -40
N N N N
-60 -60
W E W E W E W E
50 (cm/s) 50 (cm/s) 50 (cm/s) 50 (cm/s)
S S S S
-80 -80
0 2 4 6 8 100 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Distance from west shore (km) Distance from west shore (km) Distance from west shore (km) Distance from west shore (km)
22.
5
-20 22.5 -20 0
22.5
23.0
Depth (m)
23.0 23.0 23.5 22
Depth (m)
-40 23.5 .5
23.5 24.0 -40 24.0 0
24.0 24.5 23.0
24.5 24.0
-60 24.5 25.0 24.5
σt 25.0 σt
-60 0 25.0
σt σt
-80
0 2 4 6 8 100 2 4 6 8 10 -80 0
0 2 4 6 8 100 2 4 6 8 10
Distance from west shore (km) Distance from west shore (km)
Distance from west shore (km) Distance from west shore (km)
(a) August 31, 1999 (b) August 29, 2000 (a) August 31, 1999 (b) August 29, 2000
Figure 3. Observed flow vector and density dis- Figure 4. Observed flow vector and density distribu-
tribution at flood tide along E–E line. tion at ebb tide along E–E line.
transversely; so that the flow patterns indicate very complicated configuration. In particular, the
upper and lower currents at ebb tide on August 29, 2000 are greatly different due to stratification,
as shown in Fig. 4(b). The other flow structures also seem to correspond to density distribution.
Consequently, the change of flow structure corresponds to the change of density distribution well
in the mouth of Mutsu Bay. Moreover, the observed flow structures and density distributions at
flood tide are not similar, despite the each results were observed at same tidal time. Likewise, the
flow structures and density distributions observed at ebb tide are different each other. There seems
to be a relationship between the generation of the difference in flow structures and fluctuations of
density distributions. However, the mechanism of generating this differs cannot clarify only from
the observation results.
3 MECHANISM OF VARIATION OF INTERNAL STRUCTURES IN THE BAY MOUTH
3.1 Baroclinic flow model

A quasi-3D baroclinic flow model, ODEM (Osaka Daigaku Estuary Model) is applied in this study,
which was originally developed by Nakatsuji in 1987 (Murota et al., 1988). The basic hydrodynamic
equations are based on the three-dimensional conservation laws for mass, momentum and scalar
quantities, namely, temperature and salinity under the Boussinesq approximation and hydrostatic
assumption. Density is calculated as a function of temperature and salinity. The mathematical
model is formulated by transforming them into finite-difference forms using the space-staggered
grid system. A z-system is used for vertical discritization. Since the vertical momentum equation,
subject to the hydrostatic assumption, consists of only the gravity and vertical pressure gradient
terms, the vertical velocity component must be computed through the continuity equation. The
free surface elevation may be computed by applying the continuity equation to a vertical column
of water from the sea bottom to the water surface. Regarding the finite differencing in time, the
explicit leapfrog method is used; however, the semi-implicit scheme is used for the computation
of water level in order to prevent from numerical instability. The authors have used the model on
many marine areas in Japan such as Osaka Bay, Tokyo Bay and Ise Bay to clarify the structure of
flow and density distributions.
Eddy viscosity and eddy diffusivity are used for representing the turbulent transport constituents.
Since the vertical transport is reduced by stratification caused by the density difference, the vertical
eddy viscosity and diffusion coefficients must be a function of the Richardson number. According to
a study of 3-D buoyant surface discharges by Murota et al. (1988), the present computation adopted
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the Webb’s formula (1970) for eddy viscosity and the Munk and Anderson formula (1948) for eddy
diffusivity, respectively. Both empirical formulae are functions of the gradient Richardson number.
Their values in neutral condition are set to be Av0 = 0.005 m2 /s. On the other hand, to account
for horizontal viscosity and diffusion coefficients, the sub-grid scale (SGS) concept proposed by
Smagorinsky (1963) is used.
The heat budget at the sea surface is calculated according to the formula shown in Murakami
et al. (1989). The heat budget is composed of four components such as short-wave radiation, long-
wave radiation, sensible heat and latent heat of evaporation. These constituents are simulated with a
bulk formula using meteorological data, obtained from the Japan Meteorological Business Support
Center.
3.2 Numerical arrangement for the Mutsu Bay

The computational domain is shown in Fig. 1. The grid size is 1 km × 1 km in the horizontal plane
with 25 layers in vertical. The thickness of each layer from top to bottom is 2 m × 3 layers, 4 m × 1
layer, 5 m × 15 layers, 10 m × 2 layers, and 15 m × 1 layer.
The sea surface elevation at two open boundaries is yielded by tidal gauge data near the boundary;
namely, Kiyobe and Fukaura for the west boundary and Kobui and Ohata for the east boundary (See
Fig. 1). The six major tidal constituents (i.e., M2 , S2 , K2 , K1 , O1 , P1 ) are taken into account. Initial
conditions for salinity and temperature are given by interpolating the data observed by the Aomori
Prefectural Fisheries Research Center and Naval Oceanographic Office. The river discharges from
53 rivers around Mutsu Bay are considered.
Two computational steps are used. The first is the computation of the barotropic flow for 7 days
corresponding to a period from 1st to 7th August, 1999. The second is the baroclinic flow for
24 days corresponding to a period from 8th to 31st to simulate the flow and density distributions.
(m) (m)
0.6 0.5
0.5 0.4
0.3
0.4
0.2
0.3 0.1
0.2 0
0.1 -0.1
-0.2
0
-0.3
-0.1 -0.4
-0.2 -0.5
1999/8/17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1999/8/17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
(a) Aomori (b) Hakodate
Figure 5. Computed sea surface level.
-20 -20
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
-40 -40
N N N
-60 N
-60
W E W E W E
50 (cm/s) W E
50 (cm/s) 50 (cm/s) 50 (cm/s)
S S S
-80 -80 S
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
0 2 4 6 8 10
Distance from west shore (km) Distance from west shore (km) Distance from west shore (km)
Distance from west shore (km)
22.4 22.4
22.8
22.8 23.2
22.8
-20 23.2 -20
23.6 22.8
23.2 24.0
Depth (m)
24.0
24.4
Depth (m)
23.6
-40 24.8 -40 24.8 23.624.0
24.0 25.6 24.0
24.4 25.2
24.8
24.8
-60 -60
25.2 25.2
-80 -80
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Distance from west shore (km) Distance from west shore (km) Distance from west shore (km) Distance from west shore (km)
(a) 1999 type (8/31) (b) 2000 type (8/24) (a) 1999 type (8/31) (b) 2000 type (8/24)
Figure 6. Computed flow vector and density Figure 7. Computed flow vector and density distri-
distribution at flood tide along E–E line. bution at ebb tide along E–E line.
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3.3 Verification of numerical results

Figure 5 shows the change of computed sea level at Aomori and Hakodate. The change of tide on
August 24, 1999 resemble the observed one as shown in Fig. 2(b). Hence, the computed result on
August 24, 1999 can be treated as the flow and density structures on August 29, 2000, named “2000
type” in this analysis. Similarly, the computed result on August 31, 1999 is named “1999 type”.
Figures 6 and 7 show the computed flow and density distributions on cross-section along E–E
transect line. The computed flow and density distribution represent the observed ones qualitatively,
except near the sea surface. It is because this computation does not take into account a wind effect.
Consequently, it can be regarded that this computation reproduces the observed phenomena.
3.4 Mechanism of generating of the variability of the flow and density distribution
Figure 8 shows a vertical distribution of density along B–B transect line, as shown in Fig. 1. The
contour lines of density in all depth are not constant in horizontal direction and a variation of density
structure can be seen in all depth. Consequently, internal waves are induced around the bay mouth
and the internal waves are remarkably fluctuated at the depth of 40 m, corresponding to density
σt = 24.
In order to clarify the generation mechanisms of the variability of flow and density structures
under the same tide condition in Mutsu Bay, a horizontal distribution of density structure are shown
(a) 1999 type (8/31) (b) 2000 type (8/24)
Figure 8. Vertical density distribution along B–B line.
(a) 1999 type (8/31) (b) 2000 type (8/24)
Figure 9. Horizontal distribution of water depth corresponding to isoline of σt = 24 m.
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(a) ebb tide (b) low tide (c) flood tide
Figure 10. Flow structure at the depth of 40 m: 1999 type (8/31).
(a) ebb tide (b) low tide (c) flood tide
Figure 11. Horizontal distribution of water depth corresponding to isoline of σt = 24 m 1999 type (8/31).
in Fig. 9. The figure shows the horizontal distribution of water depth corresponding to isoline of
σt = 24 at ebb tide. The distribution of 1999 type is very different from that of 2000 type around the
bay mouth and the difference in the isoline distribution is more significant in Tsugaru Strait than in
Mutsu Bay. Consequently, the horizontal fluctuation of density, internal waves, is occurred not only
in the bay mouth but also on whole area of Tsugaru Strait and Mutsu Bay. Figure 10 shows time
changes of flow structure at the depth of 40 m. It is found that a large-scale circulation in Tsugaru
Strait, caused topographic effect, is formed in the eastward of the Tappi and move to northeast
direction with passage of time. Likewise, the distribution of isolines of density, as shown in Fig. 11,
changes distribution features corresponding to the variation of the flow structure. Consequently,
the fluctuation of density structure is affected by occurrence of internal waves which are induced
by the generation of migratory circulations which are induced by tidal current in Tsugaru Strait.
4 CONCLUSION
Main results obtained in the present study are summarized as follows:

(1) The observation result showed the flow structure varied corresponding to the fluctuation of the
density structure in the mouth of Mutsu Bay.
(2) The numerical model simulated well the observed flow and density structures.
(3) The fluctuation of density structure was affected by occurrence of internal waves which were
induced by the generation of headland eddies induced by tidal current in Tsugaru Strait.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research was supported by the Grant-in-aid for Science Research (C) 11650528 of JSPS (Japan
Society for the Promotion of Science).
REFERENCES
Munk, W. H. and Anderson, E. R. 1948. Notes on a theory of the thermocline. J. Marine Research 7: 276–295.
Murakami, M., Oonishi, Y. and Hayakawa, K. 1989. Heat and Salt Balances in the Seto Inland Sea. J. Oceanogr.
Soc. Japan 45: 204–216.
Murota, A., Nakatsuji, K. and Huh, J. Y. 1988. A numerical study of three-dimensional buoyant surface jet.
Proceeding of 6th APD-IAHR Congress 3: 57–64.
Nishida, S., Nakatsuji, K., Fukushima, H., Nishimura, K. and Tashiro, T. 2000. Flow and Residual Flow in the
Mouth of Enclosed Bay Opening to Strait. The 4th Intl. Conf. on Hydro-Science and Engineering (Published
in CDROM).
Smagorinsky, J. 1963. General circulation experiments with primitive equations. Monthly Weather Review
91(3): 99–164.
Webb,W. K. 1970. Profile relationships, the log-linear range and extension to strong stability. Quarterly J.
Royal Meteorological Soc. 6: 67–90.
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chap-43 20/9/2004 16: 56 page 333

Numerical solutions of unsteady wave-making problems using

a panel method in time-domain∗
C.S. Zhan
Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, P.R. China
Z.J. Zou
Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, P.R. China
ABSTRACT: A 3D panel method based on Non-Uniform Rational B Spline (NURBS) has been
developed to solve the unsteady wave-making problem. A submerged body in accelerated motion is
considered. A linear boundary value problem is formulated in time domain. The velocity potential
is expressed by a time-domain Kelvin source distribution on the body surface. The body surface is
described by NURBS, and the singularity distribution on the surface is also expressed by NURBS.
The problem is solved step by step in time domain. At each time step, the singularity strengths are
determined by satisfying the boundary condition on the body surface, and then the instant hydro-
dynamic force and the wave elevation are calculated. Calculations are conducted for a submerged
spheroid at low and moderate speed. The results of instant wave resistance and wave elevation are
presented and discussed. The effects of acceleration and submergence depths on the wave resistance
are analyzed.
1 INTRODUCTION
A ship will undergo accelerated motion during starting and decelerated motion during stopping. The
unsteady ship motion will result in unsteady wave-making. There are many methods developed
to solve the unsteady wave-making problem since 1970’s (Samuel et al. 1977, Cao et al. 1991,
Hironori 2001).
In this paper, we consider a submerged body undergoing a uniform accelerated motion. We solve
this unsteady wave-making problem in time domain with a 3D panel method based on Non-Uniform
Rational B Spline (NURBS), and give some numerical results of the instant wave resistance and
free surface elevation.
A submerged body moving with a speed U (t) in calm water is considered. As shown in Figure 1, we
adopt a right-hand Cartesian coordinate system o-xyz with the x-axis pointing forward, the z-axis
pointing vertically downward. The x−y plane is coincident with the undisturbed free surface. h is
the distance between the center of the submerged body and the free surface.
It is assumed that the fluid is inviscid and incompressible, and the flow is irrotational. Then the
disturbance velocity potential φ(P(x, y, z); t) should satisfy Laplace equation
∗ This work is financially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (10272085).
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and the following boundary conditions:
where g is the acceleration of gravity;
where n = (n1 , n2 , n3 ) is the unit normal vector on the body surface;
and the initial condition:
From the solution of this boundary-value problem we can obtain the instant velocity potential
φ(P, t). According to Bernoulli equation, the instant pressure p is determined by
Then we can obtain the instant wave resistance:
and the instant wave height:
3 NUMERICAL METHOD
The boundary-value problem is solved by a 3D panel method based on NURBS. The instant velocity
potential φ(P, t) is represented by the integral of Green function on the moving surface sb(t) of the
submerged body:
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where σ(Q, t) is the strength distribution on sb(t) at time t, r is distance between the field point
P(x, y, z) and the source point Q(ξ, η, ζ), r is the distance between the field point and the image of
source point about the undisturbed free surface. G̃ is the time part of the Green function G in time
domain:
where J0 is the Bessel function of order zero, R = [(x − ξ)2 + (y − η)2 ]1/2 (Beck & Liapis 1987).
According to the boundary condition on the body surface the strength distribution σ is determined
by the following equation:
In Equations 9 and 11, the integral in terms of the Kelvin sources with respect to time is
evaluated by the trapezoid method. The continuous time is equally discretized into m + 1 step
t(t0 , t1 , · · · , tn , · · · , tm ). Then Equations 9 and 11 turn into
At the time step n, the strength distribution σ(Q, tk ) (k = 0, 1, · · · , n − 1) in the left side of Equa-
tion 13 is known. Then the unknown strength distribution σ(Q, tn ) in the right side of the equation
can be obtained by solving the equation, and it is known at next time step n + 1. In this way we
can obtain σ(Q, tn+1 ) by solving the equation again. Then step by step, with the value of n varied
from 1 to m, the strength distribution σ(Q, tn ) at each time step can be obtained. Further the instant
velocity φ(P, tn ) can be obtained according to Equation 12.
To solve the problem numerically, we apply a high order panel method based on NURBS.
The body surface is geometrically described by NURBS, and the singularity distribution on the
body surface is also expressed by NURBS. The body surface and the singularity distribution are
discretized into M × N panels in parameter plane (u, v).
The described method was applied to a submerged spheroid moving with a forward speed u(t).
Length of major axis of the spheroid l = 1, diameter of the spheroid d = l/7. As shown in Figure 2,
the spheroid is first accelerated from rest to a certain speed u0 with a constant acceleration a and
then moves with the steady speed.
Figure 3 shows the wave contours at different time steps for t0 = 0.8, h = 0.179, a = 1.0,
Fn = 0.256, with Fn = u0 / gl. From these figures, we can see the change of the unsteady wave
caused by the submerged spheroid.
Figure 4 describes the relationship between the wave resistance coefficient CR and the sub-
mergence depth h at t = 1.333 for t0 = 0.8, a = 1.0, Fn = 0.256. It shows that the wave resistance
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Figure 2. Speed u versus time t.
(a) t=0.533 (b) t=0.800
(c) t=0.987 (d) t=1.200
(e) t=1.333 (f) t=1.733
(g) t=2.000 (h) t=2.533
Figure 3. Wave contours (elevation contours are 0.015 apart).
coefficient trends to decrease as the increasing of the submergence depth during the time that the
submerged spheroid moves with constant speed.
Figure 5 describes the relationship between the wave resistance coefficient CR and the accelera-
tion a of the accelerated motions at t = 1.333 for t0 = 0.8, h = 0.179, Fn = 0.256. It also shows that
the wave resistance coefficient trends to decrease as the increasing of the acceleration during the
time that the submerged spheroid moves with constant speed.
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0.0032
0.0031
0.003
CR
0.0029
0.0028
0.0027
0.1071 0.125 0.1429 0.1607 0.1786 0.1964 0.2143 h
Figure 4. CR versus h at t = 1.333 (t0 = 0.8, a = 1.0, Fn = 0.256).
0.0036
0.0034
0.0032
CR
0.003
0.0028
0.0026
0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 a
Figure 5. CR versus a at t = 1.333 (t0 = 0.8, h = 0.179, Fn = 0.256).
0.006
0.004 Fn=0.256
CR
0.002 Fn=0.341
Fn=0.427
0
7
3
26
53
80
06
33
60
86
13
40
0.
0.
0.
1.
1.
1.
1.
2.
2.
Figure 6. CR versus t (a = 0.9, h = 0.179).
Figure 6 describes the relationship between the wave resistance coefficient CR and t for
a = 0.9, h = 0.179 at Fn = 0.256, t0 = 0.8; Fn = 0.341, t0 = 1.067 and Fn = 0.427, t0 = 1.333. It
shows that the three wave resistance coefficients at different Froude numbers change with the
same tendency. All of them are unsteady when the submerged spheroid moves with accelerated
speed, but they trend to be steady when the spheroid moves with constant speed.
A 3D panel method based on NURBS has been developed to solve the unsteady wave-making
problem in time-domain. Computations were performed for a submerged body undergoing a uni-
form accelerated motion. The results have shown that this method is efficient for such an unsteady
problem of potential flow. Further efforts will be devoted to application of the proposed method to
the unsteady wave-making problem due to a ship undergoing an arbitrary accelerated or decelerated
motion.
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REFERENCES
Beck, R. & Liapis, S. 1987. Transient motions of floating bodies at zero forward speed, Journal of Ship
Research, Vol. 31: 167–176.
Cao, Y., Schultz, W. & Beck, R. 1990. Three-dimensional unsteady computations of nonlinear waves caused
by underwater disturbances, Proc. 18th Symposium on Naval Hydrodynamics, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA,
417–425.
Hironori, Y. 2001. Unsteady wash generated by a high speed vessel, Proc. 16th Int. Workshop on Water Waves
and Floating Bodies, Hiroshima, Japan, 177–180.
Samuel, O., John, T. & David, W. T. 1977. Numerical solutions of transient three-dimensional ship-wave
problems, Proc. 2nd International Conference on Numerical Ship Hydrodynamics, Berkeley, California,
USA, 88–103.
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chap-44 20/9/2004 16: 56 page 339

Numerical modeling for breaking wave-induced momentary

liquefaction in a porous seabed: Case study at Gold Coast
H. Zhang
School of Engineering, Griffith University, Australia
D.-S. Jeng
Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Sydney, Australia
ABSTRACT: The evaluation of the wave-induced liquefaction potential is an important issue that
must be considered in the design of foundation around coastal structures. Most previous studies have
been limited to either two-dimensional cases or non-breaking waves. In this paper, an integrated
model for the wave-induced seabed response in a porous seabed is established. In the model,
both non-breaking and breaking conditions are considered. With the numerical model, the wave-
induced liquefaction potential in Gold Coast region is calculated. Numerical results demonstrate the
significant differences between non-breaking and breaking waves-induced liquefaction potential.
1 INTRODUCTION
The phenomenon of wave-induced liquefaction is an important feature in coastal engineering prob-

lems such as stability of breakwaters and sinking or uplift of pipelines. In general, ocean waves
propagating over a porous seabed, the dynamic wave pressure along the seabed surface will further
induced excess pore pressure and effective stress within the soil matrix. When the excess pore
pressure increases to a certain level, the seabed may be liquefied, then, the foundation around
coastal structure will become unstable and further cause the instability of the structure.
Depending on the manner that the pore pressure is generated, two mechanisms of the wave-
induced soil response have been observed in the laboratory and field measurements. One is caused
by the progressive nature of the excess pore pressure, which appears at the initial stage of cyclic
loading. The other is generated by the oscillatory pore pressure, which is accompanied by the
damping of amplitude and phase lag in the pore pressure. This type of soil response appears
periodically during a storm sequence. In this study, only the wave-induced transient soil response
is considered.
Numerous investigations for the wave-induced seabed response have been carried out since the
1970s. Among these, analytical approximations such as Jeng (1997), numerical modeling such
as Lin and Jeng (2000), and experimental work such as Summer et al. (1999) have been used to
investigate the wave-induced liquefaction potential. The contributions and limitation of previous
studies in the area have been systematically reviewed in Jeng (2003). However, all previous models
have been limited to two-dimensional case, which can only represent part of the whole problem.
Thus, a three-dimensional model for such a problem is desired.
Recently, a three-year EU program “Liquefaction around Marine Structures (LIMAS)”
(http://vb.mek.dtu.dk/ research/limas/limas.html) has been carried out during 2001–2004. The pro-
gram has been undertaken by a consortium of 10 institutes, including universities, hydraulics and
geotechnical engineering laboratory and consulting companies. The program covers several top-
ics: physics of liquefaction around marine structures; soil liquefaction around and its impactions
for marine pipelines; wave-induced soil liquefaction around and its implication for caisson break-
waters; seismic-induced liquefaction around marine structures; and mathematical modeling of soil
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liquefaction. Again, the research work involved in LIAMS has also been limited to two-dimensional
cases. Thus, a three-dimensional model for such a problem is desired.
In this study, a three-dimensional wave model (SWAN) will be linked with the soil model (PORO-
WSSI) into a numerical model. In the new model, the breaking waves are considered. Based on the
proposed model, the breaking wave-induced momentary liquefaction in Gold Coast region will be
investigated.
2 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
2.1 Wave model

SWAN is a numerical model, which provides estimates of the wave parameters in coastal areas,
lakes and estuaries with given wind, bottom and current conditions. It is a spectral wave model
based on the action density balance equation (Booij et al., 1999; Ris et al., 1999), which calculates
wave transformation and set up. The version (Cycle 3, version 40.20) used in present study is the
time dependent version released to public in 2003.
In SWAN the evolution of the wave spectrum is described by the spectral action balance equation,
which for spherical coordinates is Holthusijsen et al. (2003):
with longitude, λ; latitude, ϕ; the wave direction (the direction normal to the wave crest of each
spectral θ component); the relative frequency (as observed in a frame of reference moving σ with
current velocity); action density spectrum, N(σ, θ); propagation velocities and in λ, ϕ, θ and σ
space, cλ , cϕ , cθ and cσ ; the source term in terms of energy density representing effects of generation,
dissipation and nonlinear wave-wave interactions. In present study, the main corresponding input
source is wind energy as:
where A and B depend on wave frequency and direction, and wind speed and direction. The
dissipation of white capping and bottom friction are considered, but the depth induce breaking is
not taken into account.
The dissipation form of wave energy can be expressed in terms of three different contributions.
They are: whitecapping, Sds,w (σ, θ), bottom friction Sds,b (σ, θ) and depth-induced breaking Sds,br (σ,
θ). The detailed information for the wave energy dissipation can be found in Holthusijsen et al.
(2003).The depth-induced breaking, Sds,br (σ, θ) = Dtot /Etot E(σ, θ), in which Etot is the total wave
energy and Dtot is the rate of dissipation of the total energy due to wave breaking. Dtot depends
on the maximum wave height and the water depth. To model the energy dissipation in random
waves due to depth-induced breaking, the bore-based model of Battjes and Janssen (1978) is used
in SWAN. The mean rate of energy dissipation per unit horizontal area due to wave breaking Dtot
is expressed as:
where Qb is the fraction of breaking wave and σ̄ is a mean frequency, which are determined by:
in which Hm is the maximum wave height that can exist at the given depth.
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2.2 Soil model

Recently, the second author has developed a series of analytical solutions and numerical models for
the wave-induced seabed response around marine structures. In this study, we adopted the solutions
of the short-crested wave-induced soil response in an infinite seabed with the wave model (SWAN)
to examine the wave-induced liquefaction in a three-dimensional coastal region.
In the PORO-WSSI model, the consolidation equation (Biot, 1941) is generally accepted as
those governing the flow of compressible pore fluid in a compressible porous medium. For a
three-dimensional problem, and treating the porous bed as hydraulically anisotropic, with same
permeability in the x-, y- and z-directions, respectively, the governing equation can be expressed as:
where p is the wave-induced pore pressure; γw is the unit weight of the pore-water; ne is the soil
porosity; and the volume strain (ε) and compressibility of the pore fluid (β) are defined by:
where u, v and w are the soil displacements in the x-, y-, and z-directions, respectively, Sr is the
degree of saturation, Kw is the true bulk modulus of elasticity of water (which may be taken as
1.95 × 109 N/m2 ), Pwo is the absolute water pressure. If the soil skeleton is completely air-free, i.e.
fully saturated, then β=1/Kw , since Sr = 1.
The equations for overall equilibrium in a poro-elastic medium, relating to the effective stresses
and pore pressure, are given by:
where Cauchy stress tensor on the adjacent faces of a stress element consists of three effective normal
stresses and six shear stress components. The shear stresses are expressed in double subscripts τrs ,
denoting the stress in the s-direction on a plane perpendicular to the r-axis.
To integrate two models into one, first, we must calculate the wave characteristics (including
wave profile, wavelength, water particle velocities and wave pressure at the surface of the seabed).
Once we have the wave characteristics, the soil model will be used to determine the wave-induced
pore pressure, effective stresses and displacements etc.
To apply the concept of excess pore pressure to a porous seabed, the vertical distribution of the
pore pressure and effective stress is illustrated in Figure 1. If zero or a negative value of effective
stress is attained at certain depth below the seabed surface, the soil skeleton will be subjected to
the action of a net pressure force in the vertical direction. The seabed may fail to carry any vertical
load and become liquefied (Figure 1). Thus, the criterion for the wave-induced liquefaction can be
expressed as (Jeng, 1997)
where Pb is the wave pressure at the seabed surface and p is the wave-induced pore pressure, γs
and γw are the unit weight of soil and water, σx , σy and σz are the effective normal stresses in the
x-, y- and z-direction, respectively. Ko is the coefficient of earth pressure at rest which varies from
0.4 to 1.0.
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z
z
Wave Crest Wave Crest
Still Water Level Still Water Level
Wave Trough Effective stress σ'ν x

x O
Po Po
σ'ν 0
O p p 2
1 liquefaction
2
1
σ'ν = σ'ν0 + (po − p)

Seabed
σ'ν0
σ'ν = σ'ν0 + (po − p)
Figure 1. The concept of excess pore pressure and criterion of liquefaction.
-28
160
-28.1
140
-28.2
120
-28.3
longitude (degree)
-28.4 100
-28.5
80
-28.6
60
-28.7
40
-28.8
-28.9 20
-29
153.4 153.5 153.6 153.7 153.8
latitude (degree)
Figure 2. Bathymetry of Gold Coast region, the colour bar shows the water depth in meters.
3 CASE STUDY: GOLD COAST
In this study, the coastal region at Gold Coast is used as a case study. The calculated domain covers
the longitude from −28 to −29, and the latitude from 153.4 to 153.8. The water depth varies from
shallow water to deep water (up to 120 m), as shown in Figure 2. With the information in Figure 2,
the distribution of wave height and wave direction calculated from the wave model (SWAN) is
plotted in Figure 3. Both cases with and without breaking conditions are included. The input data
of soil characteristics and the grid size used in the wave model is given in Table 1.
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wave height & direction, no wave breking wave height & direction, with wave breaking
-28 -28
4.5
-28.1 7 -28.1
4
-28.2 -28.2
6 3.5
-28.3 -28.3
-28.4 -28.4 3
5
-28.5 -28.5 2.5
-28.6 -28.6
4 2
-28.7 -28.7
1.5
-28.8 3 -28.8
1
-28.9 -28.9
2 0.5
-29 -29
153.4 153.5 153.6 153.7 153.8 153.4 153.5 153.6 153.7 153.8
Figure 3. Distribution of wave direction and wave height, the colour bar shows the wave height in meters
(a) without wave breaking and (b) with wave breaking.
Table 1. Input data of numerical models.
Parameter Values
Grid size in the (x, y) direction (1000, 1000) m

Grid number in the (x, y) direction (49, 121)
Wind speed 20 m/sec
Wind direction 135 degree
Wave frequency (lowest, highest) (0.0521, 1) Hz
Number of frequency 31
Significant wave height at boundaries 3m
Peak wave period at boundaries 10 sec
Soil permeability 0.0001 m/sec
Shear modulus 107 N/m2
Poisson’s ratio 0.3
Soil porosity 0.4
Based on the wave-induced soil response (including pore pressure and effective stresses) calcu-
lated in the proposed model, together with the criterion of liquefaction, we are able to calculate the
wave-induced liquefaction potential.
With the data given in Figures 2 and 3, we further calculate the wave-induced liquefaction at
different time intervals. Herein, we only present the contour distribution of the wave-induced pore
pressure at time = 3.25 sec in Figure 4. The results for both cases without and with breaking waves
are presented.
In Figure 4 for t = 3.25 sec, several holes generated by liquefaction are observed near the coast-
line, which are not allowed to have coastal structures to be installed. The maximum liquefaction
depth is about 2.5 m located at (E153.55, S-28.4) for non-breaking waves, while it is about 1.2 m
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liquification depth (m) at t=3.25 s, no wave breaking liquification depth (m) at t=3.25 s, with wave breaking
-28 -28
0.4 0.2
-28.1 -28.1
0.6 0.3
-28.2 -28.2
0.8 0.4
-28.3 -28.3
1 0.5
longitude (degree)
longitude (degree)
-28.4 -28.4
1.2 0.6
-28.5 1.4 -28.5

0.7
-28.6 1.6 -28.6 0.8
1.8 0.9
-28.7 -28.7
2
-28.8 -28.8 1
2.2
1.1
-28.9 -28.9
2.4
1.2
-29 -29
153.4 153.5 153.6 153.7 153.8 153.4 153.5 153.6 153.7 153.8
latitude (degree) latitude (degree)
Figure 4. Distribution of the wave-induced liquefaction at t = 3.25 sec. (a) without breaking condition, and
(b) with breaking condition.
located near (E153.6, S − 28.3 to −28.6) for breaking waves, where the maximum wave height
occurs as shown in Figure 4. The distributions of liquefaction potential due to non-breaking and
breaking waves are quite different, as shown in Figure 4(a) & 4(b). It is also noted that the lique-
faction depth due to breaking waves is about 50% of that due to non-breaking waves. This may be
explained by the fact that the wave height will be decreases after wave broken. As the time changes,
the liquefied areas have been reduced and moved toward the coastline, as the time increases (the
graphs are not shown here).
4 CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, a three-dimensional integrated numerical model for wave-induced liquefaction poten-
tial in a porous seabed is established. A case study at Gold Coast is used as an example. Unlike
previous investigations, the breaking wave conditions are considered in this paper. Numerical
results indicated that the maximum liquefaction depth due to breaking waves is smaller than that
due to non-breaking waves. Also, the distributed patterns of liquefaction potential due to both cases
are different.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The second author is grateful for the financial supports from Australian Research Council (ARC)
Large Grant Scheme #A00104092 (2001–2003) and Australia (AAS)-Taiwan (NSC) Exchanged
Program (2002–2003).
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REFERENCES
Battjes, Janssen 1978. Energy loss and set-up due to breaking of random waves, Proc. 16th Int. Conf. Coatal
Engineering, ASCE, 569–587. Biot, M.A. 1941. General theory of three-dimensional consolidation. Journal
of Applied Physics, 12, 1550164.
Booij, N., Ris, R. C., Holthuijsen, L. H. 1999. A third-generation wave model for coastal regions. Part I, Model
description and validation. Journal of Geophysical Research, 104, 7649–7666.
Holthuijsen, L. H., Booij, N. Ris, R. C., Haagsma, I. J. G., Kieftenburg, A. T. M. M., Kriezi, F. E. 2003. SWAN
Cycle III Version 40.20 User Manual. Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands.
Jeng, D.-S. 1997. Wave-induced seabed instability in front of a breakwater. Ocean Engineering, 24, 887–917.
Lin,Y. S., Jeng, D.-S. 2000. Short-crested wave-induced liquefaction in porous seabed. Journal of Geotechnical
and Geoenvironmental Engineering, A.S.C.E., 126(4), 481–494.
Ris, R. C., Holthuijsen, H., Booij, N. 1999. A third-generation wave model for coastal regions, Part II,
Verification. Journal of Geophysical Research, 104, 7667–7681.
Sumer, B. M., Fredsoe, J., Christensen, S., Lind, M. T. 1999. Sinking/floating of pipelines and other objectives
in liquefied soil under waves. Coastal Engineering, 38(2), 53–90.
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Offshore engineering
chap-45 20/9/2004 16: 56 page 349

Measured and computed results of wave drift added mass of a vertical

circular cylinder or an array of vertical circular cylinders
W. Bao, T. Kinoshita & M. Yoshida

Institute of Industrial Science, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
ABSTRACT: The so-called wave drift added mass and the wave drift damping are caused by
the nonlinear interactions between the low-frequency oscillations of floating body and ambient
waves. The problem of a circular cylinder (or array) slowly oscillating in diffraction wave field is
considered in the present work. The frequency of the slow oscillation is assumed to be much smaller
than the wave frequency. Perturbation expansion based on two time scales and two parameters is
performed to simplify the problem. The approach to solve the boundary value problem is described.
The far field conditions are suggested to ensure the existence of the unique solution. Experimental
measurements are carried out to compare the calculated results.
1 INTRODUCTION
The moored ocean structures are drifted to low-frequency oscillations under the nonlinear excitation
of waves. It is now commonly accepted that the wave-drift damping plays an important role in
determining the magnitude of the low-frequency oscillation at resonance. On the other hand, the
effects of the wave-drift added mass, which is the nonlinear wave loads in phase with the acceleration
of the low-frequency oscillations, to the drifting oscillations are not negligible (Bao & Kinoshita,
2001, Kinoshita et al., 2002). To evaluate the wave-drift added mass, the perturbation expansion of
the potential should be carried out to higher orders with respect to the low frequency. The solutions
of them are discussed in the present work. The radiation conditions satisfied by these potentials
are also proposed.
2 FORMULATION OF THE PROBLEM
The problem to be considered here is that a vertical circular cylinder or an array of circular cylinders
is slowly oscillating in the horizontal plane in a train of regular waves. To simplify the discussion,
the slow oscillation is restricted in the surge direction and the body is restrained from the linear
responses to the incident waves in the present work. We are going to consider the interaction
between the low-frequency surge oscillation and the ambient diffraction wave field. It is not an
essential difficulty to extend the present analysis to the problems of other low-frequency horizontal
motions, i.e. sway and yaw, or to the interactions with radiation wave fields. The frequency of the
forced slow oscillation is designated by σ while the wave frequency is denoted by ω. It is assumed
that σ ω. The displacement of the low-frequency oscillation is represented by ξ(t) = Re{iξ̄e−iσt }.
Following Newman’s (1993) approach, a frame of o-xyz following the low-frequency surge
oscillation is adopted to describe the problem. The coordinates of oscillating frame is related to a
space-fixed frame, say O-XYZ, by X = x + ξ(t). The time derivative in the space-fixed frame can
be transferred to the moving frame by the chain-rule of differentiation: d/dt = ∂/∂t − ξ̇(t)∂/∂x. The
problem will be solved based on the potential theory.
Two time scales are naturally used to describe these two kinds of motions with different scale
of frequency. A phase function, defined as S(t) = ωt − ξ(t)k0 cos β, is used to describe the wave
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motion referring to the moving frame where k0 is the wave number and β is the incident angle. The
time derivative of it gives the encountering frequency Ṡ(t) = ω − ξ̇(t)k0 cos β. Two small parameters
are adopted in the perturbation analysis. The first one is the wave slope ε = ζ0 k0 (with ζ0 to be the
incident wave amplitude) while the second one is the ratio between the two frequencies τ = σ/ω.
The velocity potential Φ(x, t) is expanded into a perturbation series like follows:
In (1), the first number in the subscript indicates the order in ε while the second one denotes the
order in τ. Substituting the above expansion into the boundary value problem satisfied by the total
potential Φ(x, t) and collecting terms according to the time dependence and the order both in ε
and τ, the boundary value problems governing different orders of potentials are obtained. They are
grouped into two types. The first kind of boundary problem satisfied by the potentials φ1j ( j = 1,
2 or 3), i.e. linear in ε but with different orders in τ. It is stated as:
The other potentials (i = 0, j = 1 and i = 2, j = 0 or 1) are governed by the following second kind
of problem:
In (2) and (3), V represents the fluid domain and S0 is the mean wetted body surface.
3 SOLUTIONS OF THE POTENTIALS
The first kind of boundary value problem given in (2) is taken as an example to show how to
solve for the potentials. When j = 0 in (2), the potential φ10 satisfies a homogeneous free surface
condition and the Sommerfeld radiation condition, the solution of which is the well-known linear
diffraction potential. As j = 1 or 2, the forcing terms in the free surface condition are examined.
They are generally divided into two parts. Different methods are utilized according to the form of
the forcing terms. The first part of forcing terms is a linear combination of the lower potentials
and their derivatives. A special solution corresponding to this part of forcing terms can be obtained
with a derivative operator. This special solution is implemented by a general solution to make the
normal velocity vanish on the body surface. The general solution satisfies a homogeneous surface
condition and the Sommerfeld radiation condition. It is not difficult to obtain its solution. For
example, it can be solved in a similar way as the linear diffraction potential φ10 . The second part of
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the forcing terms involves the products of the potential φ01 with other lower order potentials. The
corresponding solution may be expressed in an integral over the boundary surface according to the
Green’s theorem.
To solve the potential φ11 , the forcing term f11 is divided into two parts:
The following differential operator is applied to the linear diffraction potential φ10 to obtain the
special solution corresponding to the first part of forcing terms f11U :
G
This part of solution is implemented by a general solution φ11 to satisfy the body surface condition
as mentioned earlier.
The solution corresponding to the second part of the forcing terms f11S is expressed in the following
integral by means of the Green’s theorem.
The boundary surface S consists of the body surface S0 , the free surface SF (z = 0), the sea bottom
SB (z = −h) and a control surface SR (r = R). The Green function G(P, Q) satisfies a homogeneous
free surface condition and the Sommerfeld far field condition. Due to the good behavior of the
potential φ01 , the integral over the free surface converges properly. This part of solution satisfies
S
the Sommerfeld condition as well. Making use of the boundary conditions of φ11 and G, the above
integral may be simplified as
In (7), it becomes an integral equation when the field point P lies on the body surface S0 . Solving
this equation, the value of the potential on the body surface can be determined and the potential
value at other field points can be evaluated by the integrals over the body surface and the free
U G S
surface. The total solution of φ11 is the sum of the above ones, i.e. φ11 = φ11 + φ11 + φ11 .
When the potential φ12 is considered, the forcing term is divided as follows:
It can be seen that there is one more part in the forcing terms, denoted by f12T , compared with
the case of j = 1. Nevertheless, it takes the same form as the one for the potential φ11 except some
constant coefficients. Hence, this part of solution is readily expressed by the potential φ11 :
The special solution corresponding to f12U is obtained with the following differential operator:
G
Similarly, a general solution φ12 should be added here just like in the case of j = 1.
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To obtain a solution corresponding to the second part of the forcing term f12S , the Green’s theorem
S S
is utilized once again by replacing φ11 in (6) with φ12 . However, the integral over the free surface
might be divergent this time. Then, the free surface is divided into two parts, i.e. SF = SFN + SFF ,
by a circle with a radius RF satisfying r < RF < R. Here, SFN denotes the part a < ρ < RF while SFF
is the one RF < ρ < R. If the radius RF is chosen sufficiently large, all the functions in the integrand
over the exterior part of the free surface, i.e. SFF , can be expanded into the Fourier series of the
azimuth angle θ:
The integral with respect to θ can be performed to obtain the following results:
S
On the control surface SR , it is assumed that the evanescent terms of φ12 and G vanishes so that
they tend to the following forms when R 1:
Consequently, as R 1, the integral over the control surface SR can be calculated as:
In (14) a prime denotes the derivative with respect to the argument of the function. Obviously, if
Fn (R), which is defined by an indefinite integral in (12), tends to zero as R goes to infinity, the
integral over the free surface will converge. Otherwise, the contribution from the control surface
expressed in (14) should cancel the value of Fn (R) to ensure that a unique solution exists. This will
S
yield the following radiation condition to be imposed on the potential φ12 for large R.
With this radiation condition and the free surface integral given in (12), the potential is now can
be expressed as:
T U S G
The potential φ12 is the sum of all the above solutions: φ12 = φ12 + φ12 + φ12 + φ12 .
The second kind of boundary value problem can be solved by the Green’s theorem similar to
S
the potential φ12 except that a different Green function, which satisfies a rigid-wall free surface
condition, should be used.
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4 DISCUSSION ON RADIATION CONDITION

U
The radiation condition for the special solution φ11 is determined by applying the differential
operator defined in (5) to the Sommerfeld condition satisfied by the linear diffraction potential φ10 .
Here, the use of the far filed behavior ∂φ10 /∂x ∼ ∂φ10 /∂r cos θ ∼ ik0 φ10 cos θ has been made.
The other parts of potential φ11 satisfy the Sommerfeld condition as mentioned in the previous
section.
U
To determine the radiation condition for the special solution of φ12 , the operators given in (5)
G
and (10) are applied to the Sommerfeld conditions satisfied by φ11 and φ10 respectively to yield:
S
The radiation condition for the solution of φ12 is given in (15).
Potentials satisfying the radiation conditions shown in (15), (17) and (18) contain secular terms in
their solutions for large value of r. These solutions are not uniformly valid in the whole fluid domain.
They are valid in a restricted region, the range of which is comparable to the incident wavelength
but is much smaller than the waves radiated by the low-frequency oscillation. However, this will
not cause any practical difficulties in the calculation of wave loads.
5 WAVE LOADS
Once the potentials are solved, the wave loads are evaluated by the integration of the hydrodynamic
pressure along the instantaneous wetted body surface.
The wave loads are expanded into a perturbation series in the same way as the velocity potential
with two time scales, for example, force in x-direction may be expressed as:
In (19), A0 and B0 are the well-known linear added mass and damping while Mw and Nw are the
so-called wave drift added mass and damping respectively. Using the expansion of the potential
shown in (1), the wave drifted added mass can be evaluated by
The calculated wave drift added mass for a uniform circular cylinder is presented in Figure 1,
where full line is the result without the contributions from the potential φ12 and φ21 while the dashed
line is lack of the contribution from φ21 . The dotted line includes contributions from both of these
two potentials. It can be observed that the contributions from higher order potentials φ12 and φ21
are not negligible.
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6 EXPERIMENT ARRANGEMENT
To compare with the calculated results, experiments are performed in a towing tank that is 54
meters long and 10 meters wide with a depth of 2 meters. The model is either a circular cylinder
or an array of four cylinders. The radius of cylinder is set to a = 0.125 meter and the draft changes
from a to 3a. In the case of cylinder array, the cylinders are located at the corners of a rectangular,
with a length of 10a and a width of 5a.
As shown in Figure 2, the models are hung up by four wires, which have an average length of
about 4.5 meters. The length of the wires is adjustable according to the draft of the models. The
weight of the wires is negligible when the natural frequency of the whole system is evaluated. Both
the free decay test (denoted as FD) and the forced oscillation test (designated as FO) are performed.
In the FD tests, the models are disconnected from the carriage and the forces acting on the models
are not measured. Only the displacement of the models is measured through an optical position
sensor system. When FO tests are performed, the models are connected to the carriage through
soft springs and a pair of cantilever load cells, which are used to measure the force acting on the
models. The carriage is driven to move along rails by a servomotor so that it leads the models to
oscillate slowly in surge direction. Both the displacement and the forces are measured in the FO
tests. The frequency of the forced low-frequency oscillation is set to be a little bit higher than the
natural frequency of the whole test system.
Shown in Figure 3 is the wave drift added mass of a cylinder array varying with the incident
wave amplitude. Parabolic lines drawn according to the least-square method are also presented in
-1
A2xx/ρπζa2
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
k0a
Figure 1. Wave-drift added mass of a uniform circu-

lar cylinder in a water depth h = 2a. Figure 2. Setting-up of experiment equipments.
0.6 10
d=2a,σ=0.929rad/s FO,d=2a,σ=0.929rad/ s
d=1a,σ=1.137rad/s 8 FO,d=1a,σ=1.137rad/ s
0.5
FD,d=1a
6 cal.,d=2a
cal.,d=1a
0.4
4
Mw/4ρπaζa2
Mw/Ms
0.3 2
0
0.2
-2
0.1
-4
0 -6
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
ζa/a k0L
Figure 3. The effects of wave amplitude on the Figure 4. The wave drift added mass of a cylinder
wave drift added mass, k0 L = 5.0. array.
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the figure. It can be observed that the wave drift added mass is proportional to the square of the
wave amplitude.
Plotted in Figure 4 is the wave drift added mass Mw of the cylinder array, normalized by N ρπaζa2 ,
against the wave number k0 L. Here N is the total number of cylinders. The frequency of the forced
oscillation σ = 0.929 rad/sec when the draft d = 2a and σ = 1.137 rad/sec when d = a. Results of FD
tests are also presented in this figure. The agreement between FD and FO tests is good. Calculated
results, represented by lines, are shown in the figure to compare with experimental ones. It can be
seen that they agree fairly well with each other in general tendency although departure between
these two results can also be observed. Since the linear responses of the models to the incident waves
and contributions from higher order potentials φ12 and φ21 are not included in the computation, the
difference between these two results is expectable. Computation including the contribution from
the higher order potentials remains as our future work.
Potentials used to evaluate wave drift added mass are solved and radiation conditions for these
potentials are discussed. Experimental results confirmed the wave drift added mass is a quadratic
quantity in wave amplitude. Computed results agree fairly well with the measured data in general
tendency.
REFERENCES
Bao W. & Kinoshita T. 2001. Wave-drift added mass of a cylinder array slowly oscillating in waves. Proc. of
OMAE 2001, Rio de Janeiro.
Kinoshita T., Bao W., Yoshida M. & Ishibashi K. 2002. Wave-drift added mass of floating bodies from a free
decay test or a slowly oscillating test in waves. Proc. of ISOPE 2002, Kyushu. 385–390.
Newman J.N. 1993. Wave-drift damping of floating bodies. J. Fluid Mech. Vol. 249:241–259.
355
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Three-dimensional analysis of slamming
Muthu Chezhian
Det Norske Veritas, Høvik, Norway
Odd. M. Faltinsen
NTNU, Trondheim, Norway
ABSTRACT: Impact between the water and ship, i.e. slamming can cause important global and
local effects. A numerical method has been applied to predict water entry loads on three-dimensional
bodies. The problem is solved as an initial value problem using the boundary element method. A
generalization of Wagner’s (1932) theory, was presented by Zhao, Faltinsen and Aarsnes (1996)
for two-dimensional water entry problems. In the present work, this generalization of Wagner’s
theory is extended to arbitrary three-dimensional bodies. An idealized shape, which consists of
cylindrical mid-body and hemispherical ends, was studied. The wetted body surface is considered
to be more important and is calculated with greater details than the free surface elevation away
from the body. Drop tests have been carried out to verify and validate the numerical simulation.
The agreement between theory and experiments is good and the effect of three-dimensionality is
accounted.
1 INTRODUCTION
All kind of marine structures such as ships, offshore platforms and coastal structures experience
slamming, which can eventually result in important global and local loads. The impact forces
in the bow region of a ship, is of practical engineering interest. Due to the complexities associ-
ated with the three-dimensional boundary value problem, more often, simplifying assumptions
are used that reduce the calculations of hydrodynamic forces to a two-dimensional strip theory.
Techniques such as these are highly questionable in the bow region where the assumption of two-
dimensionality of fluid flow maybe invalid. This calls for a direct three-dimensional approach. This
should also account for the forward speed effect of the ship. However, the present work neglects
this effect.
The water entry problem of a three-dimensional body was studied by Chezhian (2003), with
the intention of understanding the three-dimensional effects of slamming. An arbitrary three-
dimensional body, with constant entry velocity is considered. The focus of the study was on rigid
bodies with geometries comparable to that of a ships bow.
A ‘simplified method’ for water entry of two-dimensional body, based on the generalization of
Wagner’s (1932) theory was presented by Zhao, Faltinsen and Aarsnes (1996). Faltinsen and Zhao
(1997) extended this ‘simplified method’ for the water entry of two-dimensional ship sections
and axisymmetric bodies, and showed that the method was robust and well suited for engineering
applications. The work of Chezhian (2003), builds on their approach and extends it to general
three-dimensional bodies. Generalized Wagner’s approach implies that the exact body boundary
conditions are satisfied at each time instant in the three-dimensional outer flow solution. However,
the dynamic free surface condition is similar as Wagner used in his outer flow description. A
Boundary Element Method (BEM) was used in the numerical simulation and the water entry
problem was studied in time domain, at discrete time steps.
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2 SIMPLFIED METHOD FOR 3D SLAMMING
2.1 General
In the following text the term ‘simplified method’, will be used to describe the simplified approach,
presented by Zhao, Faltinsen and Aarsnes (1996) and Faltinsen and Zhao (1997), which is based on
the generalization of Wagner’s theory. The body that was studied under slamming had circular cross
section with a cylindrical parallel mid-body and the ends are halves of hemispheres. The length by
breadth ratio was chosen as two, since it represented a good case for three-dimensionality.
2.2 Assumptions
Air entrapment between the body surface and water surface and the compressibility problem is
not considered. The body was assumed rigid with no horizontal velocity. Water is assumed incom-
pressible and flow is assumed irrotational. The fluid acceleration associated with slamming is very
high in comparison to the acceleration due to gravity, so the effects of gravity can be ignored.
Further, the dynamic free surface condition is the same as in Wagner’s outer domain solution, i.e.
the details of the flow at the spray roots are not considered. There are no additional simplifications
or assumptions made with respect to the kinematic free surface condition used.
2.3 Simplified method

Potential theory is applied and the problem is solved as an initial value problem. A Cartesian
coordinate system xyz is used as a frame of reference. The z axis is positive upwards, x axis is
along on the longitudinal direction and y axis is in the lateral direction.
The velocity potential, φ, satisfies the Laplace equation in the fluid domain,
The effect of gravity is neglected, as mentioned earlier in the assumptions. This gives the
following simplified dynamic free surface condition on the free surface as
O X
Spherical end
Spherical end
Cylindrical central part
Figure 1. Three-dimensional test model.
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The kinematic free surface condition is that a particle on the free surface always stays on the
free surface, and consistent with the dynamic free surface condition, can be written as,
The body boundary condition on the wetted body surface is satisfied on the instantaneous body
surface and can be written as
where, Vn is the body velocity in the normal direction n to the body surface. Positive direction of
the normal n is defined as into the fluid. The instantaneous wetted surface does not include the
spray-wetted region. The body surface, which lies below the quasi-horizontal plane (also called
as the elevated free surface), is the instantaneous wetted surface. The initial conditions are zero
velocity potential and zero free surface elevation.
When solving the boundary value problem, the dynamic free surface condition φ = 0 was applied
on the quasi-horizontal plane emerging at the intersection line between the free surface and the body
surface. In case of an axisymmetric body, the elevated free surface would be a horizontal plane.
For an arbitrary three-dimensional body, the elevated free surface will no longer be a plane but a
curved surface, which runs on a series of connecting lines. These connecting lines emerge from
the intersection of the body surface and the free surface and are aligned parallel to the horizontal
plane, as shown in Figure 2.
The three-dimensional outer flow solution was matched with the analytical local two-dimensional
solution, so as to calculate the exact duration between subsequent time steps. The local solution
matching technique was based on the work of Zhao, Faltinsen & Aarsnes (1996). This local solution
ensures that the flow singularity at the intersection of body surface and free surface is properly
accounted for in the time integration. For a general three-dimensional body, control sections are
defined along which the free surface elevation is followed in time. An iterative approach was used
in combination with the local solution matching and interpolation was used between the control
sections to generate the wetted surface profile around the body.
The time stepping procedure and the methodology for calculating the free surface intersection
an arbitrary three-dimensional geometry can be understood by studying two other basic problems.
The first basic problem is the case of an axisymmetric body studied by Faltinsen and Zhao (1997),
who studied the water entry of ship sections and axisymmetric bodies. The second basic problem is
OUT
SF
IN
SF
O' Body
I1 I2 I5 I6
I3 I4
β(t)
Ij Intersection points
Intersection line between free surface and body surface Pileup along the body surface
Figure 2. Elevated free surface around the three-dimensional test section.
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the case of the two-dimensional asymmetric problem studied by Zhao, Faltinsen & Aarsnes (1996),
who studied the water entry of arbitrary two-dimensional sections with and without flow separation.
Consider a two-dimensional asymmetric body as given in Figure 3. The superscript notation, r
denotes ‘right side’ of the body and the superscript notation, l denotes ‘left side’ of the body. Since
the body is asymmetric, the pile up of water on either side of the body will not be the same. The
same rate of change of intersection point with time (dc/dt) from the previous time step, is also used
for the subsequent time step to get a first estimate of the horizontal line Li+1 (elevated free surface).
In this, it is assumed that the geometry does not change rapidly, so that the above approximation
can be used. The other option is to consider smaller time steps.
The numerical simulation starts at time instant t0 , where the submergence of the body is z01 . It is
assumed that the free surface elevation is unaffected by this z01 penetration and the free surface l0
is horizontal. This is denoted as time step 1. At the time step 2, it is assumed that the free surface
elevation is still horizontal and it is above the z01 at a position governed by the number of time steps
we choose in the numerical simulation. The reason for doing this is to get a preliminary estimate
of (dt/dc) which is applied in the subsequent time step.
The subsequent time steps are dealt with as follows. The time interval for each time step is found
from the right hand side of the body and the position of the intersection point for subsequent time
steps is fixed for the right hand side of the body. The (dt/dc) of the previous time steps is combined
with the three-dimensional outer flow solution to determine the position of the intersection point
on the left side of the body. Green’s second identity is applied at Li for time step ti and at Lai+1
for ti+1 . It should be remembered that Lai+1 is obtained as a first approximation from (dt/dc) of
the previous time step. An iterative procedure is then applied, to find the correct position of the
intersection point on the ‘left side’. The kinematic free surface condition is used on the remaining
part of the free surface to find out the free surface elevation.
Consider a three-dimensional body as given in Figure 4. A procedure similar asymmetric water
entry problem is then adopted. The main difference is that the section A1A2 is representative of the
right hand side of asymmetric body and all other sections are representative of the left hand side
of the body. For the given three-dimensional body, the control sections are chosen at A1A2, B1B2,
C1C2. As before, A1A2 is set as equivalent to the ‘right side’ and section A1A2 is used to determine
the time interval for the time stepping process. An approach similar to that of the ‘left side’ of the
asymmetric body is applied for section B1B2 and C1C2. P1 and P2 are the predefined points that are
set beforehand. P1 corresponds to yri and P2 corresponds to yri+1 . P3 and P5 correspond to different
yli and P4 and P6 correspond to their yli+1 respectively. The pileup position, i.e. the intersection line
between free surface and body surface, that lies between P2 , P4 and P6 is interpolated by a second
order polynomial interpolation scheme.
Asymmetric
body
z1
PTi+1
(yi+1,zi+1)l (yi+1,zi+1)r Li+1r
Li+1l
li+1r A2 R/2
li+1
l ∆Pr
C2 B2 R/2
r
(yi,zi)
l (yi,zi) Lir P6 P4 P2
Lil TS+1
P5 P3
r TS
PTi li P1
lil C1 B1 A1
2R R R
L0,l0 L0, l0
z10 y --- Pileup position to be calculated

--- Pileup position set beforehand
TS --- Time step
Actual free surface
--- Intersection between free surface
Elevated free surface and body surface
--- Elevated free surface
Figure 3. ‘Simplified method’ for an asymmetric 2D
body showing actual free surface (—— solid line) and Figure 4. Control sections and free surface intersec-
elevated free surface (- - - - - - dashed line). tion positions for two subsequent time steps.
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In case of a three-dimensional body, there is a gradual variation in the pileup height around
the body section. The choice of positions of the control sections such A1A2, B1B2 and C1C2
should be based on observation as well as rigorous testing. The general guideline being, more
control sections should be included at places where the curvature of the body in the horizontal
plane changes significantly.
3 DROP TESTS
3.1 Test setup

Model tests were carried out at the hydrodynamics laboratory of The Marine Technology Centre in
Trondheim, where slamming was studied using drop tests. The test model is composed of 4 smaller
sections (indicated as I, II, III, IV in Figure 5). Section I is referred to as the center section, Section II
is the mid section and the section III is the end section. Vertical force, wetted surface elevation at key
control sections, and pressure time history were recorded. The drop tests were performed on calm
undisturbed free surface and the tests were repeated to check for reproducibility and consistency.
The effect of relative velocity between the body and the water was studied, by changing the drop
height, which implicitly governs the water entry velocity. The drop tests were conducted with two
different trim angles (0◦ and 10◦ ) to study the influence of the relative angle between free surface
and body surface.
Part of the impact model sections were modified to provide access for mounting and shifting
the pressure cells, which later turned out to be a potential source of problem due to weakened test
sections. The results from the model tests were used to validate the proposed numerical method
and also provided adequate information for gaining better physical understanding of the slamming
phenomenon.
4.1 Vertical force

The results based on numerical simulation were compared with the experimental results and overall
agreement was found to be good. Only the results for the non-trim test cases have been reported in
this paper. The vertical force from individual test sections (sections I, II, and III in Figure 5) was
compared and the total vertical force on the entire model has also been compared. The agreement
with respect to rise time to peak load and the maximum vertical force was found to be good, as
seen in Figure 6. The later part of the vertical force history showed deviations mainly due to the
lack of the hydrostatic component in the numerical method. Further, the numerical simulation is
based on constant velocity assumptions, whereas the drop tests have a varying water entry velocity,
as shown in Figure 7.
Figure 5. Test section used in drop tests.
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0.6
EXP 0.894
EXP 1.265
0.5 EXP 2.000
NS 0.894
NS 1.265
F3/(ρV RL)
0.4 NS 2.000
3.15
2
VelocityTrendline
0.3
Vertical Velocity (m/s)

3.10
0.2
3.05
0.1
3.00
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Vt/R 2.95
Figure 6. Non-dimensional vertical force 2.90

0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 0.030 0.035 0.040 0.045
on center section presented as function of Time (s)
non-dimensional time. (EXP = Experiments;
NS = Numerical Simulation √and EXP 2.000. Figure 7. Vertical velocity as function of time during
Implies Experiments with V / gR = 2.000) impact phase for 0.5 m drop height.
10000
9000 Experiments
Numerical
8000 Strip Theory
7000 Newman pp.147
6000
Force (N)
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0.0000 0.0050 0.0100 0.0150 0.0200 0.0250 0.0300 0.0350 0.0400 0.0450
Time (s)
Figure 8. Total vertical force using strip theory and von Karman type approach for 0.5 m drop height.
In Figure 6, the results based on numerical simulation deviate from the experimental
measurements between the non-dimensional time instances of 0.10 and 0.25. Based on comparison
with 2D studies, it was a found that a fully non-linear solution will be required, if better accuracy is
required. However, the large scatter in the slamming experiments results should be acknowledged
and can be vividly seen in Figure 9.
The experimentally recorded vertical forces showed an oscillatory trend, which was missing
in the numerical method based on assuming a rigid body. After thorough investigation using dry
impact hammer tests and finite element analysis using FEMLAB, the source of the oscillations
were ascertained to be from the hydroelastic vibrations of the test sections. Simplified theoretical
hydroelastic models were proposed and implemented using the thin beam theory approximations.
These hydroelastic studies have been reported in Faltinsen and Chezhian (2004).
Alternate ways of assessing three-dimensional water entry loads using strip theory models or
simplified added mass models with von Karman (1929) type approach have also been investigated.
This is illustrated in Figure 8. It was found that strip theory overestimates the vertical force for
all drop test cases for the total body. The relative error for the peak value of strip theory and
experimental mean trend line for 0.1 m drop test is larger than for the 0.5 m drop case. For the
hemispherical end section, the strip theory gave unsatisfactory predictions, and the deviation in
the peak force was as large as 30% when compared to the experimental peak force, reinstating the
significance of three-dimensionality.
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7
Fully non-linear solution
Generalised Wagner solution
6 Experiments#1 from Faltinsen et al. (1977)
Experiments#2 from Faltinsen et al.(1977)
Formula based on experiments - Campbell & Weynberg (1980)
5
Experimental data set #1 collected by from Armand & Cointe (1986)
Experimental data set #2 collected by from Armand & Cointe (1986)
4
F3/ρV R
2
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Vt/R
Figure 9. Non-dimensional vertical force for the water entry of a circular cylinder, using a fully non-linear
method and simplified method.
0.001NS 0.001EXP 25 0.002NS 0.002EXP 0.003NS

0.0
0.003EXP 0.004NS 0.004EXP 0.005NS 0.005EXP
20
0.0
1.100
Pileup height (m)
2
15 Ratio of Numerical and dc
0.0 1.080 dt
10 1.060
0.0
Ratio
1.040
05
0.0
1.020
00
-0.40 -0.30 -0.20 -0.10 0.0 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40
1.000
X axis (m)
0.980
Figure 10. Wetted surface along the x-axis

0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.012 0.014
Time (s)
for 0.5 m drop height. (EXP – Experiments,

NS-Numerical Simulation, 0.001 – EXP implies Figure 11. Ratio of numerical and experimental
Experimental wetted surface at 0.001 seconds.) dc2 /dt at center section for 0.5 m drop height.
4.2 Wetted surface

The position and the time state of change of the intersection line between the body and free surface,
are believed to be important factors in slamming, as reported by Faltinsen and Zhao (1997). The
numerical wetted surface agrees closely with the experimental results and over estimates it only
marginally as seen in Figure 10. The inherent uncertainty (f.e. spray effects) in the experimentally
measured pile-up heights will also influence the comparison. The rate of change of the wetted
surface (dc/dt) will influence the slamming forces and it can be shown that the vertical force can
be related to (dc2 /dt). The ratio of numerical and experimental dc2 /dt, can be used to explain the
deviation between the numerical and experimental forces as illustrated in Figure 11.
4.3 Pressure
The agreement between numerical pressure results and experimental measurements is found to be
fair, as seen in Figures 12 and 13. The oscillatory nature of the pressure curve is due to the structural
vibrations and dynamic effects. The time period of these oscillations increase with time and this is
due to the increasing added mass.
The numerical pressure is mostly on the higher side. The experimental pressure measurements
are strongly dependant on the pressure cell diaphragm area, and the pressure cells used have a
diameter of 4 mm. More importantly, it has been ascertained that the center section responds
hydroelastically, as described in Faltinsen and Chezhian (2004). It should be recalled, the entire
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45000
20000
40000 Experiments Numerical
Numerical 18000
35000 Experiments
16000
30000
14000
Pressure (Pa)
25000
Pressure (Pa)
20000 12000
15000 10000
10000 8000
5000 6000
0
4000
0.000
-5000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 0.030 0.035 0.040 0.045 0.050
2000
-10000
0
Time (s)
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14
X axis (m)
Figure 12. Time series of pressure for side pressure

cell p13, for 0.2 m drop height. See Figure 4.4 for Figure 13. Pressure distribution at 0.01 seconds along
pressure cell location. the centre section, for 0.2 m drop height.
numerical simulation is based on rigid body assumptions. If the problem is strongly hydroelastic
with very large pressures concentrated in space and time as for a horizontal plate impact then the
pressures based on rigid body formulation have no meaning when maximum structural stresses
occur.
Despite these relatively large differences in the pressure between experiments and theory,
the agreement between the numerical forces computed based on pressure integration and the
experimentally recorded forces is very good. Similar phenomenon is reported by Zhao et al (1996).
5 CONCLUSION
The ‘simplified method’ (generalized Wagner method) is able to predict the slamming forces,
with reasonable accuracy. The approach was found to be robust (as compared to fully non-linear
solutions) and well suited for engineering applications. The 3D effects on slamming loads can be
beneficially used to get realistic load models, when compared to the over conservative strip theory
methods. However, in order to apply the method to a ship, modifications are needed. Obviously
not the whole ship is out of the water before impact. Further, the forward speed must be accounted
for. We must also distinguish between local and global slamming effects. The present approach
assumes implicitly a local slamming analysis. A global slamming needs also to consider the water
exit part of the problem. Our dynamic free surface condition is then no longer appropriate.
REFERENCES
Chezhian, M. (2003). Three-dimensional analysis of slamming. Ph.D. Thesis, Norwegian University of Science
and Technology, Trondheim, Norway.
Faltinsen, O.M. & Chezhian, M. (2004-to be published). A generalized Wagner method for three dimensional
slamming, Journal of Ship Research.
Faltinsen, O.M. & Zhao, R. (1997). Water entry of ship sections and axisymmetric bodies, AGARD, High speed
body motion in water, Kiev, Ukraine.
Wagner, H. (1932, August). Uber stoss-und Gleitvorgange ander Oberflache von Flussikeiten, .Zeitschr.f.
Angew. Math.Und Mech., Vol. 12. No. 4, pp.193–235.
Zhao, R., Faltinsen, O.M. & Aarsnes, J.V. (1996). Water entry of arbitrary two-dimensional sections with and
without flow separation, 21st Symp. On Naval. Hydrodynamics, Trondheim, Norway.
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Towards hydro-elastic tank testing of a compliant buoyant tower
Zhimin Hu & Jinzhu Xia

Nicholas Haritos
The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
ABSTRACT: This paper discusses the design of a hydro-elastic scaled model of a compliant
offshore buoyant tower that is subjected to wave loading in deep seas. Both Froude and Cauchy’s
laws are satisfied in the model design to realistically model the hydro- and structural-dynamic
characteristics of the compliant tower. Since the drag forces on the small diameter components of
the compliant tower depend on Reynolds number, Reynolds similarity also has to be taken into
account in the model design. To avoid the Froude-Reynolds dilemma, a compromised method is
presented and adopted to model accurately the hydrodynamic forces on the small components of
the tower. The model design procedure is briefly outlined and a physical model is presented based
on a conceptual prototype compliant tower suitable for Australia waters.
1 INTRODUCTION
A typical compliant buoyant tower consists of three parts, as can be seen in Figure 1. The upper
part of the tower consists of the topside located above the water surface, and buoyancy tanks being
located near the water surface. The vertical framed structure supports the upper-structure and allows
the tower to move in all directions. The foundation of the tower commonly consists of piles, which
Figure 1. The prototype of a compliant buoyant tower (Ballantyne, 2003).
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fix the tower base to the seabed. The large diameter buoyancy tanks near the topside may introduce
wave radiation and diffraction effects. The supporting frame structure is made of small diameter
piles and braces for which the hydrodynamic forces can be formulated using Morison’s equation.
The global flexibility of the tower allows the buoyancy tanks and platform to move significantly.
The compliant nature of the tower results in structural dynamics and fluid-structure interaction
effects and plays an important role in the operational function of the tower.
Despite considerable advances in computational techniques and analytical models that simulate
the hydrodynamic behavior of offshore structures, experimental investigation remains an effective
alternative for studying the interaction between offshore structures and fluid loading in an ocean
environment (Ng & Vickery, 1989). Successful physical model tests for a compliant tower can not
only present the interaction between fluid and structure, but also accurately supply the parameters
for practical structural design, and ably verify hydrodynamic theories and numerical methods for
analysis of the structure concerned. For example, physical model tests for the GAMMA tower
were developed by Doris Engineering and carried out in the wave basin at COPPE/UFRJ struc-
tural laboratory (Batista et al., 1991). Two main goals were achieved from these tests. Firstly,
from observation of structural dynamic behaviour, calibration of a finite element model used in
performing parametric studies was achieved. Secondly, an investigation of fluid added mass and
drag coefficients was realized. Cuff et al. (1990) reported scaled model tests for measuring hydro-
dynamic loading and the response of a compliant piled tower. (Kriebel & Waters, 1995) tested the
scaled model of a compliant piled tower for teaching purposes to demonstrate the principles of
dynamic structural response and to investigate the base shear force and overturning moment in the
structure.
The objective of this study is to design a hydro-elastic physical model of a compliant buoyant
tower for tank testing. Firstly, the basic similitude laws required for modeling the hydro-elastic
characteristics of the compliant buoyant tower are discussed in Section 2. Section 3 presents a
compromised method for addressing the conflict between the Froude and the Reynolds’ law scaling
for hydrodynamic forces. This method is applied to the model design procedure, which is outlined
in Section 4. The details of a hydro-elastic physical model of the compliant buoyant tower are
presented in Section 5 in accordance with the modeling principles developed in this paper.
2 BASIC SIMILITUDE LAWS
Hydrodynamic model tests on offshore oil and gas platforms are usually performed according to
Froude’s scaling law. Froude’s law ensures that a correct relationship is maintained between inertial
and gravitational forces when the full-scale structure is scaled down to model dimensions, and is
therefore appropriate for model tests involving water wave effects. Gravitational and inertial forces
normally dominate the loading regime on large diameter structures, such as the buoyancy tanks
of the compliant tower. Froude’s scaling is therefore applied for scaled physical models of such
structures.
Froude’s law requires the same Froude number, Fr , for model and prototype, that is,
where the subscripts p and m stand for the prototype and model respectively; u is characteri-
stic flow velocitie; g is the gravitational acceleration; l represent the characteristic length of the
structure.
In order to model the hydro-elastic characteristics of the compliant buoyant tower in deep seas, not
only must the geometric and hydrodynamic conditions be kept similar, but so too the dynamic char-
acteristics between the scaled model and prototype. Therefore both Froude and Cauchy similarities
are required for hydro-elastic physical modeling of the tower.
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Table 1. Model scale factors.
Modeled physical parameters Scale factor
Length (l) λ
Outer diameter (D) λD = λ
Total mass of structure (m) λm = kρf λ3
Axial stiffness (EA) λEA = kρf λ3
Bending stiffness (EI ) λEI = kρf√λ5
Frequency ( f ) λf = √
1/ λ
Period (T ) λD = λ
kρf – Fluid density scale.
Following Cauchy similarity, the stiffness of the vertical frame structure of the prototype and
model can be expressed by
where I is the moment of inertia, E, the Young’s modulus.

According to Froude and Cauchy similitude conditions, the main physical parameters of the
model are modeled by the scale factors presented in Table 1.
It should be mentioned here that the supporting tower consists of small diameter piles and braces.
The hydrodynamic effects on the small diameter components can be formulated by Morison’s
equation. The hydrodynamic coefficients CM and CD of these components are functions of the
Keulegan-Carpenter parameter, KC, (defined as umax T /D) and the Reynolds number, Re, (defined
as umax Dρ/µ) respectively, µ is the fluid viscosity (Chakrabarti, 1994).
According to Froude’s law, we obtain that,
whereas
It is seen that the Keulegan-Carpenter number follows Froude’s law scaling. The inertia force on
the prototype can be scaled to that on the model by Froude’s law. However, the Reynolds number of
the prototype and model are not the same when following the Froude’s law scaling. The drag force
on the prototype cannot be modeled correctly by the model which is strictly scaled by Froude’s law.
Some compromise is therefore required to accurately model the drag force on the supporting tower.
3 A COMPROMISED DESIGN METHOD
Chakrabarti (1994) has compared the hydrodynamic forces on the prototype and model of a small
vertical diameter cylinder. It was demonstrated that the model drag force is relatively higher than
the prototype drag force (which scale as λ3 ), and the phase shift of the maximum total force is
higher in the model than that in the prototype. In this paper, both the discrepancies of the drag forces
and the phase shift of the maximum total force on the supporting tower are reduced by adopting a
compromised method developed as below.
Considering the section on a cantilever elastic beam of length l with a force, F, acting at the free
end, the maximum deflection at the free end is obtained from
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For the deflection to be scaled linearly,
we have
According to Cauchy’s law, we obtain:
This equation denotes that the forces should follow Froude’law scaling. Meanwhile, as mentioned
above, the hydrodynamic effects on the buoyant tanks and the inertial force on the small diameter
components of the compliant tower depend on Froude law scaling. However the drag force on the
supporting tower depends on Reynolds number, and it is impossible to satisfy both Froude and
Reynolds’s law simultaneously at model scale. The main objective of the compromised method
is to retain the hydrodynamic forces on the small diameter components correctly modeled by the
model, which is realized by compromising the outer diameter and quantity of the components as
being expressed below.
According to the Morison equation, Inertia wave forces on the vertical frame structure of the
prototype and model are expressed as:
where CM is the coefficient of inertia force, which is usually the same for prototype and model. ρsea
and ρwater are the densities for sea water and fresh water. u̇ is the acceleration of the component.
According to the Froude similitude law, there are up = λum and u̇p = u̇m . There are Np types of
essential components in the prototype, and Nm types of essential components in the model. For
the ith (i = 1, 2, . . . , Np ) type of component, there are nip components in the prototype and nim
components in the model. Li is the characteristics lengths of the ith component.
The drag force on the vertical frame structure of the prototype and model becomes:
where CD is coefficient for drag force.

According to the Froude’s law, the wave loads scale as the cube root of the scale factor:
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Substituting the equation (9a) and (9b) into the equation (10a), we obtain:
Substituting equation (9c) and (9d) into the equation (10b), we obtain:
According to equation (10b), the outer diameter of the jth type of component in the model
becomes:
If Nm ≤ 2, the outer diameter of the components in the model can be obtained by solving equation
(12) together with equation (11a). When Nm > 2, the outer diameters of Nm − 2 types of components
can be set arbitrarily and the remaining two types of components can then be obtained by equation
(12) and (11a).
4 THE MODEL DESIGN PROCEDURE
4.1 Prototype
In this paper, a conceptual design of a compliant offshore buoyant tower, which is designed for
the Vincent field of Australia (Balantyne, 2003), is selected as the prototype for performing a
physical model design. Like nearly all fixed offshore installed compliant towers, this tower needs
to be designed for the most extreme wave conditions likely to be encountered over its design life.
This design approach is called the design wave concept, which uses the maximum wave height,
maximum wave period, maximum current speed and wind speed likely to occur over a 100-year
period in the analysis of response of the tower. This method was adopted for the preliminary
conceptual design of a compliant buoyant tower.
The buoyant tower consists of a relatively simple tower section and four large buoyancy tanks
located approximately 18 m below the Still Water Level (SWL). Grouted foundation piles are
arrayed around the base of the tower legs to fix the structure to the seabed. The prototype can be
seen in Figure 1. The main geometric and physical characteristics of the prototype are presented in
Table 2.
4.2 Scale factor

Model scale is chosen as a compromise of the test facilities and their wave generation capability,
technical requirements for similitude, and complexity. The model testing will likely be carried
out at the Institute for Marine Dynamics in Canada or the National Maritime Research Institute
of Japan. Here, the scale factor is chosen according to the facility of the Institute for Marine
Dynamics in Canada. The facility is an offshore engineering wave and the particulars of the basin
are given as: 75 m in length, 32 m in width and 3.2 m in water depth. Wave generation consists
of 168 individual wave maker segments in an ‘L’ configuration which are hydraulically actuated.
These can be adjusted vertically to accommodate water depths of up to 3.2 m. The maximum wave
height that can be achieved is 0.8 m for regular waves and 0.5 m for significant irregular waves. This
basin is able to model fixed structures from 0.5 m to 6 m in diameter. According to the information
gathered on the test facility and combining the Met-ocean data of the Vincent field in Western
Australia, the geometric scale is chosen to be λ = 1/120.
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Table 2. Prototype member sizing (Ballantyne, 2003).
Member No. of Length Outer Inner Thick of the Area Volume Mass
description members (m) diameter (m) diameter (m) wall (m) (m2 ) (m3 ) (kg)
Legs 4 372 1.6 1.44 0.08 0.382 568.4 4462130

Horizontals 72 38 1.2 1.1 0.05 0.181 494.22 3879624
Tower cross 80 48.2 1.2 1.1 0.05 0.181 682.10 5354527
bracing
Upper cross 8 42.2 1.2 1.1 0.05 0.181 117.04 918788.3
bracing
Buoyancy 16 40.5 1.2 1.1 0.05 0.181 60.76 476984.9
diagonals
Base 8 20.62 1.2 1.1 0.05 0.181 29.79 233861.1
diagonals
Head 8 21.47 1.2 1.1 0.05 0.181 31.03 243564.5
diagonals
Internal 72 26.87 0.8 0.73 0.035 0.084 162.72 1277428
stiffening
Tank 4 48 9 8.7 0.15 4.17 934.15 7333111
All total 24180019
mass
Table 3. Model material properties.
Polypropylene Steel
Modulus of elasticity (GPa) 1.150 200

Density (kg/m3 ) 905 7850
4.3 Material of the model

Models are made of a variety of materials such as, wood, metal, fibreglass, plastics, concrete, steel
and plywood, aluminum, polypropylene or composite materials. Quite often, models are built from
multiple materials for different model components. The selection of the most suitable material to
build a particular model depends on several factors, such as size and weight of the model, technique
of fabrication and cost. Here, the materials of all components of the model have been determined
as follows: the deck and foundation will be constructed from steel and the buoyant tanks, legs and
braces will be made from polypropylene. The properties of the material used in this model are
given in Table 3.
4.4 Buoyancy tanks

The buoyancy tanks are large diameter circular tubes formed from thick steel plate. Being large
volume rigid structures, buoyancy tanks generally can be modeled accurately at the model scale to
satisfy geometrical and Froude number similarities. It is shown in Table 4 that the outer diameter
of the buoyancy tank in the prototype is Dop = 9 mm, therefore the outer diameter of the tank at
model scale is to be Dom = 75 mm, by the geometric similarity. Since the inner diameter of the
tank has no effect on the hydrodynamic force, it can be chosen to maintain the gravity of prototype
and model in linear proportion. Here the inner diameter of the model is obtained as Dim = 4 mm.
To ensure that the floating buoyancy tanks are air tight, each pontoon is individually pressure
tested.
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4.5 Components of vertical frame structure of compliant tower

Once the prototype, scale factor and materials are determined, the size of each component can
be obtained according to the similarity rule and the compromised method. There are two main
components in the vertical frame structure of the prototype that need to be considered – the legs
and the diagonals.
4.5.1 Outer diameters of the components

The legs are made of small diameter piles that are flexible in waves. To simulate the hydro-elastic
characteristics of these slender long piles, both the Cauchy and Reynolds similitudes need to be
satisfied. The compromised method presented above is adopted to address the debate between
Froude and Reynolds similarities. According to the compromised method, the outer diameter of
L D
the legs and diagonals of the tower are obtained as Dom = 13 mm and Dom = 10 mm, respectively.
The outer diameters of the other components are the same as the diameters of the diagonals.
4.5.2 Inner diameters of the components and adjusting spring

The scaled axial and bending stiffness of the piles are desirable in the model because of Cauchy
similitude. However, in reality, both of them are difficult to achieve simultaneously. For a compliant
tower model, the bending stiffness is more important. The bending stiffness is achieved by the
correct inner diameter when the material has been determined. The effective axial stiffness can be
provided by an adjustable cantilever spring at the bottom of the legs.
According to the Cauchy similarity law, the bending stiffness of the prototype and model are
related as follows,
Here I = π/64(Do4 − Di4 ) is the area moment of inertia; and the superscripts L and D stand for legs
and diagonals respectively. The inner diameter of the legs and other components can be obtained
L D
as Dim = 9 mm and Dim = 6 mm by the equation (13). Then the supply spring on legs ks can be
calculated according to the following Froude similarity.
4.6 Foundation
The foundation of the compliant buoyant tower consists of a mounting plate on which the leg piles
and the shear piles are mounted. This steel plate is an extremely heavy steel baseplate and will
ensure that no movement will occur at the base of the model during testing. The baseplate will have
an array of holes so that the model can be placed at different angles to the propagation of waves
and current. This array of positions simply offers an alternative to rotating the heavy base-plate.
4.7 The compensation mass and the ballast

Previous efforts in modeling similar structures have shown that the model configuration can by
obtained by similarity laws and the compromised method. However, a mass compensation will
be required due to the geometric size of the components and properties of the material not being
strictly to scale. This mass compensation is resolved by filling the outer legs of the structure with
necessary amounts of live mercury, which method also was adopt in the past model design of
Roitman et al. (1989).
In the physical model, the deck support consists of a thick steel plate together with the desired
instrumentation (e.g., optical light sources and accelerometers). Simple calculations provide the
location of ballasts to model the centre of gravity and mass moments of inertia.
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5 THE MODEL
A hydro-elastic physical model of a compliant buoyant tower has been designed as shown in
Figure 2, in accordance with the design procedure outlined above. The main geometric and physical
characteristics of the reduced scale model are given in Table 4. The numerical calculation for the
natural periods of the prototype and the model has been completed, and the results are shown in
Figure 2. The physical model of a compliant buoyant tower.
Table 4. Model particulars.
Outer Inner Thick of

Member No. of Length diameter diameter the wall Area Volume Mass The filled
description members (m) (m) (m) (m) (m2 ) (m3 ) (kg) mass (kg)
Legs 4 3.1 0.013 0.009 0.002 6.9E−05 0.0009 0.77558 2.6821

Horizontals 72 0.317 0.01 0.006 0.002 5E−05 0.0011 1.03715 2.1918
Tower cross 20 0.393 0.01 0.006 0.002 5E−05 0.0004 0.35786
bracing
Upper cross 8 0.337 0.01 0.006 0.002 5E−05 0.0001 0.12281
bracing
Buoyancy 2 0.35 0.01 0.006 0.002 5E−05 4E−05 0.03188
diagonals
Base 2 0.324 0.01 0.006 0.002 5E−05 3E−05 0.02944
diagonals
Head 2 0.327 0.01 0.006 0.002 5E−05 3E−05 0.02979
diagonals
Internal 72 0.224 0.01 0.006 0.002 5E−05 0.0008 0.73337 1.5499
stiffening
Tank 4 0.467 0.075 0.049 0.013 0.00253 0.0047 4.27746
Total 7.39535 6.4238
All total 13.8191
mass
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Table 5. Comparison of periods of the prototype with that of the model.
Mode Period(s) of the prototype Period(s) of the model
1st Sway 33.71 33.66

Bending 6.36 6.54
Table 5. For sake of direct comparison with prototype numerical results the numerical periods from
the model appearing in Table 3 are time scaled back to prototype values, i.e.,
Comparing the natural periods of the prototype with that of the model, it appears that the com-
promised method developed and the design methodology adopted for the physical model are
practicable.
The major feature of the physical model developed in this paper is that both a large volume rigid
body and slender long flexural members were designed under geometrical and dynamical similitude
conditions. A compromised approach was developed to address the debate between Froude and
Reynolds similarities and to ensure that the resultant model compliant offshore buoyant tower
representation is more realistic for simulating fluid-structure interaction in the testing tank.
The process for fabricating the model will be planned carefully taking into account the fact
that the geometric scales are relatively small. Finally, the scaled model will be tested in a wave
basin or tank. Six degrees of motion and accelerations will be measured, and the longitudinal
stress distribution and foundation loads will also be recorded. The test results will assess the
fluid-structure interaction effects on the dynamic behaviour of the structure and determinate their
sea-keeping characteristics, and verify the hydrodynamic theories and numerical methods used for
the design and analysis of the structure. Finally, estimation of errors will be accomplished using
suitable numerical models.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work is financially supported by the Australia Research Council (ARC) under the Grant
No. DP0210119.
REFERENCES
Balantyne, J.D. 2003. Hydro-elastic Modeling of Compliant Tower Structures. Final year thesis, Department
of Maritime Engineering, Australian Maritime College.
Batista, R.C., Carvalho, E.M.L. & Roitman, N. 1991. Hydroelastic reduced scale model for wave-loaded
compliant tower. Journal of Experimental Mechanics 31(3): 220–225.
Chakrabarti, S.K. 1994. Offshore structure modeling. Advanced series on ocean engineering 9, World
Scientific.
Cuff, P.D., Finn, L.D. & Lambrakos, K.F. 1990. Compliant tower Hydrodynamic loading and response
measurements. OTC 6313, the 22nd annual Offshore Technology Conference in Houston, Texas: 409–418.
Kriebel, D.L. & Waters, J.K. 1995. Model testing of a deep water compliant tower. Proceedings of the Offshore
Mechanics and Artic Engineering Conference, AMSE I-B: 1–9.
Ng, J. & Vickery, B.J. 1989. A model study of the response of a compliant tower to wind and wave loads. OTC
6011, the 21nd annual Offshore Technology Conference in Houston, Texas: 433–441.
Roitman, N., Batista, R.C. & Carneiro, F.L.L.B. 1989. Reduced scale model of fixed offshore structures.
Journal of Experimental Mechanics 29(4): 372–377.
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chap-48 20/9/2004 16: 33 page 375

Velocity measurements of modulated waves in deep water
Hwung-Hweng Hwung
Department of Hydraulic and Ocean Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
Kao-Shu Hwang, Yu-Hsuan Chang, Hsin-Hung Chen

Tainan Hydraulics Laboratory, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
ABSTRACT: Internal flow fields under modulated waves in deep water were investigated. Seeded
experiments were carried out in a super tank (300 m × 5 m × 5.2 m) equipped with a programmable,
high-resolution wave generator. Nine velocimeters mounted on a strong but less disturbing sup-
porting structure were used to measure water particle velocities on different positions along the
tank. Preliminary tests using monochromatic waves were conducted to verify if the velocity meas-
urement system was functional. This verification was done by comparing the measured data with
linear wave theory and it indicated that the measurement system was able to well-monitor the
internal flow fields. The energy decaying downward the tank for each of the three components (the
fundamental, the lower sideband and the upper side band) showed almost the same trend with those
calculated via linear wave theory. Since the upper sideband energy decays much more quickly than
the others, it looked like a “two wave” system wave field in the lower water depth where the upper
sideband energy almost vanished.
1 INTRODUCTION
Since Benjamin and Feir (1967) showed that weakly nonlinear deep water wavetrains were unstable
to modulational perturbations theoretically, experimental studies on the long time evolution of non-
linear wavetrains were conducted by Lake et al. (1977), Melville (1982) and Tulin & Waseda (1999).
Fruitful results have been accomplished by these studies, however, their efforts were concentrated
on free surface wave profiles. Knowledge about the internal flow fields under modulated waves
is still lacking. Looking into the internal flow fields of modulated waves would help to gain an
insight into this complex dynamics system.
Unlike monitoring the surface displacement, to measure the internal flow fields under modulated
waves has been always much more difficult technically. The laser Doppler velocimeters (LDV) and
the particle image velocimeters (PIV) have been the most powerful and popular equipment in fluid
velocity measurements. Rapp and Melville (1990) used a LDV to measure the flow fields of deep-
water breaking waves. Randall et al. (1993) investigated the internal flow fields of irregular waves
also by a LDV. Both experiments were conducted in well control, in-house small-scale flumes with
glass side-walls. Though their studies had more or less relation with modulated waves, they focused
only on the generation of highest waves. And it could be achieved in smaller scale flumes simply by
tuning a frequency-modulated wave packet. On the other hand, the main objective of present study
being to observe the long time evolution of nonlinear wavetrains, a relatively large-scale flume is
of great necessity indeed. It is almost impossible to employ a non-intruded method like a LDV or
other popular optical-based instruments in large-scale flumes.
Instead of using non-intruded method, an intruded velocity measurement system was setup in
this paper. The measurement system was verified first by using monochromatic waves to qualify
its capability.
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video camera video camera
1:7
5.2 m
3.5 m
1:10
wave side view of the flume
generator
wave gages wave gages
No. 4~17 spacing 6 m No. 17~63 spacing 3 m
5.0 m
0.4 m
15m 238 m 47 m
plane view of the flume
IPC1
1 6 GENERATE
0 MNDAS
6 MEASURE 4 5 0 : configuration file

1 : instruments database
2 AD/DA 2 : measured signals IPC1
CED1401 3 : processing results fram grabber
6 PROCESS 4 : AD/DA instruction file
5 : wave board control signals
3
6 : command file
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of experimental set up.
2 THE EXPERIMENTS
2.1 The wave flume and the wavemaker

The experiments were carried out in the 300 m(L) × 5 m(W) × 5.2 m(D) Super Tank of Tainan
Hydraulics Laboratory (THL). The waves were generated by a hydraulically driven, dry back,
piston type wavemaker. A programmable controller that can be accessed easily by a PC controlled
the motion of the waveboard at 25 Hz through a 16 bits AD/DA card. At the far end of the flume,
there was a two folds slopping beach covered with pebbles of φ ∼ 10 cm for dissipating the wave
energy. The beach slope begins at 238 m from the waveboard. The two slopes are 1:7, 15 m in length
and 1:10, 25 m in length. Between the 1:7 and the 1:10 slopes, there is a berm of 7.9 m in length.
The reflection coefficients were under 3%∼7%, or the reflected energy were under 0.1%∼0.5%,
for all tests. The experimental set-up is schematically illustrated in Figure 1.
2.2 Instrumentation
The wave profiles were recorded by capacitance-type wave gages distributed at 66 stations along
the tank. Each sensor of the gages was mounted at 40 cm away from the sidewall. The gages
were developed and manufactured by THL and each gage is composed of a sensing component,
a capacitance measurement circuit and a power supply. The working principle of the sensing
component is to use Teflon coated wire acting as a coaxial capacitor and the water serve as a
ground. The variation of the water surface would cause linear reaction on the capacitance as long
as the insulation coating is uniform and free from holes. The resolution of the gages is 12 bits on
a dynamic range of 0.9 m.
To monitor the internal flow fields under modulated waves precisely, using a non-intruded
scheme would be the best. However, available non-intruded measurement schemes that had been
widely used in small-scale flumes constructed with glass sidewalls seemed not applicable in such
a large-scale tank so far. Yet compact size velocimeters as well as a strong and stiff enough but less
disturbing supporting structure were the least requirements to successfully monitor the flow fields.
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EMC1 z/d=-0.27
EMC2 z/d =-0.33
EMC3 z/d =-0.39
EMC4 z/d =-0.43 ADV1
EMC5 z/d =-0.50
EMC6 z/d =-0.57
EMC7 z/d =-0.64
EMC8 z/d =-0.71
Figure 2. The velocity measurement system.
Table 1. Test conditions.
a0 d
Case f0 (m) f+ b+ /a0 f− b− /a0 (m) ka0 δω d/L kx
P1 0.63 0.28 3.5 0.22 0.88 29.9

T1 0.5 0.15 0.57 0.3 0.42 0.3 3.5 0.15 0.47 0.56 100.1
The water particle motions on different positions at several locations along the tank were meas-
ured by one acoustic Doppler velocimeter (ADV, SONTECH ADV Field 10 MHz) and eight
electromagnetic velocimeters (EM, ALEC ACM250-A). The ADV is able to measure three-
dimensional components of water particle velocities, while the EM is able to measure two
components. The accuracies for both velocimeters were 0.25 cm/s under all tests. Minimizing
the possible wake effects by the sensors’ bodies and considering Ems’ limitation in only two com-
ponents measurement capability, all the probes were mounted transversely to the flume, as shown
in Figure 2. The fabrication and positioning of this measurement system was under very careful
control to well align all measuring volumes.
The surface displacement and the velocities were recorded simultaneously with 25 Hz sam-
pling rate through the Microsoft NT based Multi-Nodes-Data-Acquisition-System (MANDAS),
developed by THL. The test conditions are shown in Table 1.
3.1 The verification on the velocity measurement system

A comprehensive verification was particularly necessary for this intruded velocity measurement
system to ensure its integrated functions. Three major purposes were laid in this verification.
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0.20
eta (m)
0.00
-0.20 z/h=-0.27
velocity (m/s)
z/h=-0.43
0.15 z/h=-0.64
0.00
-0.15
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0

time (sec)
Figure 3. Time series of surface displacement and velocities at different positions (: measured horizontal
velocity component, : measured vertical velocity component, solid lines:linear wave theory).
Firstly, the dynamic responses of all velocimeters had to be checked. The second, how much the
wake effects would be induced as fluid passing the supporting structure and the velocimeters. And
the third, it was essential to make sure if the referred wave gage and the velocimeters were well
positioned and aligned. Aiming to achieve these goals, the system was tested simply by using
monochromatic waves to observe its outcomes and to compare with the theory.
The testing condition was: wave period, T , 1.6 sec, wave amplitude, a, 0.28 m under 3.5 m
water depth. To avoid the evanescent effect in front of the waveboard, the measurement system was
installed at 19 m away from the waveboard, of which equivalent kx was 29.9. Time series of the
recorded surface displacement and the two components velocities at three positions are shown in
Figure 3. Theoretical values calculated by linear wave theory are also plotted. This test confirmed
at least the following three points. First of all, the velocimeters were able to measure water particle
velocities correctly and sensibly under this apparatus so that the recorded values are clearly in great
agreement with the theory. Secondly, the horizontal velocity components varied in phase with the
surface wave indicating that the measuring volumes and the wave gage were exactly installed at the
same cross-section. Finally, the measuring volumes were precisely aligned so that data at different
positions also varied in phase.
Though the measured values almost coincide with the theory, noticeable fluctuations are found
around the crest and the trough phases, especial for the plot z/d = −0.27. These disturbances may
result from the wake effect of the velocimeter itself, however, before identifying the sources, it is
practical to calculate the corresponding energy spectrum, as shown in Figure 4. It indicates that all
the remarkable energy peaks in the velocity data were inherited from the surface wave profiles.
3.2 The flow fields under three-waves system

Figure 5 shows time series of surface displacement and velocities at different positions of case T1.
The relative water depth was 0.56 and the velocity measurement system was located at 100 m away
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1.0E+1
1.0E+0
1.0E-1
1.0E-2
1.0E-3
1.0E-4
1.0E-5
1.0E-6
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
freq. (Hz)
Figure 4. Spectra of surface displacement and velocities at different positions.
0.4 WH30 V1x

wave profile 100 100 V1z
eta (m)
Energy (m2/sec)
Energy (m2/sec)
0.0
10-2 10-2
-0.4
u(t) & w(t) at z/d=-0.27 10-4 10-4
10-6 10-6
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
f (Hz) f (Hz)
u(t) & w(t) at z/d=-0.33

V2x V3x
100 V2z 100 V3z
Energy (m2/sec)
Energy (m2/sec)
0.4 10-2 10-2

velocity (m/s)
u(t) & w(t) at z/d=-0.39
0.0 10-4 10-4
10-6 10-6
-0.4 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
u(t) & w(t) at z/d=-0.43
f (Hz) f (Hz)
V4x V5x
100 V4z 100 V5z
Energy (m2/sec)
Energy (m2/sec)
u(t) & w(t) at z/d=-0.50

10-2 10-2
10-4 10-4
10-6 10-6
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
f (Hz) f (Hz)
time (sec)
Figure 5. Time series of surface displacement and two components velocities and their corresponding spectra
at different positions ( f0 = 0.5 Hz, a0 = 0.15 m, f+ = 0.57 Hz, b+ /a0 = 0.3, f− = 0.42, b− /a0 = 0.3).
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0.00
-0.25
-0.50
z/d
-0.75
-1.00
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

velocity (m/s)
Figure 6. Velocity amplitudes of the fundamental, the upper-sideband and the lower-sideband vary with the
non-dimensional water depth (: measured fundamental horizontal velocity; : measured fundamental ver-
tical velocity; ×: measured lower-sideband horizontal velocity; ♦: measured lower-sideband vertical velocity;
': measured upper-sideband horizontal velocity; : measured upper-sideband vertical velocity; solid lines:
linear wave theory).
from the waveboard, of which kx was 100.1. The velocity records at different water depth show that
the horizontal velocity component varies in phase with the surface wave and the vertical velocity
component is π/2 ahead. The corresponding spectra indicate that the upper sideband energy decayed
quickly as the water depth increased. The original three-waves system on the surface turned almost
like a two-waves system in the lower waters. This property is the same with monochromatic waves
that the higher the fundamental frequency, the energy would decay much faster with increasing
water depth. We then calculated the three major components’ amplitude and to see their variations
in different water depth, shown in Figure 6. The three major components’ amplitude decaying
downward the tank in a manner agreed with those calculated via linear wave theory.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Aiming to measure the internal flow fields of modulated waves, an intruded velocity measurement
system composed of nine velocimeters and a supporting structure was successfully set-up in the
Super Tank, THL. The internal flow fields of a seeded three-waves system showed that the three
major components decay downward the tank bottom and follow the same trend with those calculated
via linear wave theory. Since the upper side band energy decays much more quickly than the other
two components, the velocity records looked like a “two wave” system in the lower water depth
where the upper sideband energy almost vanished.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to express sincerely gratitude to the “Programs for Promoting University
Academic Excellence” which was supported by the Ministry of Education, Taiwan, R.O.C., under
Grant No. 91-E-FA09-7-3.
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chap-48 20/9/2004 16: 33 page 381
REFERENCES
Benjamin, T. B. & Feir, J. E. 1967. The disintegration of wave trains on deep water. Part 1 Theory, J. Fluid
Mech., 27: 417–430.
Lake, B. M., Yuen, H. C., Rungaldier, H. & Ferguson, W. E. 1977. Nonlinear deep-water waves; theory and
experiment. Part2 Evolution of a continuous wave train, J. Fluid Mech., 83: 49–74.
Randall R. E., Zhang, J. & Longridge, J. K. 1993. Laser Doppler Anemometer Measurements of Irregular
Water Kinematics, Ocean Engineering, 20(6): 541–554.
Rapp R. J. & Melville, W. K. 1990. Laboratory Measurements of Deep-Water Breaking Waves, Phil. Trans. R.
Soc. Lond. A, 331: 7135–800.
Tulin, M. P. & Waseda, T. 1999. Laboratory observation of wave group evolution, including breaking effects,
J. Fluid Mech., 378: 197–232.
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chap-49 20/9/2004 16: 34 page 383

Wave radiation and diffraction by a floating body in a two-layer fluid
M. Kashiwagi
Research Institute for Applied Mechanics, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
I. Ten
Interdisciplinary Graduate School, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
ABSTRACT: A boundary integral-equation method is developed for computing directly the velo-
city potential on a body which straddles the interface of a two-layer fluid with finite depth. Based on
Green’s theorem, various hydrodynamic relations in a two-layer fluid are derived theoretically, and
those relations are confirmed to be satisfied very accurately by numerical computations. Experi-
ments are also carried out with a Lewis-form body, and measured results of hydrodynamic forces
and the amplitude of generated waves are in favorable agreement with computed results.
1 INTRODUCTION
The fluid in ship hydrodynamics is mostly assumed to be of constant density. However, the density
might change in special areas (e.g. a lake or an estuary), due to variation in salinity and/or tem-
perature in the vertical direction of the water. In these cases, the change in density is very often
confined within a thin pycnocline, and it is possible to assume the pycnocline to be infinitesimally
small. Mathematically, in this case, a density discontinuity exists at the interface between the
upper (lighter) and lower (denser) layers. The fluid in each layer may be assumed to be inviscid,
incompressible, and the flow irrotational.
Concerning this two-layer fluid problem, it is shown in the textbook of Lamb (1932) that the
dispersion relation satisfying the linear boundary conditions on the free surface and interface gives
two wavenumbers for a given frequency. However, until recently, very little work has been done
on wave-body interactions in two-layer fluids particularly for general shaped bodies, except for
Kashiwagi et al. (2003) and the references listed therein.
The present paper is concerned with the boundary integral-equation method solving directly
for the velocity potential on the surface of a general-shaped body floating in a two-layer fluid
with finite depth. By use of Green’s theorem, the integral equations to be solved are derived for a
body straddling both of the upper and lower fluids, which are solved in terms of Green’s functions
satisfying all of linearized homogeneous boundary conditions. Numerical results are validated by
comparison with experiments which were carried out by realizing a two-layer fluid with water and
isozole 300 (sort of iso-paraffin oil). Measured results of hydrodynamic forces on a Lewis-form
body and the amplitude of generated waves are relatively in good agreement with corresponding
numerical computations.
We consider a two-layer fluid with finite depth and a 2-D floating body which straddles both of
the upper and lower layers as a general case and oscillates harmonically with circular frequency ω.
The coordinate system and notations used in this paper are shown in Fig. 1. The free surface, the
interface, and the water bottom are located at z = 0, z = h1 , and z = h (= h1 + h2 ), respectively.
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O SF
x
(1) (1) (1) (1)
h1 SC SH SH SC
(1) (1)
SI SI
(2) (2)
SI SI
h
(2) (2) (2)
h2 SC SH n SC
z=h
SB
Figure 1. Coordinate system and notations.
Assuming both of the upper and lower fluids to be incompressible and inviscid with irrotational
motion, the velocity potential can be introduced and expressed in the form
Here the superscript (m) denotes the fluid region, with m = 1 and 2 corresponding to the upper
(lighter) and lower (denser) fluids, respectively. As will be understood from the dispersion relation
in the next section, there can be two wave modes in the incident wave in a two-layer fluid for a
prescribed frequency. Those modes are differentiated with the second subscript (p) to the potentials
in the diffraction problem. (Specifically p = 1 denotes the surface-wave mode and p = 2 the internal-
wave mode.) ap in (2) is the amplitude of incident wave at each mode,which must be different on
the free surface (z = 0) and the interface (z = h1 ).
(m)
The first term on the right-hand side of (2) is referred to as the diffraction potential (where φ0p
(m)
and φ4p are the incident-wave and scattering potentials, respectively), and the second term is the
radiation potential of the j-th mode of motion with complex amplitude Xj ; j = 1 for sway, j = 2 for
heave and j = 3 for roll.
(m)
The governing equation for these velocity potentials φj (j = 1∼3 and j = Dp) is the Laplace
equation and the linearized boundary conditions to be satisfied are expressed as follows (Yeung &
Nguyen, 1990):
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where K = ω2 /g with g the gravitational acceleration, γ = ρ1 /ρ2 ≤ 1 with ρm the density of

upper (m = 1) and lower (m = 2) fluids, and nj denotes the j-th component (n1 = nx , n2 = nz , and
n3 = x n2 − z n1 ) of the outward normal vector from the boundaries (see Fig. 1). The parameter
ε = 1 − γ, associated with the density ratio, will also be used. For brevity, the hyperbolic functions
of cosh(x) and sinh(x) will be written as ch(x) and sh(x) respectively throughout the present paper.
3 DISPERSION RELATION AND INCIDENT-WAVE POTENTIAL
The dispersion relation for a two-layer fluid may be given as the eigenfunction satisfying (4)–(6),
which is expressed as
and gives two different wavenumbers for a prescribed frequency. Those are denoted as k1 and k2 ,
which are the wavenumbers of progressive waves to be observed on both the free surface and the
interface. k = k1 is referred to as the surface-wave mode (longer wavelength) and k = k2 is referred
to as the internal-wave mode (shorter wavelength).
The incident-wave velocity potential can be obtained as a solution satisfying (4)–(6) and its
amplitude being equal to the prescribed value on the free surface or the interface. We can easily
(1)
prove that the ratio between the amplitude on the free surface, ap , and the one on the interface,
(2)
ap , is given by
It is assumed that the incident wave is incoming from the positive x-axis and normalization is
made using the amplitude on the free surface for k1 -mode and the amplitude on the interface for
k2 -mode. In this case, the incident-wave potential may be expressed as
4 INTEGRAL EQUATION METHOD
Irrespective of whether a floating body penetrates the interface, the integral equation for the velocity
potential on the wetted surface of a body can be derived by applying Green’s theorem to the velocity
potential to be obtained and an appropriate Green’s function. The final result can be expressed in
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the form
where P ≡ (x, z) is the field point, Q ≡ (ξ, ζ) is the source point, and C(P) is the solid angle which
(m)
is taken equal to 1/2 on the body surface. Gn (P; Q) denotes Green’s function for the two-layer
fluid problem, the expression of which is given by Kashiwagi et al. (2003). The right-hand side is
known from the body boundary condition (7) for the radiation problem and from (10) and (11) for
the diffraction problem.
As a numerical solution method for (12), the so-called constant-panel collocation method is
applied. The logarithmic terms in the Green function and their normal derivatives are integrated
analytically over each segment and other terms are integrated numerically over each segment with
the 2-point Gauss quadrature.
In actual numerical computations, some additional field points are considered on both z = 0 (free
surface) and z = h1 (interface) inside the body to get rid of the so-called irregular frequencies.The
resultant over-constrained simultaneous equations are solved using the least-squares method.
Once the velocity potentials on the wetted surface of a body are determined, we can readily
compute the added-mass and damping coefficients in the radiation problem and the wave-exciting
force and moment in the diffraction problem.
5 RADIATED AND DIFFRACTED WAVES AT FAR FIELD
The asymptotic form of the velocity potential as |x| → ∞ may be obtained by substituting in (12)
only the progressive wave terms of Green’s function. The result can be written in the form
Here j = 1, 2, 3, 4p, and Hj± (kq ) is called the Kochin function, which is defined as
where
and D (k) denotes the derivative of (8) with respect to k.

In terms of (13), the elevation of progressive wave on the free surface (z = 0) and the interface
(z = h1 ) can be readily calculated; for instance, the results in the radiation problem can be expressed
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as
The scattered waves (j = 4p) may be given in the same form, with −KXj replaced by ap . We can
see that the relation (9) holds for the waves radiated and diffracted by a floating body, irrespective
of the shape of a body or the mode of motion. It is noteworthy for the diffraction problem that even
when the incident wave contains only one wave mode (for instance p = 1), waves will be diffracted
in two different wave modes (q = 1 and 2).
6 EXPERIMENTS
To validate the numerical computation and to observe the wave motion in a two-layer fluid, the
experiments corresponding to the radiation and diffraction problems were conducted with a 2-D
Lewis-form body which is of the half-breadth to draft ratio H0 = b/d = 0.8333 and the sectional
area ratio σ = A/Bd = 0.9 (b = B/2 = 0.1 m and d = 0.12 m). The two-layer fluid was realized by
using isozole 300 for the upper-layer fluid (which is isoparaffin oil with density ρ1 = 0.764 g/cm3 at
15◦ C) and water for the lower-layer fluid (ρ2 = 0.999 g/cm3 at 15◦ C). The size of the wave channel
used in the experiments is 10 m in length, 0.3 m in breadth, and the depth of fluid (from the free
surface to the bottom of the channel) is set equal to h = 0.40 m.
The depths of the upper and lower fluids were set in two different conditions: a) h1 = 0.060 m,
h2 = 0.340 m and b) h1 = 0.150 m, h2 = 0.250 m. We note that a) corresponds to the case where
a body intersects the interface, and b) corresponds to the case where a body floats only in the
upper-layer fluid.
In the experiment of the radiation problem, the forced heave oscillation test was carried out
and the measurement of the radiated wave was carried out at x/b = 10.875 on the free surface
and at x/b = 9.860 on the interface, using capacitance-type wave probes. In the experiment of the
diffraction problem, we simply measured the incident wave and the wave forces in heave and sway
on a fixed body.
We also measured with a video camera the wavelengths of generated waves on the free surface
and the interface, which were confirmed to agree well with the one computed from the dispersion
relation. However, it should be noted that the shorter wave of internal-wave mode tends to attenuate
as it propagates.
7 COMPARISON AND DISCUSSION
Figure 2 shows the comparison of the amplitude of the wave radiated by the forced heave oscil-
lation between measured and computed results for the case of h1 = 0.06 m. The left figure is
concerned with the value on the free surface and the right figure is the value on the interface.
Likewise, Fig. 3 shows the comparison for the case of h1 = 0.15 m.
We can see that the wave amplitude at a fixed position takes humps and hollows depending on the
frequency due to existence of both waves of surface-wave and internal-wave modes. Although the
overall agreement is rather favorable, we can point out some of possible reasons of the discrepancy
between the experiment and the numerical computation. First, measured results scatter due to the
wave reflection from the longitudinal end of the wave channel,which was more prominent for the
case of deeper upper layer (Fig.3), because the wave absorbing beach installed was not effective
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|η(1)|/X on z=0 h1=0.06m, h2=0.34m |η(2)|/X on z=h1 h1=0.06m, h2=0.34m

Calculation Calculation
Wave Amplitude Ratio

Figure 2. Amplitude ratio of the wave on the free surface (left) and on the interface (right) radiated by forced
heave oscillation; for h1 = 0.06 m and h2 = 0.34 m.
|η(1)|/X on z=0 h1=0.15m, h2=0.25m |η(2)|/X on z=h1 h1=0.15m, h2=0.25m

Calculation Calculation
Figure 3. Amplitude ratio of the wave on the free surface (left) and on the interface (right) radiated by forced
heave oscillation; for h1 = 0.15 m and h2 = 0.25 m.
for waves on the deeper interface. Second, shorter waves tend to attenuate as they propagate, which
was prominent in the internal-wave mode for almost all frequencies and in the surface-wave mode
for higher frequencies. Last, the sensitivity of the wave probe used for measuring the elevation of
isozole 300 (the free surface) was not perfect and also the surface elevation of isozole 300 was not
exactly two dimensional (some transverse waves were observed). Nevertheless, qualitative tendency
seems to be well accounted for by the present numerical computation based on the potential-flow
assumption.
Figure 4 shows comparison of the nondimensional wave-exciting forces in heave and sway. In the
experiment for the diffraction problem, the upper-layer depth was slightly changed; the left figure
is for h1 = 0.075 m and the right figure is for h1 = 0.155 m. We should note that only the incident
wave of surface-wave mode is considered in the computations of Fig. 4. Although the measured
sway force tends to be smaller than the computed one, the overall tendency is in good agreement.
8 CONCLUSION
A calculation method was presented for the radiation and diffraction problems of a general shaped
body floating in a two-layer fluid of finite depth, using the boundary integral-equation method.
Computed results for a Lewis-form body were compared with corresponding experimental results.
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E1’ E2’ h1=0.075m, h2=0.325m E1’ E2’ h1=0.155m, h2=0.245m

Wave Exciting Force
Wave Exciting Force

Figure 4. Comparison of wave-exciting force in sway and heave between experiment and calculation.
Nondimension is made using the density of the lower layer ρ2 .
Although the experimental condition was not necessarily in ideal situation, the overall tendency on
the effects of two-layer fluid was well accounted for by the present computations.
REFERENCES
Kashiwagi, M., Ten, I. & Nagao, T. 2003. The Radiation Problem of a Floating Body in a Two-Layer Fluid of
Finite Depth, Proc. 17th Ocean Eng. Symp., SNAJ, 297–304.
Lamb, H. 1932. Hydrodynamics (6th edition), Cambridge University Press, Reprinted 1993.
Yeung, R.W. & Nguyen, T. 1999. Radiation and Diffraction of Waves in a Two-Layer Fluid, Proc. 22nd Symp.
on Naval Hydrodynamics, 875–891.
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chap-50 20/9/2004 16: 34 page 391

Dynamics of deepwater offshore structures – a review
Jinzhu Xia & Quanming Miao

ABSTRACT: Waves, current and wind usually play important roles in determining the motions
of an offshore platform. Recent approaches for obtaining the fluid forces and motion responses
of deepwater offshore structures are reviewed in this paper. The wave loads (including first- and
second-order) and hydrodynamic damping are given particular emphasis as they are of critical
importance for accurate prediction of motion response of offshore structures.
1 INTRODUCTION
The exploitation and production of oil and gas in the ocean have resulted in innovative deepwater
offshore structures such as Compliant Towers, Tension Leg Platforms (TLP), SPAR Platforms,
Floating Production Systems (FPS) and Floating Production, Storage & Offloading Systems
(FPSO). Dependent on the area an offshore structure is located and the corresponding sea state,
ocean waves contain energy of different wave periods (ITTC 2003). The current and wind charac-
teristics are also site dependent. Responding to specific ocean environment, the natural periods of
different modes of motion of an offshore structure system are therefore of primary interest, and in
many ways reflect the design philosophy and determine what type of structure should be applied.
No matter which system is used, a common characteristic of most deepwater structures is that
they are “soft” in the horizontal plane due to the weak restoring forces, and have long natural periods
in surge, sway and yaw. The primary function of the offshore production system is to counteract the
horizontal environmental forces so that the platform remains within specified position tolerances.
At the same time the system must be compliant enough to allow for the wave frequency motion. The
modelling and prediction of both wave-frequency and low-frequency motions of offshore structures
is very important at design and operation stages.
Different methods or commercial software packages have been developed during the past
several decades. However, due to the complexity of the offshore problems, they are still attract-
ing researchers’ attention. This report will give a brief review of the solution to wave loads,
hydrodynamic damping and motion responses of offshore structures.
2 MOTION EQUATIONS
Different offshore problems need different considerations in the motion analysis. For a moored
system in the deepwater whose nature frequencies are much smaller than the wave frequencies, the
slow-drift responses excited by the second-order difference-frequency forces can be dominant. On
the other hand, for a TLP whose nature frequencies of the vertical-plane motions are much higher
than the wave frequencies, the high-frequency responses excited by the second-order sum-frequency
forces are responsible for tether fatigue. For a compliant offshore tower, both second-order sum-
and difference-frequency wave loads may be important in the motion and structural analyses.
Generally, the wave loads and other external forces are nonlinear. For simplicity, these forces
may be linearized and thus the motion responses can be obtained by linear equations, which can
be solved directly in the frequency-domain for steady state problems. Such linearization, however,
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will give false results on motions and forces of offshore systems in many cases. Nonlinear equations
must be considered to obtain more realistic solutions. In these cases, the solution in time-domain
is a more feasible way.
2.1 Motion equations in frequency-domain

For a steady state and weakly non-linear system, the solution can be obtained directly in the
frequency-domain through a perturbation procedure. The first- and second-order motion responses
can be solved in a separate way.
The first-order motion equation is written as (Lee 1995, Ran & Kim 1996)
At the second-order it is given by (Lee 1995)
where ξ with superscript (1) and (2) are respectively the first- and second-order translational and
rotational motions. M is the system mass matrices; B the system damping matrices and C the
system stiffness matrices. They may or may not be different for the first- and the second-order
motions. Fexc with superscript (1) and (2) are respectively the first- and second-order exciting
forces including the wave loads.
The frequency-domain approach is a fast and simple way but it limits to weakly non-linear and
steady state problems.
2.2 Motion equations in time-domain

When viscous damping, positioning system and the motions are strongly nonlinear, the nonlinear
equations of motion have to be integrated in the time-domain. The following pseudo nonlinear
time-domain equation is often used (Ma et al. 2000, Ormberg & Larsen 1997, Ran & Kim 1996)
where R(t) is a retardation function. FWa with superscript (1) and (2) are respectively the first- and
second-order wave forces which can be expressed using the two-term Volterra series expansion.
FWD represents the wave drift damping. FWi denotes the wind forces. FMo is the hydrodynamic
forces induced by the positioning structure (mooring lines and/or supportive slender structures)
and risers.
Traditionally, the motion equations may be solved in two separated steps (Ormberg & Larsen
1997): (1) Calculate motions of the platform where load effects from the positioning structures and
risers are modelled as nonlinear position-depended forces; (2) Dynamic response analysis of the
positioning structures and risers, using the motion response from step (1) as top-end excitation.
In this method, the velocity-dependent forces (damping) are either neglected or implemented in
a rough manner by a linear damping force acting on the platform itself, and the influence of current
forces on the positioning structures and risers (stiffness) is either neglected or incorporated as an
additional current force acting on the platform. This implies that the horizontal turret forces and
line tension may be inaccurate. Ormberg & Larsen (1997) concluded that the traditional separated
approach might be severely inaccurate, especially for floating structures operating in deep waters.
Coupled analysis should be applied for deep-water concepts, at least as a check of important design
cases.
In coupled approach, the force models of the platform may be implemented as nodal at the
top end of the finite element models of the positioning structures and risers. In this way, the full
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Figure 1. Reference system (Chen & Molin 1989).
interaction is taken into account and accurate platform motions and dynamic loads in positioning
structures and risers are obtained simultaneously. However, fully coupled platform/positioning
structures/risers analysis approach will require expensive computation time.
Even with the uncoupled method, the problem of time-consuming computation will appear
when wave-frequency responses and slow-drift responses have to be obtained together (Herfjord
& Nielsen 1992, Le Boulluec et al. 1994). Performing a combined analysis, including both low
frequency and wave frequency responses, requires small time steps and long simulation, which leads
to much costly computer resources. An efficient way is to solve separately the wave-frequency and
the slow-drift responses characterized by disparate time scales (see Figure 1).
Under the assumption that the structure undergoes large-amplitude coupled oscillations in
surge, sway and yaw at a characteristic frequency small relative to the typical wave frequency.
Sclavounos (1994) developed a multiple time scales approximation in the frequency-domain. Using
this approximation, Kim et al. (1997) investigated the linear and second-order hydrodynamic forces
in the frequency-domain and the simulation of 6-DOF slow-drift responses in the time-domain.
They showed that the multiple-scales approximation is an accurate, efficient and powerful method
for the simulation of the linear and slow-drift responses of compliant offshore platforms.
Berhault et al. (1992, 1997), Chen & Molin (1989) showed that when the natural frequency of
a platform motion is sufficiently far from the wave frequencies, the response spectrum appears
composed of narrow band responses in the low and high frequency ranges, uncoupled with the wave
spectrum response. The low frequency motions and wave frequency motions can be computed in
a separated way.
The low frequency responses XLF (t) can be obtained by solving the low frequency 6-DOF motion
equations (Berhault et al. 1997)
The wave frequency motions XWF (t) may be obtained directly from the first order RAOs. It can
also be computed in the time-domain from the following 6-DOF equations
The total response is the low frequency response added by wave frequency response.
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In the above analysis, the coupled effects between the wave frequency and the low frequency
motions are generally neglected and the motions are solved in an independent way. This approach
is valid in medium water depths. In deep water, however, the behavior of such platforms is quite
different due to an increasing influence of the positioning structures and risers. Coupling effects can
be observed in their response spectra. In addition, if the platform displacement is sufficiently small,
the wave frequency motion can be dominant with a significant part coming from the non-linear
drag loads.
An alternative could be to solve the general and coupled motion equations. But the associated
computing time appears too expensive for time-domain simulations.
3 WAVE FORCES
As mentioned, computational methods for predicting wave effects have particular importance for
the design and operation of offshore structures. Accurate prediction of the wave loads is important
for obtaining both the wave frequency and low frequency responses of the structures.
3.1 First-order wave forces

The panel methods solving the 3-D radiation/diffraction problems to first order are considered as
state-of-art tools today. Various formulations as well as implementations of the solutions exist.
Herfjord & Nielsen (1992) showed that most of the current methods offers accurate first-order
wave loads. We will not discuss them in this paper.
3.2 Second-order wave forces

Second-order wave forces include the mean drift forces, low frequency wave forces and high
frequency wave forces.
The mean drift forces are preliminary computed from the first-order velocity-potential and
motions. It is not considered a problem with the current methods or software packages such as
HydroStar (Chen 1990, Chen et al. 1996) and WAMIT (Lee 1995, Lee & Newman 1999).
The low frequency wave forces are the second-order wave forces taking place at the difference
frequency ωi − ωj in irregular waves. They are generally small compared to the first-order wave
forces. However, they may induce a large-amplitude resonant motion of a structure due to the weak
restoring stiffness in horizontal plane. They can generally be obtained from the solution of 3-D
diffraction/radiation problems.
In view of the difficulty in obtaining the second-order solutions, different approximations have
been proposed. The most popularly used is Newman’s approximation. If the natural frequencies of
the system are far from the wave frequency, the low frequency forces can be approximated from
the mean drift forces by (Berhault et al. 1992, Newman 1974)
If the Taylor expansion of the low frequency loads with respect to the difference frequency is
assumed (Chen 1994), the Newman’s approximation can be considered as a zero-order approxima-
tion. It has been shown (Berhault 1992, Chen 1994, Le Boulluec et al. 1994) that the low frequency
loads predicted by Newman’s approximation seem to be largely underestimated in some practical
cases. Use of the full quadratic transfer function (QTF) is necessary to reduce the discrepancy in
the prediction of slow drift motions.
The complete low frequency loads are composed of two parts: one from the first-order wave
fields and one from the second order velocity potentials. By comparing different components of
the second order loads (Figure 2), Chen (1994) proposed a new approximation of the low frequency
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Figure 2. Components of low frequency forces on a bottle-shaped model in bi-chromatic waves versus ω.
The curve (F21) represents the contribution from the first-order wave field; F2C, the body surface Haskind
integral including the Froude-krylov forces and F2S, the free surface Haskind integral. F2T is the total low
frequency force (Chen 1994).
loads based on the full QTF (Molin 1979) neglecting only the free surface Haskind integral for
both horizontal and vertical components.
The high frequency wave forces are the second-order wave forces taking place at the sum fre-
quency ωi + ωj in irregular waves. They are generally small compared to the first-order wave
forces. However, they may induce a high frequency resonant motion in a structure (Chen et al.
1992) such as a TLP. The computation of the high frequency QTF is more complex than for the
low frequency QTF. The application of the Haskind theorem induces the necessary computations
of second-order wave radiation potentials. The free-surface integral makes a dominating contribu-
tion. If a highly refined mesh including free surface is used, accurate high frequency QTF can be
obtained. However, it will cost huge computational resources.
Emmerhoff & Sclavounos (1992) and Kim et al. (1997) extended the exact linear interaction
theory of Linton and Evans for arrays of cylinders to the second-order surface wave problems
in the frequency-domain. The results show good agreement with those from WAMIT. Kim et al.
(1997) also extended the 3-D Rankine panel method SWAN (Ship Wave ANalysis) to the low-
speed second-order free-surface problem in the time-domain. The results show good agreement
with those by SWIM.
Kim & Yue (1989, 1990), Chau & Eatock Taylor (1992) also developed the second-order
diffraction theory to evaluate the second-order wave loads.
Generally, HydroStar (Chen 1990, Chen et al. 1996) and WAMIT (Lee 1995, Lee & Newman
1999) can be used to evaluate the drift forces and wave exciting forces using Haskind relations or
direct pressure-integration from the solutions of the diffraction problems.
4 DAMPING EFFECTS
A good estimate of the damping force acting on the platform at low frequencies, where radiation
damping is usually very small, is of critical importance for an accurate prediction of the slow-
drift responses of offshore structures. The level of damping force governs the maximum slow-drift
motions and internal forces in the positioning structures, and therefore, it has to be reasonably
estimated.
It is usually recognized that the slow-drift damping has three main contributions (Le Boulluec
et al. 1994): wave drift damping, viscous damping and positioning structure damping.
4.1 Wave drift damping

The low frequency loads on the floater or buoyancy tanks are significantly influenced by the
horizontal velocity. The QTF variation with the velocity is similar to an additional damping effect,
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the so-called Wave Drift Damping (WDD), in the horizontal motion. The basic assumption in
calculating the wave drift damping is that the horizontal velocity is slow. There are two methods to
evaluated wave drift damping (Berhault et al. 1997, Le Boulluec et al. 1994).
The first approach uses the modified Wave Drift Gradient formulation proposed by Clark et al.
(1993) to compute a WDD transfer function in the frequency-domain. The numerical results could
be obtained easily from the drift force at zero current velocity. This formulation is theoretically
valid only for vertical cylinders. However, its application to arbitrary body shape also gives fair
results. The simple formula provides an acceptable approximation in many cases.
The second approach is based on wave diffraction computations performed with different con-
stant forward speed, Berhault et al. (1992). The wave drift damping coefficient is defined as the
derivative of the slow-drift excitation with respect to the small forward speed and is obtained
through the QTF for low frequency loads (Kim et al. 1997). This formulation gives more accurate
results, but requires more computing cost.
4.2 Viscous damping on large-volume structures

A significant part of the damping force on the floater or buoyancy tanks is due to viscous effects.
Faltinsen (1992) gives comprehensive surveys on the physics and modelling of viscous drag due
to the steady and unsteady flow around bluff bodies.
In many numerical models, the viscous damping of the structures is calculated by the Morison
equation, via the cross-flow principle. But the main difficulty is still to determine the drag coef-
ficients of the structures whose dimensions and section shapes are much different from those of
mooring lines, risers or tendons.
4.3 Damping on small-volume structures

For a deepwater system, the positioning structure (mooring system or supporting slender structures)
and a large number of risers/tethers may have a significant contribution to the total drag forces on
the system (Berhault et al. 1992). Huse (1986), Huse & Matsumoto (1989) provided convincing
evidence that mooring line damping can be the dominant contribution in a floating production
system. Various studies on mooring line damping, Huse and Matsumoto, showed that mooring
system provided over 80% of the total damping in some cases with viscous and wave drift giving
lower contributions in moderate and high seas.
The realistic way to include drag loads in a time-domain model is to use Morison formulations.
However, the relative flow induced by the superposition of the wave kinematics, the platform
motions and the current is a little complex. The main difficulty is the determination of the drag
coefficient dependent on the instantaneous Kc number and Re number. The steady current is often
present and must be accounted in the modelling of the slow-drift responses of deepwater structures.
The presence of current alters significantly the nature of the viscous flow around the structure
by introducing an appreciable ambient flow with steady velocity. Therefore, when modelled by
Morison’s equation, the drag coefficients must be selected to reflect the presence of a current
(Emmerhoff & Sclavounos 1992).
Different offshore problems need different considerations in the loading and motion analysis. Some
frequency- and time-domain approaches for the motion equations of offshore structures have been
reviewed in this paper. The wave loads and damping, which is of critical importance for accurate
prediction of motion response of an offshore structure, are presented with discussions against dif-
ferent methods. Form this review it can be noticed that different approaches or approximations
of the motion equations, wave loads and damping coefficients can be considered in solving dif-
ferent offshore structure problems. The selection depends on project requirements and computing
resources. More benchmark study would be necessary before recommending preferences.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work is financially supported by the Australia Research Council (ARC) under the Grant
No. DP0210119. Authors are grateful to Dr X.B. Chen of Bureau Vritas, France for valuable
discussions.
REFERENCES
Berhault, C., Coudray, T. & Villeger, F. 1992. A scope of different methods to compute wave drift damping in
regular waves. 7th Workshop on Water Waves and Floating Bodies, Val de Reuil.
Berhault, C., de Jouette, C. & Le Gouez, J.M. 1992. The prediction of low frequency motion damping for
semi-submersible and tlp structures. Conference on floating Production System, London.
Berhault, C., Le Buhan, P. & Metais, C. 1997. Hydrodynamic response of TLPs and SEMIs in deep water. 8th
International Conference on the Behaviour of Offshore Structures (BOSS’97) 2: 287–301.
Berhault, C., Le Buhan, P., Molin, B. & Bougis, J. 1992. CADMO 92 – Computer Aided Design, Manufacture
and Operation in the Marine and Offshore Industries. France.
Chau, F.P. & Eatock Taylor, R. 1992. Second-order wave diffraction by a vertical cylinder. Journal of Fluid
Mechanics 242: 571–599.
Chen, X.B. 1990. BOLANG – A numerical model to evaluate the second order loading on three-dimensional
structures. IFP’s Report (38740).
Chen, X.B. 1994. Approximation on the quadratic transfer function of low frequency loads. 7th International
Conference on the Behaviour of Offshore Structures (BOSS’94) 2: 289–302.
Chen, X.B., Malenica, S. & Petitjean, F. 1996. Offshore hydrodynamics. Technical Report (1), Bureau Veritas,
France.
Chen, X.B. & Molin, B. 1989. Numerical prediction of semi-submersible motions in irregular waves. 5th
International Conference on Numerical Ship Hydrodynamics: 391–402.
Chen, X.B., Molin, B. & Petitjean, F. 1992. Faster evaluation of resonant exciting loads on tension leg platform.
Offshore Engineering (8).
Clark, P.J., Malencia, S. & Molin, B. 1993. An heuristic approach to wave drift damping. Journal of Applied
Ocean Research 15(1).
Emmerhoff, O.J. & Sclavounos, P.D. 1992. The slow-drift motion of arrays of vertical cylinders. Journal of
Fluid Mechanics 242: 31–50.
Faltinsen, O.M. 1992. Sea Loads on Ships and Offshore Structures. Cambridge University Press, Cam-
bridge, UK.
ITTC, 2003. Final Report and Recommendations: The Specialist Committee on Deep Water Mooring. Italy.
Herfjord, K. & Nielsen, F.G. 1992. A comparative study on computed motion response for floating production
platforms: discussion of practical procedures. 6th International Conference on the Behaviour of Offshore
Structures (BOSS’92) 1: 19–37.
Huse, E. 1986. Influence of mooring line damping upon rig motions. 18th OTC conference, Paper No. 5204.
Huse, E. & Matsumoto, K. 1989. Mooring damping due to first- and second-order vessel motions. 21st OTC
conference, Paper No. 6137.
Kim, M.H. & Yue, D.K.P. 1989. The complete second-order diffraction solution for an axisymmetric body,
part 1: monochromatic incident waves. Journal of Fluid Mechanics 200: 235–264.
Kim, M.H. & Yue, D.K.P. 1990. The complete second-order diffraction solution for an axisymmetric body,
part 2, bichromatic incident waves and body motions. Journal of Fluid Mechanics 211: 571–593.
Kim, S., Sclavounos, P.D. & Nielsen, F.G. 1997. Slow-drift response of moored platforms. 8th International
Conference on the Behaviour of Offshore Structures (BOSS’97) 2: 161–171.
Le Boulluec, M., Le Buhan, P., Chen, X.B., Deleuil, Foulhoux L., Molin, B. & Villeger, F. 1994. Recent
advances on the slow drift damping of offshore structures. 7th International Conference on the Behaviour
of Offshore Structures (BOSS’94) 2: 9–30.
Lee, C.H. 1995. WAMIT theory manual. MIT Report 95-2, Dept. of Ocean Eng., MIT.
Lee, C.H. & Newman, J.N. 1999. WAMIT User Manual. WAMIT Inc.
Ma, W., Lee, M.Y., Zou, J. & Huang, E.W. 2000. Deepwater nonlinear coupled analysis tool. 2000 Offshore
Technology Conference.
Molin, B. 1979. Second-order diffraction loads upon the three-dimensional bodies. Applied Ocean Research
1: 197–202.
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Newman, J.N. 1974. Second-order, slowly-varying forces on vessels in irregular waves. International Sympo-
sium on the Dynamics of Marine Vehicles and Structures in Waves, Mechanical Engineering Publications,
London: 193–197.
Ormberg, H. & Larsen, K. 1997. Coupled analysis of floater motion and mooring dynamics for a turret moored
tanker. 8th International Conference on the Behaviour of Offshore Structures (BOSS’97) 2: 469–483.
Ran, Z. & Kim, M.H. 1996. Nonlinear coupled responses of a tethered spar platform in waves. 6th International
Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference 1: 281–288.
Sclavounos, P.D. 1994. Slow-drift oscillations of compliant floating platforms. 7th International Conference
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Environmental fluid mechanics and hydraulics

chap-51 20/9/2004 16: 34 page 401

The numerical simulation of pollutant mixing zone from riverside

discharge outlet in Three Gorges Reservoir
Yongcan Chen, Zhaowei Liu & Manbin Shen

Department of Hydraulic Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, P.R. China
ABSTRACT: A new numerical model, which is called non-horizontal multi-layer finite element
method, is developed in this paper. The quadrilateral finite elements are employed in every layer
for easy adaptation to complex boundary configuration. It is shown that the good solution can be
obtained due to dealing well with the variation of water free surface along the river, the complex
riverside and underwater topography. A case study for a steady flow in a bend channel shows that
numerical results are verified well by experimental data. The model is also verified by the field
surveying data of the velocity and concentration near a side discharge outlet before the Three Gorges
Reservoir is formed. Furthermore, the characteristics of flow and pollutant mixing zone of a typical
discharge in the Three Gorges Reservoir are also simulated by this method. With comparison of the
pollutant mixing zone before and after the Reservoir is formed, the change tendency of the mixing
zone in different water elevations is figured and the impacts of the Three Gorges Project on the
pollutant mixing zone in the Reservoir is discussed.
1 INTRODUCTION
The Three Gorges Project is the backbone project for the developing and harnessing of the Yangtze
River, and it will result in a great deal of comprehensive benefits, such as effectively controlling
the floods, generating powerful electricity, and improving the navigation condition. It will also,
however, exert far-reaching and profound impacts on the environment, which has brought ecological
and environmental concerns all over the world. With the Three Gorges Project being built up, it
is known that the flow will slow down, and the water elevation, topography of the section in the
reservoir will be changed remarkably, all of which may have significant effects to the existing
pollutant transport patterns and water quality. For planning and monitoring purpose, it is essential
to have a good understanding of the physical and environmental impacts of the Three George
Project.
In the last few decades many sophisticated mathematical models for predicting hydrodynamic
environment of actual river or reservoir have been developed. The equation modeling free surface
flows are derived from the three dimensional Navier-Stokes equations for an incompressible fluid.
For free surface flows, quasi-3D models are usually promoted, in which, the domain is divided
into several layers and in each layer the physical variable vary in a prescribed manner. Two kinds
of division of vertical column of water body is often used: (a) the so-called sigma transformation,
a topographically conformal vertical coordinate system (Li and Zhu, 2002); (b) the fixed layer
system, which consists of a priori subdivided layers (parallel to the horizontal plane) of fixed
thickness (Wai, Chen and Lu, 1997).
In this paper we follow the last approach and a non-horizontal multi-layer finite element model
is developed. In this method, the computational domain is divided into several layers by a serial
of non-horizontal interfaces which indicate both the water free surface gradient and the variety of
topography of riverbed, and the horizontal domain is represented by quadrilateral finite elements.
Two case studies for a steady flow in a bend channel and in a natural river show that numerical
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results are verified well by the experimental data and the field surveying data. With good calibration
and verification of model’s parameter, the model is applied to simulate and predict the flow field
and the concentration field in Wanzhou Reach of the Three Gorges Reservoir before and after the
Project.
2 NUMERICAL MODELS

In some rivers or reservoirs, the vertical momentum is generally governed by the hydrostatic
variation as the result of the fact that the vertical velocity is so small that it can be neglected
comparing with horizontal ones. Thus the hydrodynamic equations and the pollutant transport
equation are reduced to as follows:
in which ui are the velocities of x, y, z-components in Cartesian coordinates, ρ is the density of

water, P is the pressure, Fi are the Coriolis forces, τij are shear stresses, which can be written as
follows,
2.2 Non-horizontal multi-layer model

The non-horizontal multi-layer model follows an approach of stratification, which divides the water
column into a number of layers of fixed thickness and the distributions of variables within each
layer are ignored. However, the interfaces between layers are non-horizontal to indicate both the
water free surface gradient and the topography of the riverbed, which enhances the ability of the
model boundary adaptation to actual natural geometry and the water free surface. The sketch map
for Non-horizontal Multilayer Model is shown in Figure 1.
If we integrate the variables of each layer over the vertical direction, the pollutant concentra-
tion and discharges per unit width in the x-direction and y-direction of the k-th layer are written
respectively as,
Thus, the layer-integrated form of the momentum equation in the x-coordinate and the pollutant
transport equation of the k-th layer expressed as Equation (7) and Equation (8), respectively,
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z
Water surface
Layer L
wk+1
uk+1 τ 'k+1
xz
zk+1
hk Layer k
zk
τ 'kxz
Layer 1
Downstream
Figure 1. The sketch map for non-horizontal multilayer model.
Momentum equation of the k-th layer in the x-coordinate:
Pollutant transport equation of the k-th layer:
(k)
here, qS denotes the net pollutant flux through the interface.
With the impermeable boundary at the riverbed, the interfacial vertical velocity can be induced
from the continuity equation with layer-integrated, which is shown as,
The time evolution of the elevation of the free surface is governed by a kinematical equation
modeling the surface as it moves with the fluid and it is described as,
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chap-51 20/9/2004 16: 34 page 404
0.1
_
0.09
H 0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
-0.01
-0.02
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
_
Center O-B/10 I+B/10 S
Figure 2. Comparison of water surface between simulation and measured data in a bend channel.

At the water boundary, the velocities and pollutant concentration are specified at the upstream and
the water elevation is prescribed at the downstream surface. At the close boundary, the stresses and
the zero gradient condition of concentration are specified. And wind stresses and friction forces
are given at water free surface and bottom bed, respectively.
2.4 Finite element formulations

To improve the boundary adaptation ability to complicated natural river configuration, four sides
isoparametric finite elements are employed to discretize the computational domain in the horizon-
tal directs. Velocities, water elevation, pollutant concentration, and the terms related with these
variables of the k-th layer in each element are interpolated applying the isoparametric interpolation
function. Some of these variables are shown as,
Applying the vertical layer-integration and the upwind Galerkin finite element procedure to the
hydrodynamic and pollutant equations of the k-th layer. For example, the momentum equation in
the x-coordinate is expressed as
where Aij , Pi are the coefficient matrices in the whole simulation field.
3 MODEL VERIFICATIONS
3.1 Flow in a bend channel

This case study is that numerical simulation of the flow in a bend channel, which is measured in a
laboratory flume (De Vriend, 1997). Figure 2 shows the agreement of the measured water surface
with the numerical results along the channel.
3.2 Simulation of fuling reach in Three Gorges Reservoir

To examine the three-dimensional model adaptability to natural river settings and to verify the
accuracy of simulated results, the model is calibrated and verified with simulating the flow and
concentration field near the side discharge outlet of the Fuling Phosphate Fertilizer Factory. Dif-
ferences between simulated and measured velocity data are compared in Figure 3, which shows
that the predicted values agree rather well with the observed values at the given section.
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5
5
-5
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
-5
-15
-15
-25
-35 -25
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 0 50 100 150 200 250
Width (m) Width (m)
(A) Section F3 (B) Section F6
Figure 3. Comparison of computed velocity profiles and the fields observation.
14
95 95
13 125
95 95 95
155
12 65 65
Zhuxihe 65
155 Shaiwangba
155
11 125
125 155
125
10
Y (km)
125
95
9
Longbaohe Tuokou
6 155
5
35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44
X (km)
Figure 4. Topography of Wanzhou Reach.
4 THE SIMULATION AND PREDICTION OF POLLUTANT MIXING ZONE IN

WANZHOU REACH OF YANGTSTE RIVER
In this case, the model area in Wanzhou Reach of Yangtze River is from Tuokou to Saiwangba,
which is 12 km long and 400 m wide with an outlet of the wastewater discharge located at Zhuxihe
shown in Figure 4. According to the field observations measured in March 1998, the runoff of the
river is 4120 m3 /s with a water elevation difference of 3.46 m between the sections of Tuokou and
Saiwangba, which are 100.74 m and 97.28 m, respectively (Chen and Liu, 2000). At the same time,
54100 m3 wastewater with the CODCr of 548 mg/l discharges from Zhuxihe to Yangtze River. The
water surface evaluation there will be leveled up to about 175 m after the construction of the dam
and the reservoir operating regularly.
To study the characteristic of the pollutant mixing zone in Wanzhou reach and the effect of the
dam to the pollutant mixing zone, the flux and the concentration nearby the Zhuxihe discharge is
calculated before and after the construction of Three Gorges Reservoir.
The velocity and concentration before and after the construction of dam nearby the discharge
of Zhuxihe is shown in Figure 5 and Figure 6. It is clear that the velocity of post-construction is
much smaller than that of pre-construction with the same amount of flow. According to Surface
Water Standard of P.R. China, pollutant mixing zones appear neighboring the outlets of discharges.
However, with a length of 850 m and a width of 220 m, the pollutant mixing zone after the con-
struction of the dam increased remarkably comparing to that of pre-construction, which has 410 m
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11100
11200
11000
4
y (m)
y (m)
10900
6
10800
8
10
10800
10400
10700
36800 37200 37600 36900 37000 37100 37200 37300

x (m) x (m)
Figure 5. Velocity field and concentration distribution of Zhuxihe Discharge pre-construction of TGP.
11300
12000
11200
11600 11100
11000 4
6
8
11200
10
14
y (m)
y (m)
10900
10800
10800
10400 10700
10000 10600
10500
9600
36000 36500 37000 37500 38000 38500 39000 36000 36400
x (m) x (m)
Figure 6. Velocity field and concentration distribution of Zhuxihe discharge post-construction of TGP.
length and 35 m width. The reason is that a slower flow weakens the capacity of transportation and
diffusion of flow, which will prevent the pollutant being flushed away.
5 CONCLUSIONS
A 3-D multi-layer finite element model is presented for investigating the impact of the Three Gorge
Project on water quality along Yangtze River. In this method, the computational domain is divided
into several layers of fixed thickness by a serial of non-horizontal interfaces which indicate both
the water surface gradient and the variety of topography of riverbed, and the horizontal domain is
represented by quadrilateral finite elements.
With being calibrated and verified by the field observation data in Fuling Reach of TGR, the
model is applied to achieve the simulation of the flow field and the concentration field nearby
the Zhuxihe discharge in Wanzhou Reach of TGR before the construction of the dam as well as
post-construction. The comparison shows that Three Gorges Project will significantly reduce the
flow velocity and enlarge the pollutant mixing zone of the pollutant discharges, at the same time,
the location of discharge would also have a great deal of effect on the size of the pollutant mixing
zone in Wanzhou reach. It is very important to set the location of the wastewater discharge outlet
after the Three Gorge Reservoir is formed.
REFERENCES
Chen Yongcan, Liu Zhaowei and Li Chuang. 2000. The Investigation and Numerical Simulation of Pollution
Zone for The Wastewater Discharge from Fuling Phosphate Fertilizer Factory in Three Gorge Reservior,
Proc. of 2000 China-Japan Joint Symposium on Green Science and Technology:18–24. USTC Press.
406
chap-51 20/9/2004 16: 34 page 407
De Vrend. 1997. Mathematical Model of Steady Flow in Curved Shallow Channels. Journal of Hydraulic
Research, 15: 37–54.
Edie Migilo, Alfio Quarteroni and Fausto Saleri. 1999. Finite element approximation of Quasi-3D shallow
water equations. Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Engrg., 174: 355–369.
Hughes, J.R. 1978. Simple Scheme for Developing ‘Upwind’ Finite Elements. Int. J. Numer. Meth. Engr.,
12: 1359–1365.
Li, C.W. and Zhu, B. 2002. A sigma coordinate 3D κ-ε model for turbulent free surface over a submerged
structure. Applied Mathematical Modeling, 26: 1139–1150.
Wai, O., Chen, Y. and Lu, Q. 1997. Multi-layer simulation of sediment transport around a breakwater,
Proc. 27th Congress of International Association of Hydraulic Research, IAHR, Part B-1: 725–730.
San Francisco, USA.
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chap-52 20/9/2004 16: 34 page 409

Numerical simulation of pollutant dispersion in urban areas
P. Cheng & C.X. Xu

Department of Engineering Mechanics, Tsinghua University, P.R. China
L.X. Fu
Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tsinghua University, P.R. China
Z. Wang
Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Macau, Macau
ABSTRACT: Prediction and control of pollutant dispersion in urban area are of significant impor-
tance. Because of its economy and efficiency, numerical simulation method is more and more
adopted in the investigation and evaluation of pollutant dispersion in the area with complex terrains.
In present study, a numerical simulation method is developed to predict the pollutant dispersion at
the neighborhood scale (∼1 km). The method is evaluated by the simulation of the wind field and
pollutant concentration distribution in the street Rua de Compos in Macau. The comparison with
the experimental results confirmed the reliability of the present prediction method.
1 INTRODUCTION
In recent years, with the increasing concern on the urban atmospheric pollution, many investigations
have been launched to study the dispersion of the pollutant in city. At different scale, the main factors
which will significantly influence the wind field and the distribution of pollutant are different. On a
large scale such as regional scale (up to 100 to 200 km) the local climate and the topography are the
main factor affecting the dispersion (Britter, 2003). While on a smaller scale such as neighborhood
scale (up to 1 or 2 km) the building configuration, thermal effects and traffic motions will influence
the flow regimes greatly (Xia, 2001). These factors may be taken as little perturbation or be entirely
ignored on a larger scale. However each scale is not isolated. For example, the analysis of the urban
thermal environment should take the large scale effect into consideration (Fujino, 1999). The earlier
works use some models to approximate the influence of the complex factors, such as the config-
uration of the buildings. Large-eddy simulation (LES) is widely used in the simulation of the
atmospheric flow. In LES, large scale dynamics is computed directly, while small scale eddies are
modeled.
The present study focuses on the neighborhood scale, researching the pollutant dispersion of
the street Rua de Compos in Macau with complex terrain and height-greatly-changing building
groups. The results are compared with the wind tunnel experiments to evaluate the present numerical
simulation method (Liu, 2000).
2 NUMERICAL METHOD
2.1 Wind field

The wind field is simulated by a non-hydrostatic atmospheric prediction model which is appropriate
for use on scales ranging from a few meters to hundreds of kilometers. This model is based on
compressible Navier-Stokes equations describing the atmospheric flow, and uses a generalized
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terrain-following coordinate system. The continuous governing equations are solved numerically
using finite-difference methods on a rectangular staggered computational grid.
The governing equations are written in a curvilinear coordinate system (ξ, η, ζ) defined by
where (x, y, z) are the physical Cartesian coordinates, and (ξ, η, ζ) are the computational curvilinear
coordinates. zg represents the height of the ground surface. H is the upper limit of the physical
domain, and H is the upper limits of the computational domain.
The momentum conservation equations in the terrain-following coordinate system are
where J1 = −∂z/∂ξ, J2 = −∂z/∂η, J3 =√∂z/∂ζ are the non-zero components of the Jacobian matrix
of the coordinate transformation, and G√ = |J3 | is the determinant of the matrix. For convenience,
we define the following variables: ρ∗ = G ρ̄, u∗ = ρ∗ u, v∗ = ρ∗ v, w∗ = ρ∗ w, W c∗ = ρ∗ W c where
u, v and w are the Cartesian velocity components. W C is the contravariant form of w. The pressure
equation is obtained by taking the material derivative of the equation of state and replacing the time
derivative of density by velocity divergence using the continuity equation.
The turbulent mixing terms in the governing equations (2), (3) and (4) are expressed by the
Reynolds stress tensor given by
and the eddy viscosity coefficient Km is determined by the E − l turbulence closure model
where l is the mixing length, determined by the model given by Deardorff (1980). E is the turbulent
kinetic energy, and is determined by the following equation
where |Def |2 is the magnitude of the deformation. H1 , H2 and H3 are the turbulent flux components.
The wave-radiating open boundary conditions are posed at the lateral boundaries
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where c is a phase speed of signal propagation, which is estimated locally using the same equation
applied at one time step earlier and one grid point interior of the boundary and averaged in the
vertical direction. At the top boundary, the mirror condition is applied. At the ground, the rigid
wall condition with surface momentum fluxes is adopted.
2.2 Pollutant dispersion

The concentration of the pollutants is predicted by the Euler type diffusion model
where DC is the mixing term with
SC is the source term of the concentration equation. In our model, a line pollutant source is given
along the main street to simulate the traffic exhaust gas.
3 RESULTS
The numerical method is evaluated by simulating the vehicle emission at the street Rua de Compos
in Macau and comparing with the wind tunnel results (Liu, 2000). The street is at the center of
Macau, 6 m wide and with 10 to 20 m building around. There are two hills in this region and the
street is between the two hills. The complex terrain and dense building groups result in the flow field
very complicated, especially under the average height of buildings. Figure 1 shows the elevation
contours of the terrain. The streets are indicated by two lines.
Figure 1. Elevation contours of the terrain around the street Rua de Compos in Macau.
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The direction of the street is NE-SW. In the experiments the N-NW was taken as the main
wind direction. In our numerical simulation, because of the lack of the detailed information about
the buildings along the street, we use the distributing roughness to represent the influence of the
buildings. The roughness height is estimated to be z0 = 2.0 m according to Davenport (2000) in
the center region with mixture of low-rise and high-rise buildings, and z0 = 1.0 m in the residual
region without much obstacle height variation.
The whole computational domain is 800 m × 800 m × 500 m in x, y and z directions, and the
corresponding number of grids is 41 × 41 × 25. In the horizontal plane, uniform grids are taken,
and in the vertical direction, non-uniform grids are adopted with the averaged grid spacing 20 m
and the minimum 8 m. In Figure 1, A represents the center of the whole region. At the same time
A is the crossing of the two streets. At B where is about 50 m high, there is an observatory.
Two wind speeds, 2.33 m/s and 5 m/s, in the main direction-NW are taken in the simulation to
compare with the results of the wind tunnel experiments. Figures 2 and 3 shows that with different
character wind speeds, the numerical results close to the experiment results. But because we have
(a) At the center (b) At the slope
Figure 2. Wind profile with the character wind speed 5 m/s.
Figure 3. Wind profile with the character wind speed 2.33 m/s.
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simplified the influence of the buildings, the numerical values are not very consistent near the
ground. The experiment results show that near the ground, the buildings influence the wind field
greatly. Under the averaged height of buildings which is about 10 m, the wind speed is not correlated
with the character wind speed as they do above the averaged building height. From the simulation
results, we can’t see that. While because the roughness length we use is very large. For convergence,
the grids near the ground should be large enough. Consequently, the minimum vertical grid interval
is 8 m in our simulation. It approximately equals to the averaged building height. That’s one of the
reasons why the results near the ground are not very well. Because current model can’t resolve the
boundary like the building’s vertical surface where the height is not continuous, in our future work
we will take the buildings character into the model by immersed-boundary method. It’s believed
that through it we could simulate the wind field near the boundary more accurately.
Figures 4 and 5 show that the turbulence identities of the results are very close to each other. But
in the simulation they are generally smaller than the experiment results. It shows that the existence
of the buildings causes the turbulence more active.
Turbulence identity Turbulence identity

Figure 4. Turbulence intensity with the character wind speed 5 m/s.
Turbulence identity Turbulence identity

Figure 5. Turbulence intensity with the character wind speed 2.33 m/s.
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(a) Numerical (b) Experimental
Figure 6. Concentration distribution with the character wind speed 2.33 m/s.
In Figure 6, a non-dimension quantity, K = cu HL/Q, is used to make compare. Here, c presents

the concentration; u is the speed of the free flow; H is the averaged building height; L is the length
of the street; and Q is the whole quantity of the pollutant set out. The figure showed that the results
are similar with each other. Because the street is between two hills, the pollutants are not easy to
diffuse. They are mainly concentrated on the street. While the experiment result shows that the
buildings around the street magnify the problem.
4 CONCLUSION
The numerical results are approximately close to the tunnel experiments, but not very well near
the ground. We haven’t given more detailed information on the surface such as the distribution
of the buildings or the height of every single building. In our numerical simulation we just take
the roughness length instead of the influence of the complex buildings’ distribution. While in the
tunnel experiments, the real building models were used. It is one of the important reasons why the
difference exists. From the comparison of the simulation results with the experiments’, we find that
at the neighborhood scale, in some sense the roughness could present the buildings configuration
if the buildings’ height does not change greatly. But if we want to simulate more accurately, we
have to take more detailed information of the ground surface into the model. In our future work,
we will improve the multi-scale and immersed-boundary method.
REFERENCES
Britter, R.E. & Hanna, S.R. 2003. Flow and dispersion in urban areas. Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech. 35: 469–496.
Fujino, T., Asaeda, T. & Vu Thanh Ca. 1999. Numerical analyses of urban thermal environment in a basin
climate – application of a k-e model to complex terrain. J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerod. 81: 159–169.
Liu, B., Kang, L. & Lin, G. 2000. Experimental study on the diffusion law of automobile flux at the street Rua
de Campos in Macau. Acta Scientiae Circumstantiae. 20: 27–33 (In chinese).
Xia, Jiyang & Leung, D.Y.C. 2001. Pollutant dispersion in urban street canopies. Atmos. Environ.
35: 2033–2043.
Davenport, A.G., Grimmond, C.S.B., Oke, T.R. & Weiranga, J. 2000. Estimating the roughness of cities and
scattered country. Conf. Appl. Climatol., 12th, Asheille, NC. 96–99.
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El Niño phenomenon in SODA data
Maochang Cui
Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, P.R. China
LASG, Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, P.R. China
Lingjuan Wu
Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, P.R. China
ABSTRACT: To study how the air and sea interact to each other during El Niño onset, Extended
Associate Pattern Analysis (EAPA) is adopted with the Simple Ocean Data Assimilation (SODA)
Data in present paper. Results show that as El Niño’s parents their behaviors are quite different, there
does not exist a relatively independent tropical atmosphere but does exist a relatively independent
tropical Pacific because the air is heated from bottom instead of surface and of much stronger
baroclinic instability than the sea and has a very large inter-tropical convergence zone covering the
most tropical Pacific; it is the wester burst and wind convergence, coming from meddle latitudes
directly, instead of Kelvin waves, that produce the seawater eastward movement and meridional
convergence in the upper levels and result in the typical El Niño sea surface temperature warm
signal in nino regions.
1 INTRODUCTION
It is well known that interaction between the tropical ocean and atmosphere produces the largest
interannual climate signal, El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). In past decades many efforts
have been made in understanding and predicting ENSO: such as the hypothesis of Bjerknes (1969),
Wyrtki’s relaxation theory (1975), ENSO-like timescale maybe due to a time-lagged negative
feedback through reflection of Rossby waves from the western boundary and wave-mediated ther-
mocline depth variations would affect east Pacific SST and then feed back to modify the strength
of trade winds (McCreay, 1983), delayed oscillator physics (Zebiak, 1987; Schopf, 1988; Battisti,
1988). The delayed oscillator models had important successes in predicting the 1986–1987 and
1991–1992 El Niño phenomenon almost a year in advance, but have largely failed to explain the
unusual behavior of the ENSO cycle since then. In particular there has been little evidence that
Rossby wave reflection played a major part in the initiation of the mid-1990’s warm events.
The research on El Niño phenomenon in China started in the middle of 70’s (Fu C. et al., 1977).
It connected to the subtropical high, which has strong influence on the summer rainfall in China,
as the major feature. More frequent and stronger cold waves in the east of Asia, associated with
a strong winter monsoon, can enhance cumulus convection over the equatorial western Pacific,
which, in turn, may strengthen the 30 ∼ 60 day oscillation in the western Pacific and trigger an El
Niño onset (Li, 1988; Mu and Li, 2000). The SST in the west of Indian Ocean is usually higher than
that in the east with weak seasonality. Such a positive correlation is associated with the strong gear-
like coupling between monsoon zonal circulation over the equatorial Indian Ocean and the Walker
circulation over the Pacific with an anomalous gearing point near the Indonesian Islands (Wu and
Meng, 1998). After 80’s and before most El Niño onsets, the anomalous gearing point takes place
first and then propagates eastward into the Pacific and may trigger on the occurrence of El Niño
phenomenon. Recently, the EAPA is proposed to analyse combined observed datasets of SSTA and
SLPA in or over the Pacific and related seas (Cui et al., 2002). The results clearly show that the
positive SLP anomaly over the Asia-Australia land bridge formed by positive SLPA moving from
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higher latitudes, two oceanic negative SLPA of the North Pacific Oscillation (NPO) and Southern
Oscillation (SO) of middle latitudes are the major causes for El Niño onset. Basically, during its
early stage the ocean is forced by the atmosphere, while during its late stage the atmosphere is
forced by the ocean.
To study the behavior of El Niño phenomenon in the Pacific and related seas of middle and lower
latitudes for a whole starting, developing and ending mean period of the 23 El Niño and La Niña
events during 1950∼2000, EAPA is adopted again with the SODA monthly anomalous sea water
temperature, velocity components, wind stress components and diagnosed sea level in present paper.
2 SODA DATA
The monthly Simple Ocean Data Assimilation (SODA, Carton et al., 2000a,b) is based on data
assimilation in which the numerical forecast is provided by some form of the Geophysical Fluid
Dynamics Laboratory Modular Ocean Model driven by historical winds.
Comparisons are made to altimeter sea level, WOCE global hydrographic sections, and to moored
and surface drifter velocity, which are quite encouraging. 25–35% of the sea level variance contained
in tide-gauge time series is explained by this analysis. Part of the variance that is not explained is
due to unresolved mesoscale phenomena. Another part is due to errors in the rate of water mass
formation and errors in salinity estimates. The differences are generally smaller in the Tropics,
although the major equatorial currents are too broad and weak. Therefore, the strongest basin-scale
signal at interannual periods associated with El Niño should be well reproduced.
3 KEY POINTS OF EAPA
Associate pattern (or regression distribution) is defined as an optimal field pattern related to a given
time series, which has been popularly used in climate studies. However, it can not tell how much
itself is correlated to the given time series. So associate pattern analysis may not be efficient to
extract useful information for statistical analyses, especially for larger time lag analyses. Recently,
to solve this problem we have proposed the EAPA, in which the correlation between the time
series and associate pattern is defined as the correlation between the time series and variable field’s
projection on the associate pattern and proved that associate pattern is actually (more than 90%) the
‘absolute’ mean state of climate parameter field with a constant ratio when Nino3 Index reaches all
of its El Nino and La Nina extrema. Therefore, EAPA is skillfully equivalent to composite analysis
of statistical climatology (Cui et al., 2004). In present paper, the same method is adopted again
with two more climate datasets to further study ENSO events, in which the ocean and atmosphere
of middle and lower latitudes, instead of just tropical regions, are treated as a whole climate system.
4 RESULTS
Taken the standardized Nino3 index as time series X , the SODA monthly anomalous seawater tem-
perature (◦ C), velocity components (cm/s), wind stress components (Dyn./cm2 ) and diagnosed sea
level (cm) anomalies as variable field Y , respectively, all of the associate patterns (with correlation
more than 0.5) are plotted in Figs 1∼3.
The in phase anomalous wind stress, diagnosed sea level, surface seawater velocity and tem-
perature associate patterns (Fig. 1a∼d), corresponding associate time series of which are closely
related to Nino3 index with the correlation more than 0.7, represent the ‘absolute mean’states, when
Nino3 index reaches its extrema. At this time, the SSTA associate pattern appears as a well known
typical El Niño pattern: a anomalous warm tongue and cold pincers gearing together (Fig. 1d);
the anomalous diagnosed sea level associate pattern (Fig. 1b) is some how similar to the former,
positive in the east and negative in the west with a rather weak amplitude of 20 cm, just half of the
observation; the anomalous wind stress associate pattern shows that the anomalous wester burst
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0.1
a. wind stress associate pattern of Nino3 index (Dyn/cm2) b. diagnosed sea level associate pattern of Nino3 index (cm)
10
c. sea surface velocity associate pattern of Nino3 index (m/s) d. sea surface temperature associate pattern of Nino3 index (°C)
Figure 1. In phase associate patterns of Nino3 index for the 4 climate variable fields.
0M 0M
100 M 100 M
200 M 15cm/s 200 M

15cm/s
300 M 300 M
140E 160E 180 160W 140W 120W 100W 80W 140E 160E 180 160W 140W 120W 100W 80W
a. 9 month lead associate pattern of Nino3 index (°C) b. 6 month lead associate pattern of Nino3 index(°C)
0M 0M
100 M 100 M
200 M 15cm/s 200 M 15cm/s
300 M 300 M
140E 160E 180 160W 140W 120W 100W 80W 140E 160E 180 160W 140W 120W 100W 80W
c. 3 month lead associate pattern of Nino3 index (°C) d. in phase associate pattern of Nino3 index (°C)
0M 0M
100 M 100 M
200 M 15cm/s 200 M 15cm/s
300 M 300 M
140E 160E 180 160W 140W 120W 100W 80W 140E 160E 180 160W 140W 120W 100W 80W
e. 3 month lag associate pattern of Nino3 index (°C) f. 6 month lag associate pattern of Nino3 index (°C)
0M
100 M
200 M 15cm/s
300 M
140E 160E 180 160W 140W 120W 100W 80W
g. 9 month lag associate pattern of Nino3 index (°C)
Figure 2. SWTA & SWUA associate patterns of Nino3 index along equator.
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0M 0M
100 M 100 M
200 M 200 M
1 cm/s 1 cm/s
300 M 300 M
20S 15S 10S 5S EQ 5N 10N 15N 20N 20S 15S 10S 5S EQ 5N 10N 15N 20N
a. 9 month lead associate pattern of Nino3 index (°C) b. 6 month lead associate pattern of Nino3 index (°C)
0M 0M
100 M 100 M
200 M 0 200 M
1 cm/s 1 cm/s
300 M 300 M
c. 3 month lead associate pattern of Nino3 index (°C) d. in phase associate pattern of Nino3 index (°C)
0M 0M
100 M 100 M
200 M 200 M
1 cm/s 1 cm/s
300 M 300 M
e. 3 month lag associate pattern of Nino3 index (°C) f. 6 month lag associate pattern of Nino3 index (°C)
0M
100 M
200 M
1 cm/s
300 M
20S 15S 10S 5S EQ 5N 10N 15N 20N
g. 9 month lag associate pattern of Nino3 index (°C)
Figure 3. SWTA & SWVA associate patterns of Nino3 index along 120◦W.
and surface wind convergence cover most of the tropical Pacific (Fig. 1a), accompanying with two
of the surface seawater temperature and diagnosed sea level associate patterns mentioned above,
this fact indicates again: it is the wester burst and wind convergence, coming from meddle latitudes
directly, instead of Kelvin waves that produce the seawater eastward movement and meridional
convergence in the upper levels and result in the typical El Niño sea surface temperature warm
signal and positive sea level anomaly in nino regions; the anomalous surface seawater velocity
associate pattern (Fig. 1c) is quite different from the anomalous wind stress one, with strong sig-
nals just inside the tropical Pacific showing a consistent anomalous westward movement without
or even against the wind driving. However, just one month ago it continuously moves eastward
instead (not shown). This fact indicates that when Nino3 index reaches its extrema, the sea is no
longer passively driven by the air even in the tropical regions. The anomalous seawater pressure
produced by anomalous sea level can drive seawater westward about one month before the wind
change in the surface layer.
Figures 2 and 3 show the seawater temperature anomaly (SWTA) and seawater velocity com-
ponents U or V anomaly (SWUA or SWVA) of associate pattern of Nino3 index along equator
or 120◦W section (across the center of Nino3 region) in the tropical Pacific, respectively, from
9 month lead to 9 month lag to the mean Nino3 peak.
Nine months before the mean Nino3 index peak, SWUA and SWTA are positive almost every-
where in upper layers along equator with the maximum temperature value of about 0.6◦ C in the
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eastern equatorial thermocline because of anomalous seawater eastward movement form the region
of higher mean seawater temperature to the region of lower one driven by the surface wind anomaly
(Fig. 2a); 6 months before the peak, surface seawater of equator and upper layer seawater from
Nino3 to Nino2 region go on eastward movement driven by the surface wind anomaly but under
surface layer form 130◦ E to 150◦W SWUA becomes westward driven by the westward seawater
pressure gradient anomaly produced by positive sea level anomaly, both of them result in SWTA
negative in the western and positive in middle and eastern equatorial upper layers (Fig. 2b); 3
months before peak, the eastward movement anomaly of surface seawater becomes stronger in the
western equator but weaker in the upper layers from Nino3 to Nino2 region, however under surface
layer form 130◦ E to 150◦W the westward SWUA driven by the westward seawater pressure gradient
anomaly gets stronger, both of them keep the strengthening of SWTA negative in the western and
positive in middle and eastern equatorial upper layers (Fig. 2c); right at the peak, the westward
SWUA driven by the westward seawater pressure gradient anomaly gets stronger and stronger cov-
ering most part of the equatorial section, SWTA becomes colder and colder in the western equator
but reaches its positive maximum in the eastern equator (Fig. 2d); 3 months after the peak, the
westward SWUA gets even more stronger and the positive SWTA gets weaker and shifts upward
in the eastern equator (Fig. 2e); 6 months after the peak, both of the westward SWUA and the
positive SWTA gets weaker and shifts upward in the eastern equator but underneath it the negative
SWTA goes deeply into the eastern equator (Fig. 2f); 9 months after the peak, SWUA and SWTA
are negative almost everywhere in upper layers along equator with the minimum temperature value
of about −1◦ C in middle of the equatorial thermocline because of anomalous seawater westward
movement form the region of lower mean seawater temperature to the region of higher one driven
by the westward seawater pressure gradient anomaly (Fig. 2g).
Nine months before the mean Nino3 index peak, there is a obvious SWVA convergence around
the thermocline with a strong divergence on top resulting in a positive SWTA centered at about
the equatorial thermocline (Fig. 3a); 6 months before the peak, both of SWVA convergence and
divergence becomes stronger, and so does the positive SWTA (Fig. 3b); 3 months before peak, both
of SWVA convergence and divergence gets even more stronger, so does the positive SWTA also
and gets wider. In upper layers form 10◦ N to 15◦ N an obvious positive SWTA appears because of
the anomalous seawater northward off equator movement (Fig. 3c); Right at the peak, at equator the
surface seawater flows southward instead northward and an obvious divergence appears underneath
resulting a cold upwelling and two positive SWTA in its northern and southern sides (Fig. 3f);
9 months after the peak, at equator both of theanomalous surface seawater southward movement
and underneath upwelling get stronger, and the negative SWTA reaches to the surface (Fig. 3g).
5 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
The results plotted in Fig. 1a&d are quite similar to the ones gotten in our previous work indicating
that the SODA data are really qualified for large scale climate study. Although the major equatorial
currents are too broad and weak, errors are generally smaller in the Tropics and the strongest basin-
scale signal at interannual periods associated with El Niño phenomenon can be well reproduced.
Fig. 1c shows that in the tropical Pacific surface SWUA changes about one month before and
Fig. 3b shows that in subsurface layers of middle Pacific equator westward SWUA takes place
6 months earlier than trade wind reversal, which is somehow consistent with Wyrtki’s relaxation
theory. However, this fact also indicates that during El Niño later stage the ocean may force the
atmosphere even in the tropical Pacific regions.
Although the amplitude of SWVA is about a tenth of the one of SWUA (Fig. 3) only, heat
transports caused by latitudinal advection or meridional convergence are of the same importance
for seawater temperature variation as easily shown by a simple quantity estimate. As the same as the
surface seawater velocity anomaly (Fig. 1c), strong SWVA signal is just limited near equator also.
Fig. 1a&c and Fig. 3 show that as El Niño’s parents their behaviors are quite different, there
does not exist a relatively independent tropical atmosphere but does exist a relatively independent
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tropical Pacific. The reason why their behaviors are so different from each other should be that
the air is heated from bottom instead of surface and of much stronger baroclinic instability than the
sea and has a very large inter-tropical convergence zone covering the most tropical Pacific; it is the
wester burst and wind convergence, coming from meddle latitudes directly, instead of Kelvin waves
that produce the seawater eastward movement and meridional convergence in the upper levels and
result in the typical El Niño sea surface temperature warm signal in nino regions.
The typical El Niño pattern – a warm tongue and cold pincers gearing together (Fig. 1c) indicates
that El Niño events means a SST redistribution covering almost the whole Pacific, although variation
amplitude of the former, which is mainly produced by strong wind convergence instead of Kelvin
waves in the equatorial wave guide, is much greater than that of the latter, the former occupies a
much less area. From the view of energy conservation, both of them are of the same importance. The
reason why once El Niño occurrence could produce a damage of about 60 billions dollars in average
is because of not only the SST warm tongue but also the SST cold pincers. To form such a kind of
SST redistribution needs a huge amount of energy, which should be provided by air-sea interaction
not only in the tropical Pacific regions but also in the meddle latitudes. The wind stress associate
patterns clearly show: it is the wester burst and wind convergence, which come from meddle of the
Northwest and South Pacific directly, instead of Kelvin waves that produce the strong SST warm
signal in Nino regions, since the stronger or weaker the former becomes and so does the latter.
The more and more evidences have shown that the climate system is of semi-dynamic and
semi-chaotic properties. Because the climate chaotic theory is still underdeveloped, an exact quasi-
dynamic and quasi-chaotic climate model could just be imagined but not be reached today. However,
its solution really exists that is the climate observation. Being compared with the exact model, there
is always some disadvantage caused by unknown reasons in the present dynamic climate models, so
that the climate observation has to be used by statistical methods to improve the initial conditions
and outputs of dynamical models. That is the reason why up to now statistical methods are still
important tools for climate study after computer technique and dynamic modeling have been well
developed. Our results show that the EAPA could extract more information from climate observation
and is more effective for ENSO formation mechanism and prediction study.
REFERENCES
Battisti, D.S., 1988. The dynamics and thermodynamics of a warming event in a coupled tropical
atmosphere/ocean model. J. Atmos. Sci., 45, 2889∼2919.
Battisti, D.S. and A.C. Hirst. 1988. Interannual variability in the tropical atmosphere/ocean system: Influence
of the basic state and ocean geometry. J. Atmos. Sci., 45, 1687∼1712.
Bjerknes, J., 1969. Atmospheric teleconnections from the equatorial Pacific, Mon. Weather Rev. 97, 163∼172.
Carton, J.A., G. Chepurin, X. Cao, and B.S. Giese, 2000a: A Simple Ocean Data Assimilation analysis of the
global upper ocean 1950–1995, Part 1: methodology, J. Phys. Oceanogr. 30, 294∼309.
Carton, J.A., G. Chepurin, and X. Cao, 2000b: A Simple Ocean Data Assimilation analysis of the global upper
ocean 1950-1995 Part 2: results, J. Phys. Oceanogr. 30, 310∼316.
Cui, M., Mo, J., Yu, Y., 2002. Causes and forecasts of El Niño events, Annual Report 2001 of LASG, Institute
of Atmosphere Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences: 140∼149.
Cui, M., J. Mo, and F. Qiao, 2004. El Niño phenomenon and Extended Associate Pattern Analysis, Journal of
Hydrodynamics, Ser. B, Vol 16. No.1: 90∼100.
Fu, C. et al., 1977. The influence of the tropical oceans on the long-range variability of the subtropical high.
Chinese Science Bulletin, 21(B), 313∼317.
Li, C., 1988. The strong and frequent activities of the East Asian trough and El Niño onset. Science in China
(B), 18, 667∼674.
McCreay, J.P., 1983. A model of tropical ocean-atmosphere interaction. Mon. Weather Rev., 111, 370∼387.
Mu, M. and C. Li, 2000. Interaction between subsurface ocean temperature anomalies in the western Pacific
warm pool and ENSO cycle, Chinese J. Atmos. Sci., 24, 107∼121.
Schopf, P.S. and M.J. Suarez, 1988. Oscillations in a coupled ocean atmosphere model. J. Atmos. Sci., 45,
549∼566.
Zebiak, S.E. and M.A. Cane, 1987. A model El Niño-Southern Oscillation. Mon. Weather Rev., 115,
2262∼2278.
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chap-54 20/9/2004 16: 34 page 421

Numerical simulation of ash-spills induced by dike failure on ash

tailings impoundments – a case study
D. Ðorević, D. Komatina & M. Jovanović

University of Belgrade, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Belgrade, Serbia & Montenegro
ABSTRACT: A model developed for simulation of both discontinuous clear-water flows and
hyper-concentrated discontinuous flows is validated on a real dike failure event, which happened on
an ash-tailings impoundment site. Numerical model is based on the MacCormack finite-difference
scheme and involves constitutive equation in a form of the general yield-power law (the Herschel-
Bulkley’s rheological model). The influence of the solid phase volumetric concentration on the
propagation characteristics of the dike-break wave is analysed. Rheological properties of ash-water
mixtures are determined in the laboratory using a tube viscometer. Definition of the corresponding
constitutive equations is based on the test results. In that respect, the rheological properties of ash
may be described by the Bingham model.
1 INTRODUCTION
Ash spills induced by dam-break or dike-break on ash tailings impoundments present a severe
danger to the environment. Numerical simulation of ash spills helps, therefore, predicting a size of
endangered area and estimating hydraulic and environmental consequences of such an event.
A considerable attention has been paid so far to the analysis of unsteady free-surface flows of
highly concentrated solid–liquid mixtures, which have a non-Newtonian character. The studies
include both analytical solutions, and examples of numerical and physical modelling. A review of
the investigated fluids, the constitutive relationships and the numerical schemes applied, can be
found in the paper by Komatina & Ðorević (2004). A number of non-Newtonian dam-break flow
experimental analyses have been performed, too (Aguirre-Pe et al. 1995, Jeyapalan et al. 1983,
Komatina 1998, Komatina & Jovanović 1997, Laigle 1996, Laigle & Coussot 1997), the basic
parameters of which have been summarized in Komatina (2000). The investigations refer mostly
to mud and debris flows, however there are a few analyses of dam-break flow of liquefied mine
tailings (Jeyapalan et al. 1983, Komatina 1998).
While earth dam engineering has evolved in theory and practice, little attention, from the
hydraulic engineering point of view, has been paid to the design and construction of dikes on
ash tailings impoundments. Common weaknesses in design of such dikes and working practices
of impoundments include steep downstream dike slopes, inadequate emergency outlet structures,
keeping high water levels (with potential for easy overtopping the dike crest), cracks appearance
and sloughs occurrence, poor maintenance, etc. Failures of dikes are characterised by liquefaction
of ash, and flow spreading over substantial distance, with potential for severe damage to life and
property.
In this paper, ash spills induced by dike-break on ash tailings impoundments, are considered.
The paper is continuation of the paper by Komatina & Ðorević (2004). It deals rather with the
practical aspect of the problem and demonstrates the application of the numerical model, proposed
in the preceding paper. A real dike failure event, which happened on the ash tailings impoundment
site situated on an alluvial plain of the Danube River in Serbia, is used to illustrate the application
of the model.
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2 NUMERICAL MODEL
The 1D unsteady free-surface hyper-concentrated flows are described by the De St.-Venant

equations in conservative form:
where x and t are space coordinate and time, respectively; A – the flow area; Q – the discharge;
g – gravitational acceleration; S0 – the bottom slope and Sf – the friction slope. The terms I1 and
I2 are related to the hydrostatic pressure force (the second one being I2 = 0 in prismatic channels).
In determining the friction slope, it is usually assumed that for unsteady flow, the bottom shear
stress at a specific point is equal to the value of the uniform flow with a corresponding flow discharge
and depth (Aguirre-Pe et al. 1995, Laigle & Coussot 1997). Consequently, it is possible to apply a
simple rheological relationship, such as the Herschel-Bulkley’s model, employed in this case.
The friction slope in Equation 1b is determined on the basis of the previously calculated value
of the bottom shear stress τ0 , using the relationship (ρ fluid density, R – hydraulic radius):
The calculation procedure of the bottom shear stress has been illustrated in detail in the paper by
Komatina & Ðorević (2004).
The system of partial differential, hyperbolic-type equations (1) is numerically solved using
the MacCormack explicit finite-difference scheme which is explained in detail elsewhere (e.g.
Ðorević 2000, Garcia-Navarro & Saviron 1992). The scheme is second order accurate in both the
space and time. In order to provide numerical stability of the scheme, the Courant-Friedrichs-Lewy’s
criterion is used to determine the time step t.
3 CASE STUDY
The model was applied for the analysis of a real dike failure event, which happened on an ash tailings
impoundment site, located on an alluvial plain of the Danube River in Serbia. The impoundment
is bounded by the river in the north, by road in the south, and by two canals in the east and west
(Group of authors 2004). The breach of the surrounding 5 m high impoundment dike occurred
on the west boundary, at a “spot” situated on the right bank of the prismatic canal of compound
trapezoidal cross-section. The breach opening was 26 m wide with almost vertical sides (Fig. 1). It
was located 345 m upstream from the inflow of the canal to the Danube River.
Available field data from the event included: a surveyed breach opening; a surveyed ash hole
formed after the ash-water mixture had flowed out from the impoundment to the canal; trails of
the ash-spill on the canal banks (Fig. 2); stage in the Danube River on the date of the failure event
(70.10 m a.s.l.); the discharge flow of 4 m3 /s in the canal and samples of the material taken from
the ash tailings impoundment site.
Material properties were obtained from the laboratory tests. Granulometric characteristics are
given in Table 1, where d denotes the particle diameter, and p is the corresponding percentage of
occurrence. The material density is 1900 kg/m3 , and its chemical composition: 50% SiO2 , 10.5%
Fe2 O3 , 21% Al2 O3 + TiO2 + P2 O5 , 7% CaO, 5% MgO, 1.5% SO3 and 2% Na2 O + K2 O, the loss
of ignition being equal to 3% of the total mass.
Rheological properties were analysed for several ash-water mixtures, in which the volumetric
concentration of the solid phase CV varied between 0% and 48%. The measurements have been
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Figure 1. Dike-break site (breach opening).
73.00 m a.s.l.
Figure 2. Trails of ash-spill on the canal banks.
Table 1. The ash granulometric composition.
d (mm) 0.500 0.400 0.300 0.200 0.100 0.074 0.053 0.045 0.038 0.001
p (%) 100.0 99.2 96.7 90.2 67.9 52.3 42.1 37.1 34.5 0.0
performed using a tube viscometer, similar to that used by Chang et al. (1988), and the experimental
procedure was identical to that described by the same authors. This type of viscometer has been
successfully used in the analyses of kaolinite clay (Komatina 1999), copper mine tailings (Komatina
1998) and red mud slurry (Chang et al. 1988).
Homogeneity of the mixtures has been provided by performing the experiments using the fine ash
particles only. Afterwards, the rheological parameters of these mixtures were recalculated (in a way
described by Wan & Wang 1994), to represent the whole grain size distribution. In order to achieve
steady and laminar flow of the ash-water mixtures during the measurements, two tubes, having a
sufficiently high length-to-diameter ratio (L/D), have been used (D = 7.5 mm, L = 1247 mm and
1537 mm, giving values of the L/D ratio equal to 166 and 205).
The Bingham model was applied for description of the rheological properties of mixtures. Values
of the two parameters, plastic viscosity η and the yield stress τc , have been well fitted by the widely
used relationships (O’Brien et al. 1993):
where a1 , b1 , a2 , and b2 denote empirical coefficients obtained by laboratory experiments; CV0 is

the minimal volumetric concentration of the solid phase, necessary for establishment of the yield
stress. Values of CV and CV0 are expressed in percents.
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Table 2. Rheological properties of the mixtures.
CV (%) 30 33 36 39 42 45 48
ρ (kg/m3 ) 1270 1297 1324 1351 1378 1405 1432
η (mPas) 70.6 96.8 132.7 182.0 249.6 342.2 469.3
τc (Pa) 0.01 0.03 0.08 0.27 0.88 2.87 9.30
(a) 77.0 (b) 250
76.0
200
75.0
Z [ m a.s.l. ]
Q [ m3/s ]
150
74.0
73.0 100
A (Z)
72.0 V (Z)
50
A [ ha ]
71.0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100110 120
V [ 103 m3 ] t [ min ]
Figure 3. (a) Area and volume curves of the impoundment; (b) Outflow hydrograph from the impoundment.
In this study, the following values have been obtained: a1 = 3; b1 = 9.5; a2 = 0.008; b2 = 2.55;
CV0 = 30%. For comparison, results reported by Shook & Roco (1991) for a coal slurry with a
similar granulometric composition (dmax = 0.3 mm, d33 = 0.044 mm, compared to dmax = 0.5 mm,
d97 = 0.3 mm, d36 = 0.044 mm in this study), correspond to the values: a1 = 4; b1 = 9.5; a2 = 0.35;
b2 = 7.2; CV0 ≈ 30%. Values of the rheological parameters, used in the numerical modelling, are
listed in Table 2.
The volume curve of the ash tailings reservoir (Fig. 3a), necessary for estimation of the outflow
hydrograph from the impoundment, was determined on the basis of the existing topographic maps of
the impoundment and size of the surveyed ash hole. A linear evolution of the breach opening (both
of the width and the height) was assumed in estimating the outflow hydrograph. This assumption
is justified by previous laboratory analyses (Jovanović 1987).
The outflow hydrograph from the impoundment site was estimated on the basis of: the known water
level in the impoundment, the volume curve, assumed evolution law of the breach opening and
trails of the ash-spill on the canal banks. Different durations of breach development were considered
(15–90 min). By comparison of the calculated water level with the trails of the ash-spill on the canal
banks, it was concluded that the breach fully developed in 90 minutes. The resulting hydrograph is
shown in Figure 3b. The peak flow of 237 m3 /s occurred 1.36 hours (81 minutes) after the beginning
of the process. The corresponding flow depth and velocity at the opening were 2.16 m and 4.5 m/s,
respectively. It was estimated, on the grounds of the surveyed volume of the ash hole and the total
volume of the outflow material, that the initial concentration of ash in the ash-water mixture was
approximately 6%. This means that it did not exhibit non-Newtonian behaviour. Therefore, the
De St.-Venant equations, without the additional term that accounts for rheological behaviour of
the fluid, were used for the analysis of the dike-break induced wave propagation.
Simulations were conducted with the following data: the bottom canal slope S0 = 0.087%, the
Manning’s coefficient value n = 0.024 m−1/3 s, distance between cross-sections x = 15 m. The
time step was calculated from the Courant-Friedrichs-Lewy’s condition. The initial conditions
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(a) (b)
250 74.0
x[m] CV = 0% x[m] CV = 0%
200 0
90 73.0 0
Z [ ma.s.l. ]
90
Q [ m3/s ]
150 185
275 185
72.0 275
100 345
345
71.0
50
0 70.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
t [ min ] t [ min ]
Figure 4. (a) Hydrographs and (b) Stage hydrographs at chosen locations along the canal.
73.25 500
73.20 tp 400
Zbmax [ ma.s.l. ]
Zbmax
73.15 300
tp [ s ]
73.10 200
73.05 100
73.00 0
0 10 20 30 40 50
CV [ % ]
Figure 5. Influence of the concentration of solids on the maximal stage in the cross-section near the breach
opening and the dike-break wave travelling time to the downstream cross-section where canal meets the
Danube River.
were constant discharge of 4 m3 /s in the canal and corresponding water level profile. The calculated
outflow hydrograph was used as the upstream boundary condition, whereas the constant water level
in the Danube River was used as the downstream boundary condition. The later is due to the fact
that the Danube River is a large alluvial stream with the discharge two to three orders of magnitude
greater than the canal discharge, which means it could receive discharging flows from the canal
without significant changes in the water level.
Results have shown that the total volume of the outflow ash-water mixture was received by
the canal and conveyed to the river, which is in agreement with the field observations. As it was
expected, there was no significant attenuation of the dike-break induced wave, due to very limited
expansion space (Fig. 4).
In addition, a sensitivity analysis was conducted in order to illustrate the influence of the solid
particles concentration on the propagation characteristics of the dike-break wave, as in Jovanović
(1991). Therefore, in this analysis, the De St.-Venant equations included terms, which account
for rheological properties of the flowing fluid. Settling of the particles during propagation was
neglected, the propagation time being an order of magnitude shorter than the settling time of the
coarsest particle.
The results are presented in the form of diagrams showing dependence of two variables on the
concentration CV : the maximal value of the stage in the upstream cross-section corresponding to the
breach opening (Zbmax ) and travelling time of the dike-break wave to the downstream cross-section
where canal meets the Danube River (tp ) (Fig. 5). Linear relationships for CV < 36% confirmed
non-Newtonian character of these mixtures. Considerable delay and rise in level for mixtures with
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73.5 CV [ % ]
0
Z [ ma.s.l. ] 30
73.0 36
42
48
72.5
72.0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300

x[m]
Figure 6. Envelopes of maximal stages for different volumetric concentrations of solids.
Table 3. Influence of CV on the travelling time of the dike-break wave

and the rise in maximal stage at the breach.
tp /tp [%] Zbmax /Zbmax [%]
CV [%] 30 36 42 48 30 36 42 48
0 34.1 41.2 87.1 342 1.74 1.99 3.05 4.77

30 0.0 5.3 39.5 230 0.00 0.25 1.29 2.98
36 – 0.0 32.5 213 – 0.00 1.04 2.72
42 – – 0.0 136 – – 0.00 1.67
CV > 36%, with respect to clear water and those ones with CV < 36%, illustrate strong influence of
the yield stress on the propagation characteristics of the dike-break wave. This can be readily seen
both in Figure 6, showing envelopes of the maximal stages along the canal and Table 3. However,
capacity of the canal is not exceeded for any of considered hyper-concentrated ash-water mixtures
(canal bank ground level is 73.50 m a.s.l.). The stage differences decrease as the considered cross-
section becomes closer to the Danube River, which is in agreement with the fact that the water
level in the river is not influenced by the canal outflow rate.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Dam-break or dike-break flow computation is a complex task, affected by a number of factors,

such as availability and reliability of boundary and initial conditions, and capability of a numerical
scheme to reproduce steep front without introduction of additional algorithms for bore tracking.
The computation becomes even more complicated when modelling unsteady flows of highly con-
centrated solidliquid mixtures. In such a case, estimation of rheological parameters of the mixture,
as well as calculation of the friction slope, appear as new sources of errors.
In this paper, a 1D numerical model for hyper-concentrated dam-break or dike-break flows was
validated using field data from the real dike failure event. It was estimated that the initial con-
centration of ash in the ash-water mixture on the site had been 6%. Additionally, experimental
investigations of the material taken from the impoundment, have shown that the minimal volumet-
ric concentration of solids, necessary for establishment of yield stress is CV = 30%, which justifies
utilisation of the De St.-Venant equations for clear water in prediction of dike-break wave propa-
gation. Simulation results have shown that the total volume of the outflow ash-water mixture could
be received by the canal, which is in agreement with the field observations. As it was expected,
there was no attenuation of the dike-break wave.
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Apart from reproducing the real dike failure event, additional analysis has been conducted
in order to estimate what would have happened if the concentration of ash had been greater. The
results have shown that despite deceleration of the front wave, no significant rise in stages (less
than 5%) and consequently no overflowing of canal banks would have happened.
REFERENCES
Aguirre-Pe, J., Quisca, S. & Plachco, F.P. 1995. Tests and numerical one-dimensional modelling of a high-
viscosity fluid dam-break wave. Journal of Hydraulic Research 33(1): 17–26.
Ðorević, D. 2000. Modelling of free-surface discontinuous flows. Belgrade: Zadužbina Andrejević (in
Serbian).
Garcia-Navarro, P. & Saviron, J.M. 1992. McCormack’s Method for the Numerical Simulation of One-
Dimensional Discontinuous Unsteady Open Channel Flow. Journal of Hydraulic Research 30(1):
95–105.
Group of authors 2004. Study on hydraulic consequences of ash-spills induced by dike failure on the Kostolac
ash tailings impoundment site. Belgrade: University of Belgrade, Fac. Civ. Eng. (in Serbian).
Jeyapalan, J.K., Duncan, J.M. & Seed, H.B. 1983. Analyses of flow failures of mine tailings dams. Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering 109(3): 150–171.
Jovanović, M. 1987. Modelling of erosion processes induced by overtopping of earthen dams and dikes. Ph.D.
thesis. Belgrade: University of Belgrade (in Serbian).
Jovanović, M. 1991. Numerical modelling of mudflows. Vodoprivreda 23(3–4): 169–174 (in Serbian).
Komatina, D. 1998. An experimental study on the unsteady dam-break flow of mine tailings. In H. Kim, S.H.
Lee & S.J. Lee (eds.), Hydrodynamics: Theory and Applications; Proc. 3rd International Conference, Seoul,
12–15 October 1998. Seoul: UIAM Publishers.
Komatina, D. 1999. Physical processes and modelling of non-Newtonian free-surface flows. Ph.D. thesis.
Belgrade: University of Belgrade (in Serbian).
Komatina, D. 2000. Experimental analysis of unsteady solid-liquid mixture flows. In G.F. Wieczorek &
N.D. Naeser (eds.), Debris-flow Hazards Mitigation: Mechanics, Prediction, and Assessment; Proc. 2nd
International Conference, Taipei, 16–18 August 2000. Rotterdam: Balkema.
Komatina, D. & Ðorević, D. 2004. Numerical simulation of hyper-concentrated flows. Proc. 2nd International
Conference on Fluvial Hydraulics “River Flow 2004”, Naples, 23–25 June 2004. Rotterdam: Balkema
(in press).
Komatina, D. & Jovanović, M. 1997. Experimental study of steady and unsteady free-surface flow with
water-clay mixtures. Journal of Hydraulic Research 35(5): 579–590.
Laigle, D. 1996. Two-dimensional modelling of debris flow spreading on alluvial fans. Proc. Hydroinformatics
’96, Zurich, Switzerland: 651–657.
Laigle, D. & Coussot, P. 1997. Numerical modeling of mudflows. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 123(7):
617–623.
O’Brien, J.S., Julien, P.Y. & Fullerton, W.T. 1993. Two-dimensional water flood and mudflow simulation.
Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 119(2): 244–261.
Shook, C.A. & Roco, M.C. 1991. Slurry flow: Principles and Practice. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Wan, Z. & Wang, Z. 1994. Hyperconcentrated flow. Rotterdam: Balkema.
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Improvement of oxygen-deficient water using microbubble

aeration technology
M.S. Islam
Department of Civil Engineering, Texas A & M University, College Station, Texas, USA
M. Isobe
Graduate School of Frontier Science, Institute of Environmental Studies, The University of Tokyo,
Tokyo, Japan
ABSTRACT: Adequate concentrations of dissolved oxygen (DO) in the water are necessary for
fish and other aquatic organisms, and for the prevention of offensive odors. During summer, due
to the stratification of water, bottom water of the bay sometimes suffers oxygen deficiency. This
condition can be improved by supplying microbubble into the bottom water. To determine the
microbubble effect in improving water quality, laboratory experiment had been performed. In the
laboratory experiment, microbubble was generated from the mixture of air and water whose average
size was around 10 µm according to the producer’s specification and was supplied into both anoxic
tap water and artificial seawater. Oxygen dissolution efficiency of microbubble in both types of
water was almost the same and it was around 40%. Various factors like airflow rate, initial water
temperature, water depth etc., affect microbubble dissolution rate in anoxic water. The final goal
of this research is to improve the oxygen-deficient water in the limited area of the bay.
1 INTRODUCTION
Dissolved oxygen (DO) is considered the most important water quality parameter for estuarine
and coastal marine ecosystems. Adequate DO level in the water is necessary for fish life and
other aquatic organisms, and to prevent offensive odors. Natural stream purification processes also
require adequate oxygen levels in order to provide for aerobic life forms. Oxygen gets into water
by diffusion from the surrounding air, by aeration (rapid movement), and as a waste product of
photosynthesis. During summer, due to the stratification of water, sometimes dissolved oxygen
levels in the bottom seawater remains very low. This oxygen-deficient water causes serious damage
to benthos and other living organisms near and in the bed of the bay.
In late summer or fall, upwelling of anoxic water sometimes occur at the head of the Tokyo
Bay when the wind direction changes from southerly to northerly (Sasaki and Isobe, 1999). This
phenomenon is called blue tide. It causes huge damage to fisheries and other living organisms,
and also emits offensive odors. The mortality of fish and benthic animals such as clams is often
observed at the head of the bay (Kakino, 1986). The magnitude of blue tide was increased by the
upwelling of the anoxic water in the trenches, which had been dredged more than 10 m to obtain the
material for the reclamation of the foreshore (Sasaki et al., 1995). Oxygen deficient water causes
serious problems to the other ecosystem like the Gulf of Mexico, shallow northwest continental
shelf of the Black Sea, Chesapeake bay, etc. (Diaz,2001; Gaston, 1984; Kemp et al., 1992).
The oxygen-deficient condition of the bottom water can be improved by supplying oxygen to
it through microbubble. Bubble is in the order of millimeter where microbubble is in the order
of micron meter. So microbubble has larger surface area compared to bubble and hence oxy-
gen transfer rate from microbubble to water is higher. Another important benefit associated with
microbubble is its slow rising velocity. Slow rising velocities keep microbubble in the water longer,
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allowing more time for the oxygen to dissolve. Mueller et al. (2002) also has shown that most
of the devices generating the finer bubbles will require significantly less power for a given trans-
fer rate than the coarser bubble devices. So microbubble aeration technology will be economical.
Besides microbubble aeration creates an efficient vertical circulation; continual upward motion
of microbubble destratifies the water body. Microbubble induced aeration, therefore, effectively
mixes water and reduces potential anaerobic sediment, greatly improving water quality. It is feasi-
ble to install microbubble generator in some areas of the bay that are more likely to be affected by
anoxic condition and then these areas can serve as a refuge for fishes just prior to the blue tide.
The key objective of this research is to determine the efficiency of microbubble in supplying
oxygen to oxygen-deficient water and to justify the feasibility of application of microbubble gen-
erator in the actual bay to improve bottom oxygen-deficient water. Also design dimensions for the
microbubble generator that will be used for the field experiment can be guessed from this laboratory
experiment. In the experiment, microbubble was supplied to anoxic water and its efficiency in trans-
ferring oxygen to anoxic water was determined. Besides, the effects of various factors like airflow
rate, initial water temperature and total water depth on oxygen dissolution rate were clarified.
2 LABORATORY EXPERIMENT
2.1 Equipment
The equipment used in the laboratory to create microbubble was the generator of the super-
minimized microbubble in the world whose average diameter was approximately 10 µm according
to the producer’s specification. The equipment had five main parts: airflow meter, cavitation pump,
rotary accelerator, nozzle and rectangular tank. Schematic diagram of the equipment used in the
experiment is shown in Figure 1.
The tank that contained water was rectangular of dimension 0.2 m × 0.2 m × 1 m. The capacity
of this tank was 40 L. Water depth of the tank could be varied by removing water from the tap that
was attached with it at its mid-depth. There was an outlet at the bottom of the tank to discharge water
from it and also a nozzle at the bottom of the tank to release microbubble through its two mouths. Air
flow meter was used to measure and to control airflow rate. It had a maximum capacity of 1 L/min.
Microbubble was generated from the mixture of air and water, and after generation, it was discharged
through the nozzle. After the supply of microbubble into the tank, the variation of dissolved oxygen
and temperature with time was measured by Compact-DO meter (ADOW-CMP (with wiper)).
2.2 Methodology
For performing experiment with tap water, water was poured into the tank whose capacity was
40 L. Five grams sodium sulfite was mixed with water in the beaker and then this solution was
poured into the tank to make the water anoxic. The reaction between sodium sulfite and oxygen
is as follows (Eq.1):
This reaction takes too much time. So the catalyst CoCl2 is used to accelerate the reaction rate.
Dissolution rate of microbubble in artificial seawater was also tested. Artificial seawater was
prepared by mixing 1.4 kg sea salt with 40 L tap water in a bucket. This artificial seawater was
poured into tank and made anoxic by adding only 5 g sodium sulfite solution into it. No catalyst is
needed to make the reaction between sodium sulfite and oxygen in artificial seawater faster.
After making water anoxic, microbubble was supplied into the tank. Table 1 lists the experimental
conditions. Almost the same experimental procedures were followed throughout the experiments.
These are described as follows:
1. The tank was filled with water.
2. After adjusting the start time and burst time using PC, Compact DO meter was kept at the
desired depth of the tank to measure DO, degree of saturation and water temperature.
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0.2 m
0.2m
Airflow meter
DO meter
1m
Air supply
Pump Rotary accelerator

Nozzle
Water outlet
Bubble supplying pipe
Water intake pipe
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the microbubble generator used in the experiment.
Table 1. Experimental condition at different laboratory experiments.
Case Objectives Experimental conditions
A1 Efficiency determination Airflow rate 0.2 L/min, tap and artificial sea water, Cover
A2 Airflow rate effect Airflow rate 0.1∼0.75 L/min, Cover
A3 Initial temperature effect Initial water temperatures 11.9◦ C, 16.9◦ C, 21.1◦ C, 27.9◦ C, Cover,
Airflow rate 0.2 L/min
A4 Depth effect Airflow rate 0.1 L/min, Cover, Depth of water in the tank 1.0 m
3. Tap water/artificial seawater were made anoxic according to the procedure described just
above.
4. The tank was covered with cock sheet to prevent the inflow and outflow of air.
5. After 10/15 minutes from the addition of chemical into the tank, pump was started to generate
microbubble, and after 75 minutes the pump was stopped, and finally
6. DO meter was taken from the tank and data was saved in PC by using data acquisition program
WinCDO.
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2.3 Results and discussions

2.3.1 Efficiency calculation
For determining microbubble dissolution efficiency in anoxic water, experiment was performed
with tap water at the airflow rate 0.2 L/min. The tank was covered with cock sheet and initial water
temperature was 8.88◦ C. Figure 2 shows the variation of dissolved oxygen and degree of saturation
with time in tap water after the start of the pump. From this figure, it is seen that it was necessary
to operate pump around 9.7 minutes to make anoxic water 50% saturated. After 9.7 minutes, the
amount of DO in water was 5.8 mg/L. So total amount of DO in the water = 40 × 5.8 = 232 mg
(Considering DO is uniform throughout the tank). One-liter air contains 300 mg oxygen. So total
amount of oxygen supplied by this time = 0.2 × 9.7 × 300 = 582 mg. If microbubble dissolution
efficiency is defined as the ratio of oxygen dissolved in water to the amount of oxygen supplied, then
the efficiency was = 232/582 ≈ 40%. Microbubble dissolution efficiency in artificial seawater was
calculated in the same way. The efficiency in artificial seawater was 36%. From these results it can be
said that microbubble dissolution rate in both artificial seawater and tap water was almost the same.
2.3.2 Airflow rate effect

The efficiency of microbubble in transferring oxygen to water depends on the airflow rate. Figure 3
shows the relationship between the airflow rate and microbubble dissolution efficiency. It can
12 140
Initial water temperature = 8.88°C
With Cover 120
10
100
8
DO (mg/L)
DO (%)
80
6
60
4
40
2 DO (mg/L) 20
DO (%)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Time (min)
Figure 2. Variation of DO and degree of saturation with time in tap water at the airflow rate 0.2 L/min.
60
50
Efficiency (%)
40
30
20
10
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Air flow rate (L/min.)
Figure 3. Variation of microbubble efficiency with the airflow rate.
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be said from this figure that with the increase of airflow rate from 0.1 L/min to 0.5 L/min, the
efficiency decreased from 50% to about 20% and after 0.5 L/min, with the increase of airflow
rate, efficiency did not change significantly. It can be explained if oxygen transfer phenomenon
from microbubble to water is considered. Oxygen transfer rate from microbubble depends on its
surface area. With the increase of airflow rate below 0.5 L/min, microbubble size increases due
to the coalescence of smaller microbubble into larger one and so, its surface area compared to its
volume decreases. As the surface area decreases, oxygen transfer rate from the bubble to liquid
decreases and so efficiency decreases. But after the airflow rate 0.5 L/min, the efficiency did not
change significantly with the increase of airflow rate. At these airflow rates average microbubble
size may remain the same because of the formation of smaller microbubble into the larger one and
later breakage of larger one, and therefore, the dissolution rate remains almost the same.
2.3.3 Initial temperature effect

The experiment was performed with tap water of different initial temperature. Figures 4 and 5
shows the comparison of dissolved oxygen and degree of saturation variation with time at different
initial temperatures respectively. From Figure 4, it can be said that the cool water can hold much
amount of dissolved oxygen than that of warm water. But from Figure 5, it is seen that the variation
12
10
8
DO (mg/L)
4
11.9°C
16.9°C
2 Airflow rate = 0.2 L/min 21.1°C
With cover 27.9°C
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Time (min.)
Figure 4. Variation of dissolved oxygen with time at different initial temperature.
120
100
80
DO (%)
60
40
11.9°C
16.9°C
20 Airflow rate = 0.2 L/min 21.1°C
With cover 27.9°C
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Time (min.)
Figure 5. Variation of degree of saturation with time at different initial temperature.
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of degree of saturation with time at different initial temperature were almost the same. So, from
these two figures it can be concluded that the oxygen dissolution rate in cool water is higher than
that of warm water. As cool water can hold much amount of dissolved oxygen, so difference in
actual and saturated dissolved oxygen in cool water at any time is greater than that of warm water
at the same time and so the dissolution rate is higher.
3 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
From the laboratory experiment, it was found that the oxygen dissolution efficiency of microbubble
in anoxic tap water and artificial seawater were almost the same and for the airflow rate 0.2 L/min,
it was around 40%. Various factors like airflow rate, initial water temperature, water depth etc.,
affect the microbubble dissolution efficiency. With the increase of airflow rate up to a certain
value, efficiency decreased, but after that, efficiency did not change significantly with the airflow
rate. Differences among the degree of saturation at different initial temperatures were insignificant
but the amount of oxygen dissolved in cool water was higher than that in warm water. Oxygen
dissolution rate increased with the depth of the water in the tank. The size of the microbubble has an
effect on oxygen dissolution rate. Future research may clarify this. In the actual bay, microbubble
dissolution rate depends on many factors like tide level, salinity, dissolved and suspended solids
concentrations, bottom sediment condition and many other factors. Future research may investigate
their effects on microbubble dissolution rate in the actual field.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to express their sincere thanks to Dr. Jun Sasaki for his valuable suggestion
and comments regarding the experiment and also acknowledge Mr. Osada for his assistance during
the performance of the experiment. This research was partially supported by the Grant-in-Aid for
Scientific Research(S), the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science.
REFERENCES
Clift, R., Grace, J.R. and Weber, M.E. 1978. Bubbles, Drops and Particles, United Kingdom Edition, Academic
Press, Chapter 1, 4, 12, pp. 1–14, 69–94, 321–339.
Diaz, R. J. 2001. Overview of Hypoxia around the world, J. Environmental Quality, Vol. 30, pp. 275–281.
Gaston, G. 1985. Effects of hypoxia on macrobenthos of the inner shelf off Cameron, Louisiana, Estuarine
Coastal Shelf Sci., Vol. 20, pp. 603–613.
Kakino, J. 1986. Mass mortality of shellfish by hypoxic water at the head of Tokyo Bay, Fisheries Engineering,
23, 41–47. (In Japanese)
Kemp, W.M., Sampou, P., Garber, J., Tuttle, J. and Boynton, W. 1992. Seasonal depletion of oxygen from
bottom waters of Chesapeake Bay: Roles of benthic and planktonic respiration and physical exchange
processes, Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser., Vol. 85, pp. 137–152.
Mueller, J.A., Boyle, W.C. and Popel, H.J. 2002. Aeration: Principles and Practice, CRC Press, Vol. 11, Chapter
2, 3, pp. 9–145.
Sasaki, J., Isobe, M., Watanabe, A., Gomyo, M. and Osato, T. 1995. Observation of upwelling of anoxic bottom
waters in Tokyo Bay, Proc. 26th Congress of IAHR, Vol. 3, pp. 64–69.
Sasaki, J. and Isobe, M. 1997. Upwelling of anoxic water in Tokyo Bay, Proc. of the 2nd Japan-China Bilateral
Symposium of Safety and Environmental Engineering, pp. 169–176.
Sasaki, J. and Isobe, M. 1999. Development of a Long-Term Predictive Model of water quality in Tokyo Bay,
Estuarine and Coastal Modeling, Vol. 6, ASCE, pp. 564–580.
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chap-56 20/9/2004 16: 35 page 435

Dispersion of spilled oil by cavitating jet
H. Kato
Toyo University, Kawagoe, Japan
ABSTRACT: In this paper, we present the possibility of using a cavitating jet with a target plate
for the dispersion of spilled oil on the sea. Laboratory experiments showed that the cavitating jet
was very effective in dispersing heavy oil. The cavitating jet of 50 m/s ejected from a nozzle of
0.8 mm diameter can disperse 10 cm3 of c-heavy oil in 30 seconds. A simple feasibility study shows
that a fireboat of 100 GT can disperse spilled oil at the rate of 40 m3 /h.
1 INTRODUCTION
Oil spill accidents have a disastrous effect on the ocean environment, and sometimes become a huge
social problem. Oil spill accidents involving the Exxon Valdez (1989), the Nakhodka (1997), and
the Erica (2000), are notorious examples. Nakhodka spilled “only” 6200 t of c-heavy oil and it took
four months to recover the oil. According to Yoshida’s investigation, the total manpower required
was estimated as 0.35 M man-days, costing 35 billion yen ($330 M) including compensation. (Prof.
Yoshida’s homepage)
The mechanical recovery of oil is the most desirable oil spill countermeasure for protection of
the environment. However, such recovery can become difficult for various reasons, such as bad
weather. It is also expensive and time consuming, as evident in the case of the Nakhodka.
The oil dispersion is the second-best solution in such a case and dispersants (chemicals) are
generally used. The dispersed oil droplets remain in the water, and are decomposed by bacteria
and/or the sunlight. (Homepage of Int. Tanker Owners Pollution Fed. Ltd.)
However, the dispersants may cause other problems because they are somewhat toxic. The cavi-
tating jet is a promising candidate for dispersing oil without side effects, because only pressurized
seawater is used.
This paper presents the results of small-scale laboratory experiments, promising a new
countermeasure for the problem of spilled oil on the sea (Kato et al. 2002, Kato 2003).
2 EXPERIMENTAL
Figure 1 shows the cavitating jet experiment loop. A pump (Kaercher K-370+) generates high
pressures of up to 7.5 MPa. The water is ejected from a nozzle into a water tank under atmospheric
pressure, forming a cavitating jet. The maximum flow rate is 97 cm3 /s. Figure 2 shows the jet
nozzles used in the experiment. There are three single (standard) nozzles of different pore sizes
(0.4, 0.8, and 1.2 mm in diameter), and two multi-nozzles (0.4 mm × 4, 0.4 mm × 9). The nozzles
are made of stainless steel and their thickness is 1 mm. Figures 3 and 4 show the cavitating jets
generated by the standard nozzle of 0.8 mm in diameter and by the multi-nozzle of 0.4 mm × 4.
As seen in the figures, the two jets are similar to each other. The four cavitating jets from the
multi-nozzle merge into one jet soon after they are generated at the nozzle.
Figure 5 shows the set-up in the experimental tank. The cavitating jet was ejected at an angle of
upward 45 degrees, which was realized by inclining the tank. It is well known that strong mixing
occurs when cavitation bubbles collapse at the interface of two fluids. Therefore, the experimental
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Figure 1. Loop of cavitating jet experiment. Figure 2. Jet nozzles.
Figure 3. Cavitating jet from single nozzle (Nozzle: Figure 4. Cavitating jet from multi-nozzles (Nozzle:
1 × 0.8 mm). 4 × 0.4 mm).
Figure 5. Experimental setup.
setup was arranged to satisfy this condition. Cavitation bubbles in the cavitating jet collapse on the
target plate, which was placed at the water/oil interface. We used c-heavy oil in the experiment,
whose density and viscosity were 0.96 g/cm3 and 168 cSt at 50 degrees, respectively.
3.1 Effect of cavitating jet as determined by measuring oil droplets’ concentration

The amount of 10 cm3 of c-heavy oil was carefully spread on the water surface (Fig. 6). When the
oil was well dispersed, water became light brown as seen in Fig. 7. If the oil droplets become less
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Figure 6. C-heavy oil of 10 cm3 on the surface. Figure 7. Dispersed oil after experiment.
0.4mm
1.40 0.8mm 0.90
1.2mm
1.20 0.80
0.4mm × 4
0.70
Concentration(%)
0.4mm × 9
Concentration(%)
1.00
0.60
0.80
0.50
0.60 0.40
0.40 0.30
0.20
0.20
0.10
0.00 0.00
40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50
Velocity(m/s) Exposure time(sec)
Figure 8. Effects of nozzle type and jet velocity. Figure 9. Effect of exposure time.
than 50 micron in diameter, the droplets do not merge again, and finally decompose into CO2 and
water. The droplet size distribution was measured by a microscope and analyzed using a software
program. Most droplets are less than 50 micron in diameter. The distribution is shown in Fig. 10.
The dispersion of oil by the cavitating jet is satisfactory.
Figure 8 shows the effect of jet velocity on the dispersion. The figure also shows a comparison
among the various nozzles. The concentration of oil in water increased with the jet velocity. How-
ever, the slope was not large comparing with that observed in cavitation erosion. The effect of jet
velocity on the cavitation erosion is very large, and the power is 6 or more. On the contrary, the
effect of jet velocity on oil dispersion seems to saturate at around 50 m/s.
According to Figure 8, the most effective nozzle seems to be the multi-nozzle with 9 holes.
However, we should note that the water jet flow rate increases with the sectional area of the
nozzle(s). When we apply this method to actual situations, the practical solution is to employ a rake
of jet nozzles, so that we can treat a large amount of oil at one time. However, when the available
pump capacity is fixed, there is a trade-off problem between the number of jets and their size.
Figure 9 shows the effect of exposure time on the dispersion. As expected, the concentration of
oil increased with the exposure time. But the effect seems to saturate after about 30 seconds. We
should take this into account, when we design the device for field use.
It is an important issue as to how long the dispersion effect can be preserved. Figure 10 shows
the change of size distribution of oil droplets after application of the cavitating jet. It is clear that
the number of large droplets (larger than 20–30 micron) decreases with time. In particular, droplets
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90.0 180
70.0 120 80.0 160
60.0 70.0 140
100
60.0 120
Percent (%)
Percent (%)
50.0
80
Number
Number
50.0 100
40.0
60 40.0 80
30.0
30.0 60
40
20.0 20.0 40
10.0 20 10.0 20
0.0 0 0.0 0
0
0
~
0
0
0
~ µm µm
~2
~3
~4
~5
~1
50
~2
~3
~4
~5
~1
50
10
20
30
40
10
20
30
40
Time after expt: 0min Time after expt: 30min
Figure 10. Change of oil droplets’ size after experiment (nozzle: 0.4 mm, distance of target: 30 mm,
V = 50 m/s).
0.25 80.0
70.0
Percentage(%)
0.2 60.0
Concentration(%)
50.0
0.15
40.0
30.0
0.1
20.0
0.05
10.0
0.0
0
~
~1
~2
~3
~4
~5
0
50
10
20
30
40
0 15 30
Time(min) Equivalent diameter of oil droplet (µm)
Figure 11. Decrease of oil concentration after Figure 12. Oil droplet distribution dispersed by
experiment. dispersant S-7.
larger than 50 micron disappeared after 30 min. As a result, the total oil concentration decreased
slightly with time as seen in Figure 11. The concentration decreased from 0.24% to 0.15% in
30 min. However, it did not appear to decrease much subsequently.
It is interesting to compare the present cavitating jet method with the dispersant, which is
commonly used for dispersing spilled oil at sea. We chose the dispersant S-7, which has been
commonly used.
We added 2 cm3 of S-7 into 10 liters of water containing 10 cm3 of c-heavy oil, and shook it well
for 30 sec. We repeated the same experiment three times, and the resultant concentrations of oil
in water were 0.09, 0.21, and 0.14%. The dispersion effect of the dispersant S-7 was significantly
inferior to that of the cavitating jet. The maximum oil concentration was more than 1.2% by the
cavitating jet, as seen in Fig. 8.
Figure 12 shows the oil droplet distribution achieved by the dispersant S-7. We can compare it
with those in Fig. 10. The sizes of droplets dispersed by the dispersant seem similar to the sizes of
those dispersed by the cavitating jet, though the sizes of droplets dispersed by the dispersant are
slightly greater than those created by the cavitating jet.
3.2 Measurement of transparency of water with oil droplets

The oil concentration measurement by oil droplets’ size and number was time consuming and
difficult. We developed two simple and convenient measurement methods. When the number of
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oil droplets in water increases, the water becomes opaque. The color of the water becomes dark
brown because of the color of the oil. The first method adopted involved measuring the range of
clear vision of water using a measure (a length scale) at hand. When the amount of oil droplets
increases in water, the range of clear vision decreases monotonously.
The second method is simpler than the first method. We simply compared the color of water
with that of a standard sample, which was defined by ourselves. We categorized the water colors
from rank 0 to rank 4, in which rank 4 is the darkest (the best) case and rank 0 means that there
was almost no effect. Figures 13 and 14 show photographs of rank 1 and rank 4, respectively. The
upper photograph in Fig. 13 shows oil on the water surface. It is evident that there was a large oil
mass on the water surface at the condition of rank 1. On the contrary, there was no large oil mass
on the water surface at the condition of rank 4 (Fig. 14). The color of water was much darker at
rank 4 than at rank 1, as evident in the two lower photographs in Figures 13 and 14.
The experiment involved three nozzles (0.4 mm in diameter, 0.8 mm in diameter, and a four-hole
multi nozzle with holes of 0.4 mm in diameter), and a wide range of pump pressures (0.5–6.5 MPa).
The distance between the nozzle and the target plate was also varied between 1–5 cm. Figure 15
shows a diagram of the result, where the rank is indicated by the size of circles. When the pump
pressure is increased, the cavitating jet velocity increases accordingly. This causes the cavitation
bubbles to be collapsed more violently.
The effect of distance between the jet nozzle and the target plate was different from what was
expected. The cavitating jet is the most erosive when the distance between the jet nozzle and the
plate is about 30 times the nozzle diameter, which means a distance of about 24 mm in the case of
the nozzle of 0.8 mm in diameter. As seen in the figure, the most effective distance was shorter,
that is, about 10 mm. This means that the oil dispersion is not similar to the case of erosion. Such
a shorter effective distance between the nozzle and the target plate was also found in the case of
destruction of planktons by a cavitating jet (Kato 2003).
Figure 13. Color of water–oil mixture (rank 1). Figure 14. Color of water–oil mixture (rank 4).
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4 A PROPOSAL FOR PRACTICAL USE AT SEA
The cavitating jet is very effective in dispersing spilled oil, as shown above. The author proposes a
plan for its use at sea. The most suitable vessel for this purpose is a fireboat. A typical fireboat of
100 GT has two sets of water nozzles which discharge 50 m3 of water per minute in total.
According to the present experimental result, the cavitating jet of 50 m/s from a 0.8 mm nozzle
can disperse 10 cm3 of c-heavy oil within 30 sec. The total amount of water for cavitation is about
750 cm3 , 75 times the volume of oil to be dispersed. If this ratio remains valid at full scale, the
above-mentioned fireboat can disperse spilled oil at the rate of 40 m3 /h. We can disperse 1000 m3 of
oil in one day, using one fireboat. This speed of treatment seems acceptable for many oil spill cases.
The fireboat should be equipped a rake of nozzles with target plates. It seems feasible to use
an oil boom to gather the oil. The fireboat tows both the rake of cavitating jet nozzles and the oil
boom from her stern, as shown in Figure 16. The towing speed should be very low, less than a few
knots, so as not to disturb the oil layer on the water surface. The shape of the target plate should be
modified so as to reduce the drag and to be able to maintain its position and angle during towing.
5 CONCLUSIONS
When a cavitating jet impinges on a target plate, cavitation bubbles collapse and this causes dis-
persion of oil. The dispersed oil droplets are usually less than 50 µm in diameter, and are easily
(0.8mm Nozzle)
8
7
Pressure (MPa)
4 3 2 2 2
6
4 3 2 2 2
5
3 3 2 2 2
4
3 3 1 1 1
3
3 3
2
2
1
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Distance (cm)
Figure 15. Effects of pump pressure and target distance on dispersion.
Oil boom
Oil dispersion device

Fireboat
Spilled oil
Figure 16. Conceptual sketch of a fireboat for spilled oil dispersion.
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decomposed into CO2 and water by sunlight or bacteria in the sea. Dispersants are usually used for
dispersing spilled oil, but there is concern about possible side effects, because the dispersants are
chemical products. On the contrary, the method using a cavitating jet is safe and clean, because
only water (sea water) is used. It is greatly advantageous to use a cavitating jet.
The present experiment showed that the cavitating jet could disperse oil effectively. For example,
a cavitating jet of 50 m/s from a nozzle of 0.8 mm in diameter can disperse 10 cm3 of c-heavy oil
in 30 sec. A simple feasibility study has shown that a fireboat of 100 GT could disperse 1000 m3
of oil in one day.
REFERENCES
Int. Tanker Owners Pollution Fed. Ltd. 2004, http://www.itopf.com

Kato, H., Furuya, H. & Ishii, A. 2002, Dispersion of spilled oil by cavitating jet. J. Soc. Naval. Arch. Jap., 192,
129–135. (in Japanese)
Kato, H. 2003, Cavitation, as a tool of environmental protection, 5th Int. Symp.on Cavitation, Osaka, Japan,
http://flow.me.es.osaka-u.ac.jp/cav2003/
Yoshida, F. http://www.econ.hokudai.ac.jp/%7Eyoshida/e_index.htm (in Japanese)
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Numerical simulation on the channel flow of fiber suspensions with

the successive iteration method
Zhou Kun & Lin Jianzhong

Department of Mechanics, State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power Transmission and Control,
Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
ABSTRACT: The fiber suspensions flow is numerically simulated with a special treatment of
Non-Newtonian stress in FVD. A statistical method is used to give convenient solution of Fokker-
Planck equation. Effects of fiber volume fraction and aspect ratio are investigated. The successive
iteration method also shows the necessity of coupling the flow and fiber orientation.
1 INTRODUCTION
The fiber suspension is modeled by the flow of rigid cylinders with length l and diameter d immersed
in Newtonian fluid. According to the fiber volume fraction c, three regimes of concentration are
defined: dilute, semi-concentrated and concentrated. Dilute regime is defined when c < (d/l)2 . In
this regime fibers are free to rotate, and interactions between fibers are rare. When the volume frac-
tion of fibers falls in the range (d/l)2 < c < (d/l) then the suspension falls in the semi-concentrated
regime. In this regime the interactions of fibers are frequent. The concentrated regime is defined
as c > (d/l), here the space between fibers is on the order of d. The semi-concentrated regime is
of most importance in the applications.
The channel flow of fiber suspensions has great application both on industry and on rheologic
research. Chiba et al. (2001) computed the coupled flow kinematics and fiber orientation distri-
bution, the anistropic characteristics of fiber orientations and stress field in the region near the
inlet were obtained. Yasuda et al. (2002) used a new visualization technique to observe the fiber
orientation, fiber concentration distribution and the relationship of total shear strain vs. orientation
angle. Both Chiba et al. and Yasuda et al.’s results are given in the case of laminar flow. Dong
et al. (2003) investigated numerically the concentration of pulp fibers in three-dimensional fully
developed turbulent channel, the results showed that the concentration increases linearly near the
wall and becomes approximately constant farther from the wall.
In this paper, a channel flow of fiber suspensions is simulated numerically with the successive
iteration method. The computational field is discretized with the collocated finite volume method.
Especially, an ergodic hypothesis is adopted to greatly accelerate the solution of Fokker-Planck
equation.
2 MODELS AND EQUATIONS
Batchelor (1970a) developed a general constitutive equation for suspensions of particles of any
shape in Newtonian liquids at arbitrary concentrations. While the model is too complicate to use,
Batchelor (1970b, 1971) simplified the model for slender fibers in a dilute suspension
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where µf = πnl 3 µ/6 log(2l/d), u is the velocity vector, ρ the density of fluid, p the isotropic
pressure, µ the viscosity of the suspending fluid, n the number of fibers per unit volume, ε the rate
of strain tensor, I the identity tensor, and p is a unit vector parallel to the fiber’s axis of symmetry,
pppp and pp are separately the fourth and second orientation tensors, D/Dt denotes the material
derivative. The angle brackets indicate an average of the fiber orientation distribution. Shaqfeh and
Fredrickson (1990) used a diagrammatic renormalization technique to derive an expression for the
average Greesn’s function in a semi-dilute suspension, and showed
where A(c) = 0.159 for an aligned suspension and A(c) = −0.663 for an isotropic suspension. In
fact, the effective viscosity µf is insensitive to fibers orientation.
Jeffery (1922) studied the motion of a ellipsoid immersed in simple shear Newtonian flow with
neglecting the inertia and Brownian rotation. He found ellipsoid rotated periodically and the trace
of one end of the ellipsoid was characterized by the known Jeffery orbits. Bretherton (1962) showed
that the same equations could be used to describe the motion of any axisymmetric particle provided
that one used an equivalent aspect ratio that is equal to the actual aspect ratio for ellipsoidal particles.
Based on Jeffery’s result and experiment, Folgar et al. (1984) developed a mathematical model
to predict the orientation distribution function of rigid fibers in concentrated suspensions, which
contained a phenomenological term to account for interactions between fibers. When neglecting the
inertia force, rotational motion of a fiber in a Newtonian can be described as (Advani et al., 1987):
where ω = (∇uT − ∇u)/2 is the vorticity tensor, ε = (∇uT + ∇u)/2 the deformation rate tensor,
λ = (r 2 − 1)/(r 2 + 1), r the fiber aspect ratio, Dr is the rotary diffusivity which account for interac-
tions between fibers. Orientation probability distribution function ψ is described by the simplified
Fokker-Planck equation:
Discarding the technical difficulties, it’s enough to compute the fiber suspension flow by allying
Equation 1–4 with the continuity equation, for incompressible fluid which is
Dinh et al. (1984) developed a rheological equation for semi-concentrated suspension of infinite
stiff fibers by using Batchelor’s “cell model” approach. Some researchers (Hinch et al., 1975,
Advani et al., 1987, 1989, Lin et al., 2003) took a more compact orientation tensor to depict fiber
orientation, while the closure problem of orientation tensor was encountered inevitably, and great
deficiencies in accuracy of the method were also been found (Altan et al., 1989). Stover et al. (1992)
showed experimentally that the measured θ-distributions were similar to Jeffery’s solution in simple
shear flow of semi-dilute suspensions. Chinesta et al. (2003) solved Fokker-Planck equation in the
steady recirculation flows involving short fiber suspensions, the research showed that the shear of
flow tends to orientate fibers while other factors.
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3 SOLUTION PROCEDURE
3.1 Computational field and method

Half of a 0.4 × 0.1 parallel channel flow of fiber suspensions is modeled due to the symmetry of
channel central axis. The computational field is covered by 80 × 20 rectangles of 0.005 × 0.0025 as
control volumes (CVs). The colocated finite volume method is applied to discretize the Equation 1.
While the third term of right hand side of Equation 1 is treated as the source term. Extra treatment
of the additional stress term brought by fiber is shown below.
For convenience, we denote
then
where Aki denotes the i direction projective area of the k-th face of CV, Sijk the ij quantity of second
order tensor S on the k-th face of CV, n is the face number of CV. Direction index i is from 1 to 2.
It’s important to point out that in the colocated arrangement all computational points are located in
the centers of CVs, then Sijk should be interpolated by the neighborhood CVs’ center values. In the
paper, a linear interpolation formula is used since the CV is uniform and coincides with Cartesian
coordinates.
We consider the steady state of Equation 4, and take the angle θ between fiber axis and the
channel center line to depict the fiber orientation Since fiber will rotate periodically in simple
shear flow (Jeffery, 1922), from Equation 4 we can deduce that
where C is const integrating steady Equation 4, T the period. So
Further, we deal with Equation 3 under the specific case. Since the rotary diffusivity Dr is just
a phenomenological coefficient and is deduced by experiment, it’s too hardy to be tackled well.
Nevertheless, it’s obvious that the effect of rotary diffusivity is to make fibers orientate more
disordered. We will omit it. Then
Substituting Equation 10 into Equation 9, we get the explicit fiber orientation distribution.
3.2 Boundary conditions and iteration

At the inlet a parabolic velocity profile which agrees with the theoretical result of Poiseuille flow
is set, at the outlet a natural outflow condition is assumed, and no-slip condition is used at the wall.
No extra boundary conditions are needed for fiber governing equations. First, a converged solution
is obtained for flow without fiber suspensions under given boundary conditions. Then, adding
Equation 7 to the flow as momentum source term and iterating until a new converged solution is
obtained.
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0.05
0.00014
0.04 0.00022
0.00026 0.00016 0.00008 0.00002
0.03 0.00030 0.00020 0.00012
y
0.02 0.00024 0.00006
0.01 0.00018 0.00010 0.00004

0.00028
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
x
Figure 1. Static pressure contours in pure water flow with a parabolic velocity profile inlet condition, with
the maximum velocity u = 0.1 m/s in the center.
0.05
0.00076
0.04 0.00119
0.00141 0.00087 0.00043 0.00011
0.03 0.00163 0.00108 0.00065
y
0.02 0.00130 0.00032
0.01 0.00152 0.00098 0.00054 0.00022

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
x
Figure 2. Static pressure contours in fiber suspensions flow, where r = 100, φ = 0.01 and the same velocity
inlet condition as Figure 1.
0.12 0.12
0.11 0.11
x=0.3 y=0
0.10 0.10
0.09 0.09
0.08 0.08
0.07 0.07
0.06 0.06
u
0.05 0.05
0.04 0.04
y=0.04
0.03 0.03
0.02 0.02
0.01 0.01
0.00 0.00
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
y x
(a) (b)
Figure 3. (a) Velocity profiles in the cross section x = 0.3. Thin solid line shows pure water flow; dashed line,
φ = 0.1, r = 10; bold solid line, φ = 0.01, r = 100; empty squares, φ = 0.01, r = 10. (b) Velocity profiles in
the parallel sections y = 0 and y = 0.04, φ = 0.01, r = 100.
4 NUMERICAL RESULTS
4.1 Static pressure

Given a parabolic velocity profile as inlet condition, witch has the maximum value 0.1 m/s in the
center, the pressure contours of both pure water flow and fiber suspensions flow are described in
Figures 1 and 2. The values in Figure 1 show very good agreement with theoretical results, which
demonstrates the accuracy of the solution program. The suspending of fibers changes the static
pressure greatly (Fig. 2). The gradient direction of pressure is no longer simply perpendicular to
flow direction, and the gradient value is about 5 times bigger than in the pure water flow. Closer to
wall, bigger is the y-gradient of pressure.
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0.05 0.05
0.00005 -0.00002
0.04 0.04
0.03 0.03
-0.00002
y
y
0.02 0.02
0.00005
0.01 0.01
0 0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0 0.05 0.1 0.15
x x
(a) (b)
0.05
0.44805
0.04 0.40361
0.35917
0.03 0.31473
0.27028
y
0.22584
0.02 0.18140
0.13696
0.01 0.09252
0.04808
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
x
(c)
Figure 4. Uncoupling solution of additional stress (Equation 6, lack of effective viscosity µf ) of fiber
suspensions, φ = 0.01, r = 100. (a) x-normal stress. (b) y-normal stress. (c) xy/yx-shear stress.
4.2 Velocity profile

Different fiber aspect ratios and volume fractions are considered in the same velocity inlet condition.
In Figure 3a different velocity profiles in the cross section x = 0.3 is described. The results show
that in fibers suspension flow the center velocity increase while the near wall velocity decrease.
High volume fraction and big aspect ratio augment the tendency. Compare the dashed line and
bold solid line in Figure 3a, it shows that aspect ration has greater effect than volume faction
as for the upper limitation of semi-concentration. Dilute comparatively short fiber suspensions
has unnoticeable impact on the bulk flow as the superposition of thin solid line and empty squares
shows. The velocity development along the channel is also noted. Opposite development tendencies
of near wall and near center velocities are demonstrated in Figure 3b.
4.3 Additional stress of fiber suspensions

We compute the additional stress in coupling and uncoupling ways, which indicates the necessary of
coupling solution. Uncoupling solution shows that the additional shear stress is three-order bigger
than the additional normal stress, and that the shear stress is uniform along the channel, which is
certain (Fig. 4). Coupling solution shows only two-order difference between the additional shear
and normal stress (Fig. 5). In the cross direction, shear stress shows monotonic decrease from wall
to the center, except in the right upper corner (Fig. 5c), while both x and y normal stresses are
wavelike.
5 CONCLUSION
The channel flow of different volume fractions and aspect ratios fiber suspensions is numerically
simulated with the successive iteration method. It’s proved an effective method to deal with the
additional stress of fiber suspensions as momentum terms of the N-S equations in FVM, since
various successful CFD methods can be adopted without effort. Taking an ergodic hypotheses to
replace time ensemble average with space ensemble average is another good strategy to speed up
the numerical solution. In the same time, the necessity of coupling solving is presented which is
too tough to tackle by theoretical analysis even in simple flow.
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0.05 0.00590
0.02022
0.04
0.00716
0.03
y
0.02
0.00590
0.01
0.0189
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
x
(a)
0.05 0.00409
0.03181 0.03181 0.01386
0.04
0.03
y
0.02 0.00409
0.01
0 .0138 6
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
x
(b)
0.05
0.32708
0.04 0.37234
0.03 0.37234
0.28182
y
0.02 0.23656 0.32708
0.01 0.10078 0.14604 0.19130

0.05552
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
x
(c)
Figure 5. Coupling solution of additional stress ib. (a) x-normal stress. (b) y-normal stress. (c) xy(yx)-shear
stress.
The staff fiber suspensions appear to “thicken” the solution. Both high volume fraction and large
aspect ratio enforce the thickness, and aspect ratio has bigger such impact than volume fraction. It’s
prudential to point out the limitation of the method. Although 2D channel fiber suspensions flow
is used broadly on industry, yet it’s not precise to assume fibers lying in the flow-shear plane. Now
that in simple shear flow the fiber motions in azimuth angle and meridian angle are independent,
it is natural to suspect analogical results will present. Another limitation is the statistical method
of solving Fokker-Planck equation for very large aspect ratio fiber, in the case a great deal of
statistic points is needed because the flow shear will pinnacle the orientation distribution in the
flow direction. The fiber will align with the wall at wall boundary by physical intuition, it means
the additional stress will vanish. While in the work no similar phenomena appear, more efforts
should pour on the problem.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was supported by the Doctoral Program of Higher Education in China (No. 20030335001)
REFERENCES
Advani, S.G. & Tucker, C.L. 1987. The use of tensors to describe and predict fiber orientation in short fiber
composites. J. Rheol. 31(8):751–784.
Advani, S.G. & Tucker, C.L. 1989. Closure approximations for three-dimensional structure tensors. J. Rheol.
34(3):367–386.
Altan, M.C., Advani, S.G., Guceri, S.I. & Pipes, R.B. 1989. On the description of the orientation state for fiber
suspensions in homogeneous flows. J. Rheol. 33(7):1129–1155.
Batchelor, G.K. 1970a. The stress system in a suspension of force-free particles. J. Fluid Mech. 41:545–570.
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chap-57 20/9/2004 16: 35 page 449
Batchelor, G.K. 1970b. Slender-body theory for particles of arbitrary cross-section in Stokes flow. J. Fluid
Mech. 44:419–440.
Batchelor, G.K. 1971. The stress generated in a non-dilute suspension of elongated particles by pure straining
motion. J. Fluid Mech. 46:813–229.
Bretherton, F.P. 1962. The motion of rigid particles in a shear flow at low Reynolds number. J. Fluid Mech.
14:284–304.
Chiba, K., Yasuda, K. & Nakamura K. 2001. Numerical solution of fiber suspension flow through a parallel
plate channel by coupling flow field with fiber orientation distribution. J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech.
99:145–157.
Dinh, S.M. & Armstrong, R.C. 1984. Rheological equation of state for semiconcentrated fiber suspensions. J.
Rheol. 28(3):207–227.
Dong, S., Feng, X., Salcudean, M. & Gartshore, I. 2003. Concentration of pulp fibers in 3D turbulent channel
flow. J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech. 29, 1–21.
Folgar, F. & Tucker III, C.L. 1983. Orientation Behavior of Fibers in Concentrated suspensions. J. Reinf. Plast.
Compos. 3:98–119.
Hinch, E.J. & Leal, L.G. 1975. Constitutive equations in suspension mechanics. Part 1. General formation.
J. Fluid Mech. 71:481–495.
Hinch, E.J. & Leal, L.G. 1975. Constitutive equations in suspension mechanics. Part 2. Approximate forms
for a suspension of rigid particles affected by Brownian rotations. J. Fluid Mech. 76:187–208.
Lin, J.Z. & Zhang, L.X. 2003. On the structural features of fiber suspensions in converging channel flow.
J. Zhejiang University SCIENCE 4(4):400–406.
Shaqfeh, E.S.G. & Fredrickson, G.H. 1990. The hydrodynamic stress in a suspension of rods. Phys. Fluids A
2(1):7–24.
Stover, C.A., Koch, D.L. & Cohen, C. 1992. Observations of fibre orientation in simple shear flow of semi-dilute
suspensions. J. Fluid. Mech. 238:277–296.
Yasuda, K., Mori N. & Nakamura K. 2002. A new visualization technique for short fibers in a slit flow of fiber
suspensions. Int. J. of Engineering Science 40:1037–1052.
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Using artificial neural networks to estimate sea level in continental

and island coastal environments
O. Makarynskyy, D. Makarynska, M. Kuhn & W.E. Featherstone

Western Australian Centre for Geodesy, Curtin University of Technology, Perth, Australia
ABSTRACT: The knowledge of sea level variations is of great importance in geoenvironmen-

tal and ocean-engineering applications. Estimations of sea level change with different warning
times are of vital importance for the population of low-lying regions and islands. This contribution
describes some recent advances in the application of a meshless artificial intelligence technique
(neural networks) to the tasks of sea level retrieval and forecast. This technique was employed
because it has been proven to approximate the non-linear behaviour in a geophysical system. The
data used were taken from several SEAFRAME stations, which provide records for the Australian
Baseline Sea Level Monitoring Project. A feed-forward, three-layered, artificial neural network was
implemented to retrieve and predict sea level variations with different lead times. This method-
ology demonstrated reliable results in terms of the correlation coefficient (0.82–0.96), root mean
square error (about 10% of tidal range) and scatter index (0.1–0.2), when compared with actual
observations.
1 INTRODUCTION
Continuous registration and prediction of near-shore sea level are of direct interest for several
branches of geoscience, as well as practical ocean-related human activities. For instance, in
oceanography, circulation and wave models account for this parameter (e.g., Siedler et al., 2001).
In geodesy, national height reference systems are tied to local mean sea level at tide aguges (e.g.,
Poutanen, 2000). Satellite-altimeter measurements of sea level are often validated versus sea level
records. Construction and management of coastal and offshore structures, such as harbours, docks,
gas and oil platforms, depend on knowledge of this parameter (e.g., Herbich, 1992). Variations of
sea level should also be carefully estimated before placing ocean-based alternative energy power
plants (e.g., Charlier & Justus, 1993).
Instrumentation failures result in gaps in sea level records, introducing complications to the
stage of data analysis, thus making sea level forecasts more uncertain and less accurate. Clearly,
such gaps can be filled and forecasts generated using the commonly accepted methodology of tidal
harmonic analysis. However, this methodology only accounts for the Sun and Moon’s gravitational
attractions, omitting any hydrometeorological forcing. At some locations in Western Australia, such
omissions produce a 30% mismatch between the measurements and harmonic predictions (e.g.,
National Tidal Facility, 1999).
Meantime, in a number of recent publications it has been demonstrated that implementation of
artificial neural networks (ANNs) results in the reliable evaluation of interrelations among wave
(Tsai et al., 2002; Makarynskyy, 2004b) and sea level (Huang et al., 2003; Makarynskyy et al.,
2004a) gauges, as well as predictions of oceanographic parameter variations (Babovic, 1999; Lee
et al., 2004; Makarynskyy et al., 2004a, b).
The current contribution demonstrates the applicability of the proposed neural methodology to
the tasks of site-specific sea level retrieval and prediction, summarising and adding to our previous
studies (Makarynskyy et al., 2004a, b). Sections 2 and 3 describe the data and technique of ANNs
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Figure 1. Locations of the tide gauges in the Southern and Indian Oceans.
used in this study. The results obtained and following discussion are given in Section 4. Some
conclusions are presented in Section 5.
2 SEA LEVEL MEASUREMENTS USED
The hourly sea-level registrations used in this study were collected at three SEAFRAME (SEA-level
Fine Resolution Acoustic Measuring Equipment) stations deployed in the Southern (Esperance,
33.87◦ S, 121.90◦ E) and Indian (Hillarys Boat Harbour, 31.82◦ S, 115.73◦ E and Cocos (Keeling)
Islands, 12.12◦ S, 96.88◦ E) Oceans. All three tide gauges (Fig. 1) are operated and maintained
by the National Tidal Centre and the Australian Bureau of Meteorology, as part of the Australian
Baseline Sea Level Monitoring Project. The records are referenced to tide gauge zero connected to
different local height data. However, any offset in the height datum between the gauges will have
no impact on the results because only sea level variations are of interest in this study.
3 OUTLINE OF ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS
The biological neural system gave inspiration for the development of ANNs (Fausett, 1994, Haykin,
1999). A neuron (or processing unit, or computational node), which is the basis of a neural net
(Fig. 2), takes the argument n, which can be formed as a sum of the weighted input pi w and bias
b, and produces the output a by means of the transfer (activation) function f. To form the unique
argument nij for the j-th neuron (i is the number of input nodes, j is the number of processing units
in the first hidden layer), there can be many input-weight pairs. Several nodes can be combined
in a layer, whereas a particular network can contain one or more neural layers. The pattern of the
interconnections between the nodes is called the ANN’s architecture.
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Figure 2. An ANN with multiple layers of neurons; N is the number of inputs p, fi is the i-th processing unit
activation function, S is the number of layers in the net.
Training, or learning, is the process of adjusting iteratively the weights and biases of the ANN in
order to minimize the network performance function. The training requires a set of “input–target
output” data pairs. Each presentation of a training set to a net is called an epoch. The weights and
biases determined in this way urge the ANN to perform in some expected way.
To make the ANN capable of representing non-linear dependencies, the hidden units have to
contain non-linear activation functions, such as a log sigmoid or a hyperbolic tangent sigmoid.
Meanwhile, the output neuron’s activation function has to suite the distribution of the target values.
This unbounded linear transfer function is usually used when the training data set is not scaled to
some predefined range.
Hornik (1993) proved theoretically the feasibility of three-layer, feed-forward ANNs for the
simulation of complex-system behaviour. This was confirmed empirically for simulations of tides
and sea level by recent works of Huang et al. (2003), Lee (2004) and Makarynskyy et al. (2004a,
b). Therefore, these ANNs with a non-linear, differentiable, log-sigmoid transfer function in the
hidden layer, and a linear transfer function in the output layer were again used here. These networks
learned in 200 training epochs with the resilient back-propagation algorithm (Hagan et al., 1996).
The algorithm depends on the sign of the performance function (the average squared error between
the network outputs and the target outputs) gradient. The sign is used to determine the direction
of the weight update: it is increased whenever the derivative of the performance function has the
same sign for two successive iterations, or decreased whenever the derivative changes sign from
the previous iteration. When the derivative is zero, the update value remains unchanged.
The two imposed tasks of sea level retrieval and forecast were addressed using the data from
Esperance and Hillarys, and from Hillarys and Cocos, respectively. The accuracy of all simulations
performed was evaluated in terms of the root mean square error
correlation coefficient
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and scatter index
where xi is the value observed at the i-th time step, yi is the value simulated at the same moment
of time, N is the number of time steps, x̄ is the mean value of the observations, and ȳ is the mean
value of the simulations.
To solve the first task, input-output training pairs were composed of an equal number of simul-
taneous hourly sea-level records from the Esperance and Hillarys tide-gauges. The registrations
from these both gauges were divided to two data sets; one of which (January 1992–February 1999)
served to train the ANNs, and the other (August 2001–December 2002) was used to validate the
proposed procedure of sea level retrieval. The approach implemented was as follows. The sea level
observations from Hillarys served as the input to restore the simultaneous registrations at Esper-
ance, while the corresponding data from Esperance provided the necessary basis to estimate sea
level at Hillarys (Makarynskyy et al., 2004a). Six different ANN architectures were tested in order
to provide the best quality of data retrieval at these both sites. The best performance was achieved
with the network 36iu-73pu-36ou, where iu is the number of input nodes, pu is the number of
processing units, ou is the number of output neurons, referred to as 36 × 73 × 36 (and likewise for
other ANN architectures, which were 12 × 25 × 12, 24 × 49 × 24, 48 × 97 × 48, 60 × 121 × 60,
and 72 × 145 × 72). In this case, 36 hourly records from one of the stations were processed by 73
hidden neurons and transferred farther to 36 output nodes, which represented sea level at the other
station for the same time interval. When the retrieval procedure was verified, the RMSE, R and SI
averaged over 36-hour time interval of the simulations at Esperance were 130 mm, 0.85 and 0.18,
and at Hillarys were 129 mm, 0.82 and 0.20, respectively.
The second task of sea-level forecast with different warning times was treated in two different
ways. Hourly predictions for Cocos with warning times from 12 up to 48 hours were produced
employing four ANNs of similar with the retrieval net architectures (Table 1). The input-output
data vectors to train these networks were formed from the measurements March 1995–February
1999 as described below. For instance, in the first learning step of the net 12 × 25 × 12, the records
from hours 1 to 12 serve as the input, while the sea levels from hours 13–24 are presented to the
ANN as the target data, and so on, until all training pairs are used. The data from September 1992
to March 1995 were used to validate the methodology. From an analysis of Figure 3 it follows that
the simplest ANNs (12 × 25 × 12 and 24 × 49 × 24) failed to reflect the consistent patterns present
in the observations. These nets show the largest values of the averaged RMSE and SI and lowest R
(Table 1) and absolute extremes of hourly statistics at warning times from 4 to 10 hours (Fig. 3).
Meanwhile, 36 hourly forecasts obtained with the 36 × 73 × 36 network have the highest average
accuracy, while predictions with the 48 × 97 × 48 ANN are of expectedly lower (due to a 12-hour
longer prediction interval) but fairly high quality.
In the case of Hillarys, the predictions were produced in two consequent steps of initial and
correcting simulations (Makarynskyy et al., 2004b). Therefore, the data for period Decem-
ber 1991–December 2002 were divided to three equal time series for independent training
Table 1. Verification statistics of the Cocos simulations

averaged over the prediction intervals.
Network RMSE, mm R SI
12 × 25 × 12 116 0.91 0.15

24 × 49 × 24 98 0.94 0.13
36 × 73 × 36 82 0.96 0.11
48 × 97 × 48 97 0.94 0.13
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chap-58 20/9/2004 16: 35 page 455
of the forecasting, and later correcting ANNs, and for general validation. Firstly, six ANNs
with different numbers of input and hidden units, and a fixed number of output neurons were
used to simulate hourly sea level 24 hours ahead. The architectures tested were 72 × 145 × 24,
60 × 121 × 24, 48 × 97 × 24, 36 × 73 × 24, 24 × 49 × 24, and 12 × 25 × 24. Following the phil-
osophy of Makarynskyy (2004a), it was assumed that an additional network of different internal
structure could be successfully implemented to improve the initial sea level simulations. Accord-
ing to the number of the warning intervals in both the initial and final simulations, these ancillary
nets had 24 nodes in the input and output layers, and 49 hidden neurons. The highest accuracy
Figure 3. Verification statistics of hourly predictions with four ANNs in the Cocos Islands.
Figure 4. A randomly selected one-day time series of the measured and simulated sea level at Hillarys;
predicting network 48 × 97 × 24.
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was achieved with the ANN 48 × 97 × 24 after correction. The verified versus actual measure-
ments corrected predictions exhibited the averaged over 24 hours RMSE = 109 mm, R = 0.87 and
SI = 0.15. An example of the results obtained at the steps of the initial and corrected simulations
is presented in Figure 4. An analysis of the time plots shows that, for the case, the values of the
corrected forecasts are closer to the tide gauge registrations than the initially predicted sea levels.
The results presented demonstrate that the technique of ANNs can be used successfully for site-
specific sea-level retrieval and forecast. The commonly used three-layer, feed-forward ANNs with
a non-linear differentiable log-sigmoid transfer function in the hidden layer and linear transfer
function in the output layer were implemented to solve these tasks in the continental and island
environment in the Indian and Southern Oceans.
Several different ANN architectures were tested when retrieving and predicting data for Esper-
ance, Hillarys and Cocos. The best quality of sea level retrieval, as evaluated versus actual sea-level
observations, was characterized by RMSE = 130 mm, R = 0.82–0.85, and SI = 0.18–0.20. Depend-
ing on the location of the simulations, fairly good hourly predictions were produced for up to 48 h
warning times with the values of RMSE = 82–109 mm, R = 0.87–0.96, and SI = 0.11–0.15.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was funded by a Curtin Strategic Research Scheme grant and partially by the ARC
Discovery-Project grant DP0345583. The authors are grateful to the National Tidal Centre of
Australia for making available the tide-gauge observations.
REFERENCES
Babovic, V. 1999. Sub-symbolic process description and forecasting using neural networks. In Garcia-
Navarro, P. & Playan, E. (eds), Numerical Modelling of Hydrodynamic Systems Proc. intern. workshop,
Zaragoza, Spain, 21–24 June 1999.
Charlier, R.H. & Justus, J.R. 1993. Ocean energies. Elsevier.
Fausett, L. 1994. Fundamentals of neural networks. Architectures, algorithms, and applications. Prentice-Hall,
Upper Saddle River.
Hagan, M.T., Demuth, H.B. & Beale, M.H. 1996. Neural Network Design. PWS Publishing, Boston, MA.
Haykin, S. 1999. Neural networks: a comprehensive foundation. Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River.
Herbich, J.B. 1992. Handbook of coastal and ocean engineering. Gulf Professional Publishing.
Hornik, K. 1993. Some new results on neural network approximation. Neural Networks 6: 1069–1072.
Huang, W., Murray, C., Kraus, N. & Rosati, J. 2003. Development of a regional neural network for coastal
water level predictions. Ocean Engineering 30: 2275–2295.
Lee, T.L. 2004. Back-propagation neural network for long-term tidal predictions. Ocean Engineering 31(2):
225–238.
Makarynskyy, O. 2004a. Improving wave predictions with artificial neural networks. Ocean Engineering
31(5–6): 709–724.
Makarynskyy, O. 2004b (submitted). Artificial neural networks for wave prediction, tracking and retrieval in
the coastal environment of Tasmania. Continental Shelf Research.
Makarynskyy, O., Kuhn, M., Makarynska, D. & Featherstone, W.E. 2004a (submitted). The use of Artificial
Neural Networks to retrieve sea-level information from remote data sources. In Gravity, Geoid and Space
Missions, Proc. intern. symp., Porto, Portugal, 30 August–3 September 2004. Berlin: Springer Verlag.
Makarynskyy, O., Makarynska, D., Kuhn, M. & Featherstone, W.E. 2004b (in press). Predicting sea level
variations with artificial neural networks at Hillarys Boat Harbour, Western Australia. Estuarine, Coastal
and Shelf Science.
456
chap-58 20/9/2004 16: 35 page 457
Monthly Data Report. January 1999. The Australian Baseline Sea Level Monitoring Project. Flinders
University of South Australia – National Tidal Facility. 14p. http://www.ntf.flinders.edu.au/TEXT/
PRJS/BASE/MRPTS/baseline.html.
Poutanen, M. 2000. Sea surface topography and vertical datums using space geodetic techniques. Publications
of the Finnish Geodetic Institute, N.128, Kirkkonummi.
Siedler, G., Church, J. & Gould, J. 2001. Ocean Circulation and Climate: Observing and Modelling the Global
Ocean. Academic Press, San Diego.
Tsai, C.-P., Lin, C. & Shen, J.-N. 2002. Neural network for wave forecasting among multi-stations. Ocean
Engineering 29 (13): 1683–1695.
457
chap-59 20/9/2004 16: 36 page 459

An in situ erosion rate of sediments in an urban river with

a new device
Y. Nihei, Y. Yamasaki & T. Nishimura

Dept. of Civil Eng., Tokyo University of Science, Chiba, Japan
ABSTRACT: The water quality environments in an urban river may be strongly influenced by the
property of sediments which may be easily suspended as a river-flow velocity increases. To clarify
an in situ erosion rate of sediments in an urban river, we attempted to conduct field measurements
in an urban river with a new device which can directly measure the erosion rates of sediments under
various flow conditions. The observed results show that the temporal and spatial variations of the
erosion rates of sediments are caused due to hydrologic events and river discharges. The erosion
rates of sediments almost decreased in hydrologic events and then increased rapidly due to high
pollutant loads from urban watershed.
1 INTRODUCTION
To manage and control water quality environments in an urban river, it is quite important to
quantitatively evaluate the yields and transport processes of pollutants from point and non-point
sources. Sediments in an urban river, one of non-point sources, are transported due to meteorological
events like precipitation (e.g., Welch & Jacoby, 2004). The water quality environments in rivers
under rainy conditions are directly dependent upon an erosion rate of sediments in an urban river.
However we have poorly understood an erosion rate of sediments in an urban river under various
flow conditions. One of the reasons is that there is not an appropriate device to measure an in situ
erosion rate of sediments.
For this purpose, in the present study, we present a new device which may easily measure an in
situ erosion rate of sediments under various flow conditions. With the new device, we conducted
field observations for the erosional properties of sediments in an urban river.
2 MEASUREMENTS FOR AN EROSION RATE OF SEDIMENTS WITH

A NEW DEVICE
2.1 Outline of a new device

To monitor a dependence of the erosion rates of sediments on flow conditions in an urban river,
we attempt to make a new device which can easily and directly observe the in situ erosion rates of
sediments. Fig. 1 shows the schematic view of the new device which has two cylinders arranged
in a concentric configuration. We stir a rod in the gap between two cylinders with width of 7 cm.
Since the width of the gap is narrow, the velocity distribution in the gap is expected to be almost
uniform in the radial direction. We may vary the current speeds in the gap of the device, and hence
the erosion rates of sediments can be evaluated under various flow conditions with the new device.
2.2 Procedure of the field measurement

The procedure of the field measurement with the new device is described as follows:
1. We set the device at prescribed positions on river bed.
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chap-59 20/9/2004 16: 36 page 460
Tone River N
Stn.1
56
Stn.2
Oohori
45
23
River
LakeTeganuma
5
Exit of
north-Chiba
Stn.3
29 water conveyance
Unit:cm 5km
43
Figure 1. Schematic view of a new device. Figure 2. Locations of the Oohori River and measuring
stations.
2. We stir a rod in the gap between two cylinders during 30 seconds.

3. The turbidity in the surface layer is measured during 30 seconds after the step 2.
In measuring the turbidity, we adopted a water quality monitoring system (W-22P, HORIBA
Co., Ltd. in Japan). The current speeds in the gap, U , were set to be 0.32, 0.43, 0.64, 0.85 and
1.28 m/s. As shown in Fig. 2, the field measurement was done at three stations in the Oohori River
which flows into Lake Taganuma, one of well-known eutrophied lakes in Japan. At the upstream
region of Stn. 1, the flooding from the north-Chiba water conveyance channel has been done to
improve the water quality environments in the Oohori River. The observational period was from
July 1 to 26, 2002 and the time interval of the measurements was a few days. The water depth at
the measuring stations was from 0.2 to 0.4m. With the above measurements for the erosion rates
of sediments, we also monitored continuously the water elevation and turbidity at Stns. 1 and 3
with memory-type sensors. We used the pressure gauges (Diver, Eijkelkamp) and the turbidity and
Chlorophyll a sensor with a wiper (Compact-CLW, Alec Electronics Co., Ltd. in Japan).
2.3 Evaluation of erosion rate

In the field measurements with the new device, we measure only the turbidity in the surface layer.
To evaluate the erosion rate of sediments, Pk , from the turbidity in the surface layer, it is assumed
that the erosion and deposition rates of sediments are equal on the river bed:
where w0 is a setting velocity of sediments and Ca means the SS concentration at a reference height
a above the river bed.
To evaluate the deposition rate of sediments shown in the right-hand side of Eq. 1, it is necessary
to obtain Ca from the turbidity in the surface layer. The measured turbidity is first translated to the
SS concentration with a calibration curve between the turbidity and SS. Then we use the vertical
distribution of SS concentration presented by Rouse (1937),
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where y means the vertical direction, h is the water depth and C( y) represents the distribution of
SS in the y direction. In the above equation, Z is given as
where U∗ expresses a friction velocity, κ means Karman constant, and a numerical constant β is
set to be 1.2. The frictional velocity U∗ is defined as
where U is the depth-averaged velocity in the gap, Cf means the coefficient of bottom friction and
g represents the gravitational acceleration. The roughness coefficient of Manning, n, is given to be
0.025 m−1/3 s. Also, in the present study, the settling velocity w0 is set at 0.293 cm/s in line with
the laboratory data for settling motion of sediments. From Eqs. 2–5, Ca can be obtained from the
measured turbidity, and then we calculate Pk with Eq. 1.
3.1 Raw data of erosion rate

To grasp the fundamental features of the in situ erosion rates of sediments in the Oohori River, all
data of the erosion rates Pk versus the velocity U at Stns. 1 and 2 are shown in Fig. 3. The averaged
erosion rates in each velocity are also depicted in the figure. The measured result indicates that
the raw and averaged values of Pk increased with the velocity in both the stations. The variance of
the raw data of Pk in each velocity also increased with the flow velocity. It should be noted that the
averaged value of Pk at Stn. 1 was much larger than that at Stn. 2, indicating the considerable spatial
differences of Pk .
3.2 Characteristics on temporal and spatial variations of erosion rate

To understand the characteristics on the temporal and spatial variations of Pk , Fig. 4 displays the
time series of Pk and some indexes for hydrodynamic environments in the river which are daily
precipitation R, the flooding discharge from the north-Chiba water conveyance channel Qn , the
river discharge Q and SS concentration at Stn. 1. Since the temporal variation of the river discharges
at Stns. 2 and 3 is similar to that at Stn. 1, only the discharge at Stn. 1 is shown in the figure. The
averaged value of Pk under the velocities of 0.64 m/s and 0.85 m/s is adopted in the figure. During
the observational period, there were two hydrologic events: one occurred from 9 to 11 July and the
other appeared on 16 July. In the hydrologic events, the temporal variations of the river discharge
Q and SS concentration were dominant in the Oohori River. The flooding discharge Qn from the
north-Chiba water conveyance channel varied temporally and was zero from 10 to 17 July. Such a
variation of the flooding discharge Qn may influence on that of the river discharge at Stn. 1.
Figure 4(d) for Pk shows that the erosion rates of sediments varied in time and space. The
comparison of Pk among three stations illustrates that the erosion rate at Stn.1 was wholly larger
than those at Stns. 2 and 3. To clarify these spatial differences of Pk , the grain-size distribution of
sediments at Stns. 1, 2 and 3 is indicated in Fig. 5. The result of the grain-size distribution exhibits
that the grain size at Stn. 1 was finer than those at Stns. 2 and 3. Since the erosion rate of fine
sediments may be generally greater than that of coarse sediments under same flow conditions, the
spatial difference of the erosion rates among three stations may be caused by that of the grain size.
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Averaged Raw
6.0
Pk 103 [kg/m2/s]
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 U[m/s]

(a) Stn.1.
Averaged Raw
2.0
1.6
Pk 103 [kg/m2/s]
1.2
0.8
0.4
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 U[m/s]
(b) Stn.2.
Figure 3. Raw and averaged data of Pk under various flow conditions.
3.3 Relation between erosion rate and hydrodynamic environments

To reveal the influences of hydrodynamic environments on the temporal variations of the erosion
rates, we examine the relationship between the erosion rate Pk and the hydrodynamic environments
as shown in Fig. 4. The comparison between the daily precipitation R and the erosion rate Pk
indicates that in the hydrologic event from 9 to 11 July, the erosion rates at three stations decreased.
On the other hand, in the event on 16 July, Pk at Stns. 1 and 2 decreased and at Stn. 3 increased,
respectively. The precipitation in the latter event was less than that in the former event. Since the
deposition process in the estuary of the Oohori River is dominant under relatively less precipitation
and river discharge (Nihei et al., 2004), the temporal fluctuations of Pk differed in two hydrologic
events.
Noteworthy in Fig. 4 is that, after the former hydrologic events, the erosion rate increased rapidly
at all stations. It took a few days until Pk after the event reached that before the event. The rapid
increase of the erosion rate of sediments may be strongly influenced by high pollutant loads from
the urban watershed, which directly causes the eutrophication of Lake Teganuma.
The comparison between Pk and the flooding discharge from the north-Chiba water conveyance
channel Qn expresses that, at Stn. 1, Pk decreased as Qn increased and vice versa. The good
reciprocal correlation between Pk and Qn was observed at Stn. 1 which is close to the exit of the
north-Chiba water conveyance channel. On the other hand, the appreciable correlations between
Pk and Qn at Stns. 2 and 3 were not found. These results suggest that the flooding discharge from
the north-Chiba water conveyance channel may influence the sedimentary environment only in the
upstream region near the exit of the channel.
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Qn [m3/s] R [mm/day]
0.5 0
0.4 9
0.3 18
Qn
R
0.2 27
0.1 36
0.0 45
28 30 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
June July
(a) Daily precipitation R and discharge from north-Chiba conveyance channel Qn.
Q [m3/s]
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
28 30 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
June July
(b) River discharge Q at Stn.1.
SS [mg/l]
300
240
180
120
60
0
28 30 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
June July
(c) SS at Stn.1.
Pk [kg/m2/s] Stn.1 Stn.2 Stn.3

10-2
10-3
10-4
28 30 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
June July
(d) Pk at Stns.1, 2 and 3.
Figure 4. Time series of Pk and some indexes for hydrodynamic environments in the river.
4 CONCLUSIONS
To investigate the erosion rate of sediments in an urban river, we attempted to present a new device
which can directly measure the in situ erosion rates of sediments under various flow conditions. We
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100
80
Cumulative mass [%]

60 Stn.3
Stn.1
40
20
Stn.2
0
0.01 0.1 1.0 10.0
Particle size [mm]
Figure 5. Grain-size distribution of sediments at Stns. 1, 2 and 3.
performed the field measurements with the new device in the Oohori River, one of typical urban
rivers in Japan. The main conclusions of the present study are as follows:
(1) The erosion rates of sediments in the Oohori River varied in time and space due to the hydrologic
events, the grain size of sediments and the flooding discharge from the north-Chiba water
conveyance channel.
(2) The erosion rates of sediments almost decreased in the hydrologic events and increased rapidly
after the events. It took a few days until the erosion rate after the event reached that before the
event. The rapid increase of the erosion rates of sediments may be caused by high pollutant
loads from the urban watershed.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to express deep thanks to the students in hydraulics laboratory of Department
of Civil Eng., Tokyo University of Science, for their help in conducting field measurements and
performing data analysis in the present study.
REFERENCES
Welch, E. B. and Jacoby, J. M. (2004): Pollutant effects in freshwater, Spon Press, pp.86–94.
Rouse, H. (1937): Modern conceptions of the mechanics of turbulence, Trans. ASCE, pp.463–543.
Nihei, Y., Oozeki, M., Yamasaki, Y. and Nishimura, T. (2004): Field measurements and numerical simulation
on sediment transports in an urban river estuary, IAHR-APD 2004 (submitted).
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chap-60 20/9/2004 16: 36 page 465

Prediction of salinity intrusion using empirical equations and

numerical modeling
B. Sherkati-Azin, A. Etemad-Shahidi & E. Jabbari

Structure & Hydro-structure Research Center, College of Civil Eng., Iran Uni. Of Science and
Technology (IUST), Tehran, Iran
A. Dorostkar
M.Sc. candidate of IUST and Member of Transportation Research Institute,
Ministry of Road & Transportation, Tehran, Iran
ABSTRACT: Prolonged low-flow condition allows salinity intrusion in the upstream, which
deteriorates both the surface water quality and even the ground water quality. This study deals with
the salt intrusion prediction in the Arvand estuary in the south west of Iran. A laterally averaged, two-
dimensional hydrodynamics-water quality model called CE-QUAL-W2, was used for simulation
of flow and salinity intrusion in this river. Recorded tidal levels of gauging stations in Abadan
and Ghosbeh were used for calibrating the hydrodynamic module. The best fit of the recorded and
computed water levels curves at Ghosbeh was obtained with a Manning friction factor of 0.02.
After calibration of the model, the maximum length of salt wedge intrusion was predicted both
by numerical simulation and by three empirical equations. It was found that most of the existing
predictive models are limited to special conditions and are not valid for Arvand River. However,
the method which was described by Savenije (1993), performs the best.
1 INTRODUCTION
The intrusion of salt water into estuaries is one of the greatest interests of engineers, increasingly
called upon to modify the flow regime of natural estuaries for purposes of improved navigation, land
reclamation and flood control and to correct the conditions produced by the disposal of wastewaters.
The main factors controlling the variation in salinity are the freshwater discharge, tidal variation,
and bathymetry.
A number of systematic attempts have therefore been made with more or less success to correl-
ate the intrusion of saline water with the tidal characteristics based on actual observation of the
salinity conditions in real estuaries (Rigter 1973, Fischer 1972, Savenije 1993). From these studies
the basis pattern of the interaction of tides, salinity and freshwater has become established quali-
tatively for the general case, while quantitative results are available through the one dimensional
theory and through experimental evidence for estuaries with simple geometric cross section and
plan. Existing predictive models all have an empirical component and are either limited to spe-
cial conditions. Rigter (1973) and Fischer (1972) proposed formulations on the base of laboratory
experiments limited greatly in channels with constant cross-sections. Savenije (1993) described
such a relationship for a steady-state salt intrusion model in alluvial estuaries. He considered the
estuary shape in his formula.
This study also uses a two-dimensional hydrodynamic and water quality modeling. Although
simulations with the numerical computer models are time consuming and need calibration but after
calibration with field data, they can be used for verifying the other predictive and empirical models.
The performance of numerical model and empirical equations in prediction of salt intrusion are
compared here.
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Table 1. Vertical eddy viscosity, vt formulation in the model.
Where lm = mixing length; z = vertical coordinate; H = depth; u = horizontal velocity; Ri = Richardson

number; C = constant (assumed 0.15); κ = Von Karman constant; k = wave number; ρ = liquid density.
2 DESCRIPTION OF MODEL
CE-QUAL-W2 version 3 is a two-dimensional water quality and hydrodynamic code developed

USACE waterways experiments station (Cole & Wells 2001). This model has been widely applied to
stratified water systems such as lakes, reservoirs, and estuaries. It computes water levels, horizontal
and vertical velocities, temperature and 21 other water quality parameters.
The algorithm and the vertical shear stress is:
In CE-QUAL-W2, the user can specify an algorithm to use for vertical eddy diffusivity. The
algorithms are shown in Table 1.
3 APPLICATION OF NUMERICAL MODEL TO ARVAND RIVER
The study area is shown in the Figure 1. For describing the geometry of the river at first, the distance
between Abadan and Persian Gulf was divided to 43 segments with a length of about 1830 meters.
Then each segment was divided to the vertical layers with 1 meter height. The maximum number
of the layers was 25 along Arvand River.
The tidal levels in Khosrowabad were used for calibration with Manning coefficient. A Manning
coefficient was 0.02 was obtained in the calibration of hydrodynamics. The model-predicted tidal
levels are compared with the measured values in Figure 2.
In the simulation of salinity, the upstream (Abadan) salinity was given 1.2 ppt and for the
downstream (Persian Gulf) it was given 38 ppt (Sweco, 1976). Initial conditions for all elements
were chosen a constant vertical profile equals to 10 ppt. The horizontal eddy viscosity and horizontal
eddy diffusivity were assumed to be 10 m2 s−1 suitable for estuaries (Chapra, 1998). The model
was executed with two of the five existed vertical eddy diffusivity formulations. Figure 3 shows
comparison between measured and simulated profiles of salinity in Ghosbeh. As seen the W2N
formulation performs better than the other on. Then by using W2N formulation, the intrusion
length was obtained from the model at high tide. The numerical model showed that the maximum
intrusion length is about 1.5 km.
4 EMPIRICAL MODELS
The most important output of predictive empirical models is the salinity intrusion length, the
distance from the estuary mouth to the point where the salinity reaches the river salinity. Rigter
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Figure 1. The area of study and the stations.
0.5
water levels(m)
-0.5
-1
-1.5
15:00 18:00 21:00 00:00 03:00 06:00 09:00 12:00 15:00 18:00 21:00 00:00 03:00 06:00 09:00 12:00
time(hour)
Figure 2. Comparison of recorded and predicted surface water levels in Khosrowabad (December 1974)
(——— Recorded, - - - - - - - Predicted (with n = 0.02)).
(1973), based on flume data of Delft Hydraulic Laboratory and of the waterways experiment station
(WES), proposed at the following empirical relation:
Where h0 = tidal average depth at the estuary mouth; f = Darcy-Weisbach’s roughness; N = Canter
Cremers’ estuary number defined as the ratio of the fresh water entering the estuary during a tidal
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salinity (ppt)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
0
6
Depth (m)
10
12
14
16
18
Figure 3. Comparison of recorded and predicted salinity profiles in Ghosbeh (——– Recorded, - - - - - - -
Predicted (W2N), – - – - – - – predicted (Nick)).
cycle to the flood volume of salt water entering the estuary over a tidal cycle, Pt . Hence:
Where Qf = fresh water discharge; u0 = fresh water velocity at the estuary mouth, which are
negative since the positive x direction is taken upstream; A0 = cross-section area at the estuary
mouth; T = tidal period.
Savenije (1992) showed that the flume volume can be very well approximated by the product of
A0 and the tidal excursion E0 at the estuary mouth and that E0 = 1.08v0 T /π where v0 is the tidal
velocity amplitude at the estuary mouth which it can be calculated from the following formula
(Ippen, 1960):
Where H0 = the tidal range at the estuary mouth; h = the depth of estuary mouth. In addition, the
densimetric Froude number Fd in Equation (1) is defined as:

Where F = v02 / gh0 and is the Froude number; ρ = density of water; ρ = the density difference
over the intrusion length.
Fischer (1974) proposed the following formula:
Savenije (1993) presented following formula:
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20000
15000
y = 4744.4e0.0329x
10000 Area (m2)

Width(m)
Expon. (Area (m2))
5000
Expon. (Width (m))
y = 314.38e0.0298x
0
73 69 65 60 56 52 49 44 41 38 34 31 27 24 21 18 15 12 9 6 3 0
Distance from the mouth (km)
Figure 4. The exponential functions describing the cross-section area and width variations in Arvand River.
Table 2. Intrusion length computed by different methods.
Formulation Intrusion length (km)
Rigter 1973 35
Fischer 1974 7.98
Savenije 1993 9.59
CE-QUAL-W2 9.75
Where:
Where k = Van der Burg coefficient; a = convergence length; D0 = boundary condition for
dispersion, k is defined as:
Where b = width convergence length; B0 = width at the estuary mouth.

In this method, exponential functions (Eqs. 10, 11) should be fitted to the cross-sectional area
and estuary width. The curves are shown in Figure 4 for Arvand River.
5 APPLICATION OF EMPIRICAL MODELS IN THE ARVAND RIVER
The intrusion lengths computed with the Equations (1), (5) & (6) are shown in the Table 2. The
intrusion length resulted from the numerical simulation is also mentioned in this table. The methods
of Rigter (1993) and Fischer (1972) over predict the intrusion length.
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6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
In this work a laterally averaged 2-D hydrodynamics and water quality model called CE-QUAL-
W2 was applied to Arvand river estuary in south east of Iran to study the salinity intrusion. The
hydrodynamics of model was first calibrated by minimizing the difference between measured
and simulated water levels. Then different vertical eddy diffusivity formulations were used for
reproducing the measured salinity profiles by the model and it was found that W2N formula
performs well.
Finally, several proposed empirical formulas were applied to the Arvand River and the predicted.
It was noted that the Savenije (1993) formula performs the best while other methods over predict
the length of salt intrusion. The first two methods are hampered by the assumption of constant
cross-section. Savenije (1993) by inserting k in his formula entered the effects of estuary shape.
Therefore, this method is suggested as a preliminary tool for salt intrusion prediction.
REFERENCES
Chapra, S.C. & Hamilton, D.P. & Patterson, J.C. 1998. Surface Water Quality Modeling. McGraw-Hill.
Cole, T.M. & Wells, S.A. 2000. CE-QUAL-W2: A Two Dimensional, Laterally Averaged, Hydrodynamic
and Water Quality Model, Version3, User Manual. Prepared for U.S Army Corps of Engineers Waterway
Experiment Station.
Cole, T.M. & Wells, S.A. 2001. CE-QUAL-W2: Appendix A, Hydrodynamics and Transport Equations.
www.ce.pdx.edu/w2
Cole, T.M. & Wells, S.A. 2001. CE-QUAL-W2: Appendix B, Water Quality Equations. www.ce.pdx.edu/w2
Cole, T.M. & Wells, S.A. 2001. CE-QUAL-W2: Appendix C, input Data Description. www.ce.pdx.edu/w2
Ippen, A. 1996. Estuary and coastline hydrodynamics. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Savenije, H.G. 1993. Predictive model for salt intrusion in estuaries. Journal of Hydrology, 148, pp 203–218.
Sweco. 1976. Abadan Island and Irrigation Project Report. Khusestan Water and Power Authority, Mahab
Ghods.
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Thermorheological effect on Bénard and Marangoni convections in

anisotropic porous media
P.G. Siddheshwar
Department of Mathematics, Bangalore University, Central College Campus, Bangalore, India
A.T. Chan
Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong, China
ABSTRACT: The effects of thermorheology and thermomechanical anisotropy on the onset of

Rayleigh-Bénard and Bénard-Marangoni convections in porous media are studied using the higher
order Rayleigh-Ritz technique. A linear relationship between viscosity and temperature is shown
to be insufficient to bring out the destabilizing nature of temperature-dependent liquid viscosity.
The need for considering quadratic-dependency of viscosity on temperature is highlighted. It is
shown that increasing the horizontal effective thermal diffusivity has opposing influence to that of
increasing horizontal permeability on the onset of convection and also on the cell size at the time
of onset. The quite general study throws light on many aspects of the problem in flows through low
and high porosity media, including media with porosity unity.
1 INTRODUCTION
It is well known that density difference in a fluid-saturated porous media caused by differential
adverse-heating of the bounding horizontal planes leads to overturning of the fluid if the temperature
difference exceeds a critical value. This is, as we know, the analog in porous media of the classical
Rayleigh-Bénard problem. A good account of many aspects of this problem is given in Vafai (2000)
& Rudraiah et al. (2003). These works, most of them at least, assume the liquid viscosity to be
uninfluenced by temperature and in other words the ‘thermorheological effect’has been discounted.
In recognition of the intricate nature of the flow through porous media, quite naturally attention
was focused on anisotropy in mechanical and thermal properties given rise to by the packing and
the nature of the packed materials making up the porous media. A number of articles have thus
far appeared on the topic (see Vafai 2000 and references therein). In the paper we endeavor to
see the combined effect of thermorheology and thermo-mechanical anisotropy on the onset of
Rayleigh-Bénard and Bénard-Marangoni convections in porous media. The problem has, as we
know, relevance in a wide variety of geophysical, space and technological applications.
2 MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION AND SOLUTION FOR RAYLEIGH-BÉNARD

CONVECTION
We consider a layer of a non-Darcy porous medium, of thickness h and of infinite horizontal

extent, saturated with an Oberbeck-Boussinesq fluid. Among the non-Darcy effects considered
are anisotropy in permeability and effective thermal diffusivity, and the temperature-dependent
Brinkman and Darcy resistances. The very nature of the model equation considered allows one to
handle both low and high porosity media, including media of porosity unity.
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The governing equations for Rayleigh-Bénard convection in porous media with thermorheo-
logical and thermo-mechanical anisotropy effects are:
where q = (u,v,w) is the velocity vector, ρ0 the density at a reference temperature T0 , φ the porosity
of the media, t the time, p the pressure, g is the acceleration due to gravity, α is the coefficient
of thermal expansion, γ (>0) represents the coefficient of temperature dependent viscosity, µ
the dynamic viscosity of the fluid in the absence of porous media, µB the Brinkman viscosity of
the fluid, Q = (uî + vĵ + wk̂) is an adjusted velocity for the system, ε = Kh /Kv is the mechanical
anisotropy parameter (MAP), Kh and Kv the permeability in the horizontal and vertical directions,
Tr the transpose, M the ratio of effective specific heat of fluid-saturated porous medium to specific
heat of fluid, T the temperature, η = χh /χv is the thermal anisotropy parameter (TAP), χh and χv
are the effective thermal diffusivities in the horizontal and vertical directions. In writing Equation
3 we have assumed thermal equilibrium between the solid and the liquid.
To show the contribution from the solid and fluid parts of the system, the subscripts s and f are
used to denote the solid and fluid phases respectively. The other quantities used are
The lower and upper boundaries are respectively maintained at temperatures T0 + T and T0 .
When T is not sufficiently large to cause overturning of the fluid we have a motionless conduction
state given by
where
We do not require the expressions of the other basic state quantities for furthering the analysis
and hence these are not recorded here. When T is increased the aforementioned quiescent state is
perturbed leading to deviation of the physical quantities from the basic state values. So we assume
where the primed quantities are infinitesimal perturbations, whose products are small enough to
be neglected. Substituting Equation 6 into Equations 1–3, substituting the quiescent state solution
in the resulting equation, eliminating the pressure and horizontal velocity components, we get
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z-component of vorticity transport equation for steady motions occurring at onset of convection in
the form
where use has been made of the following definitions
and f(z*) = 1 − z*2 . The notation D in Equation 7 denotes differentiation with respect to z. We
note here that f(z*) = 1 corresponds to a constant viscosity fluid, i.e. = 0. Stress-free and perfectly
heat-conducting boundaries yield the condition
The normal mode solution for stationary convection that satisfies boundary conditions 10 is
in which kx and ky are the wave numbers in the x and y directions respectively. Equations 7 and 8,
on using Equation 11, take the following form
where a2 = k2x + k2y is the square of the horizontal wave number. The system of Equations 12 and
13 together with the aforementioned boundary conditions 10 poses an eigenvalue problem for R. It
should be noted that the problem under consideration cannot have a closed form solution owing to
the presence of space varying coefficients in Equation 12. Applying the higher order Rayleigh-Ritz
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Figure 1. Plot of critical Rayleigh number RC . versus Brinkman number ( for different values of the viscosity
parameter and for ε = 1.2, η = 1.2, Da−1 = 100.
technique to the system of eigenvalue Equations 12 and 13 and by considering the following series
expansions
we get a system of linear algebraic equations in αi and βi from which we can obtain the eigenvalue
and the associated wave number by invoking the condition of singularity of the coefficient matrix
for the homogeneous system to have a non-trivial solution. The vanishing determinant yields a
polynomial equation for R with coefficients depending on the wave number ‘a’ and the parameters
of the problems, viz., Da−1 , (, , ε and η. In our computation using Mathematica 5.0 on a work
station we took n = 5 in the above summation that ensured convergence of the solution. We now
move on to consider Bénard-Marangoni convection in anisotropic porous media.
3 BÉNARD-MARANGONI CONVECTION
We next analyze the stability of Marangoni convection. We omit the details here as the development
leading to the two-point boundary value problem for Marangoni convection overlaps to a great extent
with that of Rayleigh-Bénard convection discussed earlier. Equation 12 (with R = 0) and 13 are
solved subject to the following boundary conditions:
where Maeff = (ρ0 σ1 βh2 /µχv )(φ/(1 − φ)(χv )s /(χv )f + φ) is the Marangoni number. Equation (16)
signifies the use of rigid, thermally-conducting lower boundary and free, thermally-insulating non-
deformable upper surface. The apposite trial functions satisfying the boundary conditions 16 are
wi = (z − 1) zi+1 and Ti = (2z3 − 3z2 )i .
The effect of thermorheology, TAP and MAP on Rayleigh-Bénard and Bénard-Marangoni porous
convections is studied using a five-term Rayleigh-Ritz expansion. Thermorheology is brought in
through viscosity as a quadratic function of temperature. In the absence of the non-Boussinesq
thermorheological effect and for isotropic porous media, we recover the classical results reported
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Figure 2. Plot of RC versus mechanical anisotropy parameter (MAP) ε for different values of and for
( = 1.2, η = 1.2, Da−1 = 100.
Figure 3. Plot of RC versus thermal anisotropy parameter (TAP) η for different values of and for ( = 1.2,
ε = 1.2, Da−1 = 100.
Figure 4. Plot of critical Marangoni number MaC versus ( for different values of and for ε = 1.2, η = 1.2,
and Da−1 = 100.
in Nield & Bejan (1992) and Saghir et al. (1998). It is the intention of the paper to consider the
aforementioned three effects in the classical problems. The validity of the principle of exchange
of stabilities can safely be assumed in the case of thermal convection in porous media, for both
isotropic and anisotropic, on the reason that the porous matrix essentially stabilizes the flow. We do
not expect the situation to change in the presence of thermorheological effect. The validity of the
principle of exchange of stabilities can also be inferred upon mathematically quite easily by using
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Figure 5. Plot of MaC versus ε for different values of and for ( = 1.2, η = 1.2, and Da−1 = 100.
Figure 6. Plot of MaC versus η for different values of and for ( = 1.2, ε = 1.2, and Da−1 = 100.
the Routh-Hurwitz criterion and the Rayleigh-Ritz technique. The details are omitted here due to
paucity of space.
We now discuss the results in Figures 1–6. It is clear from Figures 1–3 that increasing values
of ( and/or η is to stabilize the system. In contrast, the parameters and ε have opposite effect
on convection. It is important to note here that the assumption of a linear dependency of viscosity
on temperature leads to the result that the thermorheological effect is stabilizing! It is imperative
therefore that the viscosity-temperature dependency has to be, at least, quadratic.
Clearly from all the above figures we realize the fact that the thermorheological effect is to
destabilize the system in keeping with physical expectancy. Figures 4–6 spell out analogous results
for the Bénard-Marangoni problem in porous media. Analyzing the results it is apparent that there
is a more marked influence of on convection in the case of Bénard-Marangoni compared to
Rayleigh-Bénard.
REFERENCES
Nield, D.A. & Bejan, A. 1992. Convection in porous media. New York: Springer.
Pearson, J.R.A. 1958. On convection cells induced by surface tension. Journal of Fluid Mechanics 4: 489–500.
Rudraiah, N., Siddheshwar, P.G. & Masuoka, T. 2003. Non-linear convection in porous media: A review.
Journal of Porous Media 6: 1–32.
Saghir, M.Z., Hennenberg, M. & Legros, J.C. 1998. Marangoni convection in a square porous cavity.
International Journal of Computational Fluid Dynamics 9: 111–119.
Vafai, K. 2000. Handbook of porous media. New York: Marcel Dekker.
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Electroconvection in aqueous solutions of polymeric liquids
P.G. Siddheshwar
C.V. Srikrishna
Department of Mathematics, East Point College of Engineering and Technology, Bangalore, India
ABSTRACT: The linear stability analysis of electroconvection in aqueous solution of polymeric

liquid is investigated when a uniform vertical DC electric field is applied. The polymeric liquid
is assumed to be viscoelastic with a Jeffrey constitutive equation. The eigenvalue of the problem is
obtained for free-free and isothermal boundary combination. The preferred mode of convection is
oscillatory and it has been observed that the effect of applied electric field is to stabilize convective
motions. The stress relaxation and the strain retardation parameters have opposing influence on
stability of the convective system. The study finds applications in solidification of polymeric
liquids, manufacture of composite materials and allied fields.
1 INTRODUCTION
In recent years there has been considerable interest in generating either electrically conducting or
semi-conducting systems of conjugated polymers, which lead to the manufacturing of non-linear
materials. The polymers and polymeric liquids are usually electrically non-conducting. It is a well-
established fact that salts added to these liquids induce electrical conductivity and this aspect throws
open new fields of application. Electroconvection can be studied under two assumptions:
(i) variable electrical permittivity with constant electrical conductivity.
(ii) variable electrical conductivity with constant electrical permittivity.
The former problem has been extensively studied (Siddheshwar 1999, 2002 and references
therein) and the latter almost remains untouched. In the paper, we consider latter problem in
polymeric liquids, which have a wide range of cation/anion salts dissolved in them. In the type of
electroconvection we consider, a poorly electrically conducting polymeric liquid layer heated from
above and a temperature gradient along the direction of gravity is maintained across the liquid layer.
The temperature gradient induces the electrical charges in the liquid and responds to an applied
electric field to produce convective motion.
2 MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION AND SOLUTION
We consider an aqueous solution of a poorly electrically conducting polymeric liquid between

two horizontal plates. The upper plate is perfectly conducting and is maintained at zero electric
potential. The lower plate is embedded with segmented electrodes and a time-invariant electric
potential is imposed in the form
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Figure 1. Physical configuration.
where α is the wave number. The schematic diagram of the above is shown in Figure 1. The liquid
is uniformly heated from above so that the upper boundary is at a higher temperature than the lower
boundary, i.e. T1 > T0 . The polymeric liquid is assumed to be viscoelastic and describable by the
Jeffrey constitutive equation
where λ1 and λ2 are stress relaxation and strain retardation times, τij is the stress tensor, µ is the
dynamic co-efficient of viscosity and qi is the ith component of velocity vector. Since the liquid
is assumed to be a poor electrical conductor, the electric field may be considered as irrotational.
Thus the electrical equations are
in which the Ohmic conduction law is assumed. In Equation 3, ρe is the charge density, Ji is the
current density component, Ei is the component of the electric field, σ is the electrical conductivity
and ε is the permittivity. The Equations in 3 may be combined as
where we have assumed that the convection current is smaller than conduction current. The time
dependent term is neglected since the imposed electric potential is time invariant. Our analysis is
based on the assumption that density and electrical conductivity of the liquid are linear functions
of the temperature while diffusivity, viscosity and permittivity are constants. For mathematical
tractability the problem is analyzed for stress-free and isothermal boundary combination. Thus the
governing equations are
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where αt is the coefficient of volume expansion, αs the analog of αt and other quantities have their
usual meaning.
3 BASIC STATE
The basic state of the liquid is quiescent and is described by
where Tb = T0 + T/h (z + h/2), which is obtained using the conditions Tb = T0 at z = −h/2 and
Tb = T0 + T at z = h/2.
4 LINEAR STABILITY THEORY
We now superimpose infinitesimal perturbations on the basic state in the form
where the primes denote perturbed state quantities and subscript b denotes basic state. We limit
ourselves to two dimensional convection and introduce the stream function ψ(x, y, t) as
Substituting Equation 13 in Equations 5–10, using the basic state quantities, eliminating the
pressure by cross differentiation and non-dimensionalizing the resulting equations, we get
where Pr = γ/χ (Prandtl number), R = (gαt (−β)h4 )/νχ (thermal Rayleigh number), 1 = λ1 χ/h2
(stress relaxation parameter), 2 = λ2 χ/h2 (strain retardation parameter), R = (εαs (−β)V2 h)/ρ0 νχ
(electric Rayleigh number) and other quantities have their usual meaning. In writing the momentum
equation, we have used the combined electric equation in the dimensionless form
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We first solve Equation 16 for and substitute the same in Equation 14. As mentioned earlier
the electric potential at the upper boundary is assumed to be zero and that of the lower boundary
to be spatially periodic and so we have
where " = (2n + 1). On solving Equation 16 subject to the boundary conditions 17, we get
In arriving at the above solution, we have followed Lee et al. (1972) and assumed that the reaction
of the flow on the electric field is negligibly small. Also the constant B that appears in the above
equation is dealt in the context of Rayleigh-Ritz technique. It also helps us in dealing with the
problem as an eigenvalue problem. This expression for in Equation 18 is now substituted into
Equation 14.
5 NORMAL MODE ANALYSIS
The infinitesimal perturbations ψ and T are assumed to be periodic and hence this permits the
normal mode solution for free-free isothermal boundaries the form
Using Equation 19 in Equations 14 and 15, we get the expression for the oscillatory Rayleigh
number R and the frequency ω in the form
where δ2 = π2 + α2 and Q = 2 / 1 . From the expression 21 we note that the necessary condition
for oscillatory motion is that Q < 1.
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The objective of the paper is to investigate oscillatory electroconvection in slightly conducting

aqueous solutions of a polymeric liquid for free-free and isothermal boundary combination. The
eigenvalue is obtained by employing the Rayleigh-Ritz technique. Figure 2(a) depicts the stabilizing
effect of electric Rayleigh number, RE , a measure of strength of the applied electric field, on the
stability of the electroconvective system. The effect of RE on square of the critical wave number, α2c
is shown in Figure 2(b). From the figure we note that the effect of increasing electric potential is to
contract the horizontal scale of cells at the onset of convection. Figure 2(c) illustrates the effect of
RE on the square of the critical frequency ωc2 . The increase in ωc2 is due to the applied electric field
acting as a restoring force. The effects of the stress relaxation parameter, 1 and the scaled strain
retardation parameter, Q on Rc are shown respectively in Figures 3(a) and 3(b). For a given strength
of electric field, 1 and Q have opposing influences on the thermal stability of the polymeric liquid.
Figure 2a. Plot of critical Rayleigh number Figure 2b. Plot of square of critical wave number α2c
RC vs. electric Rayleigh number RE . vs. RE .
Figure 2c. Plot of square of critical frequency, ωc2 vs. RE .
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Figure 3a. Plot of RC vs. Stress relaxation parame- Figure 3b. Plot of RC vs. scaled strain retardation
ter, 1 . parameter, Q.
Increase in 1 augments the onset of convection whereas Q delays it. We also observe from the
numerical computations of the study that for oscillatory motion to set in there exists a cut-off values
of 1 and Q, viz., c1 and Qc . Further these cut-off values are independent of RE . The effect of
increase in the values of all the viscoelastic parameters is to elongate the horizontal scale of cells
and dampen the oscillations of convective motion.
REFERENCES
Lee, C.H., Kim, M.U. & Kim, I.I. 1972. Electrohydrodynamic cellular bulk convection induced by a
temperature gradient. Physics of Fluids 13: 789–795.
Siddheshwar, P.G. 1999. Rayleigh-Benard convection in a second-order ferromagnetic fluid with second sound.
Proceedings of VIII Asian Congress of Fluid Mechanics: 631–634. Shenzhen, China.
Siddheshwar, P.G. 2002. Oscillatory convection in ferromagnetic, dielectric and viscoelastic liquids.
International. Journal of Modern Physics B 16: 2629–2635.
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chap-63 20/9/2004 16: 37 page 483

Dispersion of solute in a fully-developed flow of a

Boussinesq-Stokes suspension
P.G. Siddheshwar
R.P. Thangaraj
Department of Mathematics, VLB Janakiammal College of Arts and Science, Kovaipudur, Coimbatore, India
ABSTRACT: An exact analysis of unsteady convective diffusion of passive solute in combined

free and forced convective flow of a Boussinesq-Stokes suspension through a parallel plate chan-
nel with axial variation of temperature along the bounding walls is presented. Following Gill and
Sankarasubramanian (1970) the most dominant dispersion coefficient as a function of the sus-
pension parameter ‘a’, Grashof number G and dimensional time τ is obtained. At small time it
is observed that the most dominant dispersion coefficient curve becomes steeper as G increases.
At long times it levels off to the value of the Taylor regime or the Aris regime depending on the
Peclet number value. In the presence of G and for large values, the dispersion coefficient reaches its
steady state value much earlier than in its absence. The problem has applications in chromatography,
nuclear reactors and allied problems.
1 INTRODUCTION
The external regulation of dispersion in plane-parallel flows is very important from the point of
view of applications. One way of regulating dispersion is by means of influencing the flow by
appropriate thermal means at the boundaries. Miscible dispersion of passive solute also depends on
the fluid solvent. Many applications involve solvents with micron-sized suspended particles and
this results in change of solvent viscosity. The particles also have relative spin with respect to the
solvent. Stokes’ couple stress fluid (see Stokes 1966) is one such fluid which models suspensions.
The unsteady convective diffusion of passive solute in this fluid has been analyzed by Rudraiah et al.
(1986). The bounding walls in the problem were assumed by them to be solvent impermeable. To
the knowledge of the authors, no work seems to have addressed the problem of regulated dispersion
in suspensions. It is the objective of this paper to study this problem.
The physical configuration consists of a horizontal channel separated by a distance ‘2h’. Schematic
diagram of the physical configuration and description of the initial slug input of concentration is
shown in Figure 1. The x∗ -axis is along the plates and y*-axis perpendicular to the plates. Consider
the flow of a viscous incompressible fluid in the channel. At a large distance from the entry section,
the flow will be fully developed and in the steady state all the physical variables (except pressure)
will be functions of y∗ only.
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Figure 1. Schematic illustration of a parallel plate channel with description of the initial concentration
slug input.
where η is the Stokes’ viscosity. The boundary conditions are
The first two boundary conditions in 3 signify the no-slip boundary condition and the last
two the vanishing couple-stress at the boundary. The equation of state under the Boussinesq
approximation is assumed to be
Assuming uniform axial temperature variation along the walls, the temperature of the fluid can be
written as
By virtue of Equation 5, Equations 1 and 2 give
where ψ = ψ(x∗ ) appears as a y-integration constant. We now introduce the following dimensionless
variables in Equation 6
The Equation 6, for velocity u(y), on non-dimensionalization, becomes
where
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The solution of Equation 7 subject to assumed boundary conditions 3 is given by
The dimensional mass balance equation in the fully developed flow given by Equation 8 is
Initial and boundary conditions on the concentration c(t, x∗ , y∗ ) are
where c0 is the concentration of the initial slug input of length x∗s . We now introduce the following
dimensionless variables
Non-dimensionalizing Equation 9 using Equation 11, we get
1
where U∗ = (u − ū)/ū, ū = 12 −1 u dy, Pe = ūh/D is the Peclet number and ξ = X − τ is the dimen-
sionless axial coordinate moving with the average velocity ū. The non-dimensional initial and
boundary conditions on θ(τ, ξ, y) for solving Equation 12 are
We write θ in terms of θm and its ξ-derivatives, on physical grounds, as
where
is the mean concentration distribution. Equation 14 indicates that the magnitude difference between
actual concentration θ and mean concentration θm is due to additive contributions of convective
and molecular diffusions. In what follows we adopt the procedure of Gill and Sankarasubramanian
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(1970) to arrive at an expression for the dispersion coefficient. We assume that the process of
distributing θ is diffusive in nature right from time zero and hence the generalized dispersion
model with time dependent coefficient is
where K(τ) can be obtained, following Gill and Sankarasubramanian (1970), as
Equation 16 is solved subject to the conditions
The solution of Equation 16 subject to 18 is
3 CONCLUSIONS
Dispersion of solute in combined free and forced convective fully developed flow of a couple-stress
fluid is studied using a generalized dispersion model. The most dominant dispersion coefficient is
computed for different values of τ, a and G. The results of the same are plotted in the Figures 2–3.
These figures show that when G = 0, the dispersion coefficient decreases with increase in the value
of ‘a’ for very small values of τ, whereas for non-zero values of G, K increases with increase of ‘a’
and ‘G’. Further, K values are spaced out for very small values of τ ≤ 0.45 and become steady and
are closer when τ > 0.75 for all values of ‘a’. It is interesting to note that for all values of τ and G,
K is a constant when a 1, meaning that τ and G have no effect on the most dominant dispersion
coefficient for very small values of ‘a’. The effect of G on K is very significant when τ is very
small and the effect is not so significant for large values of τ. For the values of G ≥ 10 it has been
observed that K reaches a fixed value. That is, when G ≥ 10, K becomes τ-independent.
Figure 4 is a plot of the mean concentration distribution θm (x, τ) for different values of a and
G = 0. In the figure pure convection corresponds to θm when the analysis is carried out with
Equation 10 minus the diffusion term. The graph clearly delineates the individual contributions of
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Figure 2. Plot of K(τ) − Pe−2 vs. τ for a = 0.5. Figure 3. Plot of K(τ) − Pe−2 vs. τ for a = 1.
Figure 4. Plot of θm vs. x for G = 0 and for different Figure 5. Plot of θm vs. x for G = 0.5 and for different
values of a. values of a.
diffusion and convection. It is also evident from the figure that the effect of increasing ‘a’ is to
increase the vertical extent of the θm -x curve in keeping with the variation of K(τ) with ‘a’. One
gets a similar result in a graph depicting the variation of θm with τ. This is not included in the paper
on reasons of paucity of space. Figure 4 is the θm -x curve for G = 0 and the effect of G on the
concentration distribution curve is shown in the Figure 5. It is apparent from the Figure 5 that the
effect of increasing G is to decrease the peak value of the mean concentration. Further, this means
that the concentration is more distributed in the x direction for larger and larger values of G.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work was supported by the UGC Centre for Advanced Studies in Fluid Mechanics, Department
of Mathematics, Bangalore University, India. The author (RPT) is grateful to the management of
VLB Janakiammal College of Arts and Science, Coimbatore for encouragement and support.
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REFERENCES
Gill, W.M. & Sankarasubramanian, R., 1970. Exact analysis of unsteady convective diffusion. Proceedings of
Royal Society of London A 316: 341–350.
Rudraiah, N., Dulal Pal & Siddheshwar, P.G. 1986. Effects of couple stresses on the unsteady convective
diffusion in fluid flow through a channel. Biorheology 23: 349–358.
Stokes, V.K. 1966. Couple stresses in fluids. Physics of Fluids 9: 1709–1715.
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Linear and weakly non-linear analyses of convection in a

micropolar fluid
P.G. Siddheshwar
S. Pranesh
Department of Mathematics, Christ College, Hosur Road, Bangalore, India
ABSTRACT: Linear and weakly non-linear analyses of Rayleigh-Benard convection in a microp-

olar fluid are made. The condition for stationary and oscillatory modes in the case of linear theory
is obtained using a Rayleigh-Ritz techinque for general boundary conditions on velocity and tem-
perature. The non-linear analysis for the case of free-free isothermal boundaries is based on the
truncated representation of Fourier series. A striking feature of the study is that stationary convec-
tion is shown to be the physically realizable mode whereas oscillatory convection is theoretically
predicted to occur for certain values of the parameters. The Nusselt number is calculated for differ-
ent values of Rayleigh number and other parameters arising in the problem. There is no indication
of subcritical motions from the nonlinear analysis.
1 INTRODUCTION
Many authors have investigated the problem of Rayleigh-Benard convection in Eringen’s micropolar
fluid and concluded that the stationary convection is the preferred mode (see Siddheshwar & Pranesh
2002, Straughan, 2004). Few (Siddheshwar & Pranesh 2002) have studied non-linear stability using
energy methods and the focus has been on finite amplitude Rayleigh number. In the aforementioned
works concerning linear stability the conditions used are those of free/rigid isothermal/adiabatic
boundaries. In many practical situations the boundaries may be permeable and hence one needs to
consider slip at the boundaries. Siddheshwar (1995) considered such a boundary condition while
studying Rayleigh-Benard convection in ferromagnetic fluids. It is also well known that from
the practical point of view that it is difficult to practically realize the isothermal and adiabatic
boundaries (Platten & Legros 1984). The use of third type boundary condition on temperature is
therefore warranted. In the present paper we consider a general boundary condition on velocity
and a third type boundary condition on temperature. In the case of all works concerning non-linear
stability using energy methods the focus has been on finite amplitude Rayleigh number. None of
the works, however, quantify the heat transfer and so in the present work this is addressed.
Consider a layer of a Boussinesquian micropolar fluid confined between two infinite horizon-
tal permeable plates distant ‘d’ apart. A cartesian coordinate system is considered. Let T be
the temperature difference between the lower and upper permeable plates. The basic governing
equations are
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Introducing finite amplitude perturbations on the quiescent basic state of the fluid, non-
dimensionalizing Equations 2–4 and introducing the stream function ψ we get the governing
dimensionless equations in the form
where N1 = ζ/ζ + η is the coupling parameter, N2 = I/d 2 is the inertia parameter, N3 = η /(ζ + η)d 2
is the couple stress parameter, N5 = β/ρ0 CV d 2 is the micropolar heat conduction number,
R = αgTρ0 d 3 /(ζ + η)χ is the Rayleigh number, the Pr = ζ + η/χρ0 is the Prandtl number and
J(·,·) is the Jacobian. Equations 6–8 are solved using a general boundary condition on velocity, a
third type boundary condition on temperature and vanishing spin boundaries. Hence the chosen
boundary conditions are (Siddheshwar 1995):
√ √
where DL = αh/ kL and DU = αh/ kU are respectively the slip Darcy numbers for the lower and
upper boundaries (see Straughan 2004) and BiL and DiU are the corresponding Biot numbers (see
Siddheshwar 1995).
3 LINEAR STABILITY THEORY
We seek the solution of the linearized versions of Equations 6–8 using the normal mode analysis
and elaborate algebra on the resulting equations leads to the expression of the Rayleigh number
using which we discuss the marginal state and overstable state. Following standard procedure, the
oscillatory Rayleigh number Ro is obtained as
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where
The expression for the stationary Rayleigh number can be obtained by taking ω = 0 in
Equation 10.
4 NON-LINEAR THEORY FOR DL = DU = 0 AND BIL = BIU = ∞
The truncated system which describes the finite-amplitude free convection is given by
where the amplitudes A, B, C and D are to be determined from the dynamics of the system.
Substituting Equations 11 and 12 into Equations 6–8 and equating the coefficients of like terms
we obtain the fourth order Lorenz model
where over dot denotes time derivative. The Lorenz system is not amenable to analytical treatment
for the general time-dependent variables and we have to solve it using a numerical method. In the
case of steady motions, however, these equations can be solved analytically. Setting the left hand
side of Equations 13–16 equal to zero, we get
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5 HEAT TRANSPORT
The heat transport can be quantified by a Nusselt number expression given by
The linear stability analysis of the problem for general velocity and temperature conditions has
been studied with the help of the usual normal mode analysis and in what follows we discuss the
results.
(i) The results in respect of stationary convection are similar to that obtained by Siddheshwar and
Pranesh (2002) and references therein. The results documented in Tables 1 and 2 elucidate the
fact that permeable boundaries lead to early convection compared to free-free boundaries but
delayed convection to that of rigid-rigid boundaries for both isothermal/adiabatic conditions.
(ii) Exhaustive computation reveals that oscillatory convection is possible only for small values
of N3 (<1). We may also conclude that in a certain domain of dimensionless parameters it is
possible to observe oscillatory convection.
We also note here that the critical Rayleigh number for these ranges of parameters requires
very large values of ωc2 . This does not seem to be physically realizable. The results of nonlinear
stability analysis are discussed further.
(iii) Sub-critical instabilities are not possible in micropolar fluids in the absence of external con-
straints and/or additional diffusing components. Figure 1 is a plot of Nusselt number Nu versus
Table 1. Tabulated values of critical Rayleigh number Rm

c and critical wave number ac for N1 = 0.1, N3 = 2.0,
N5 = 1.0, DL = 106 and different parameter values.
BiL = 106 , BiU = 106 BiL = 10−6 , BiU = 106 BiL = 10−6 , BiU = 10−6 BiL = 106 , BiU = 10−6
DU = 106 DU = 106 DU = 106 DU = 106
DL Rm
c ac Rm
c ac Rm
c ac Rm
c ac
103 2018.326 0.990 1668.431 0.762 831.655 0.0 1673.188 0.762

10 1787.189 0.962 1316.684 0.746 965.502 0.0 1542.718 0.747
1 1436.339 0.880 908.988 0.678 444.285 0.0 1223.824 0.679
10−1 1330.738 0.852 809.573 0.655 378.551 0.0 1115.877 0.655
10−2 1318.082 0.849 798.220 0.652 371.137 0.0 1102.859 0.652
BiL = 106 , BiU = 106 BiL = 10−6 , BiU = 106 BiL = 10−6 , BiU = 10−6 BiL = 106 , BiU = 10−6
DU = 10−6 DU = 10−6 DU = 10−6 DU = 10−6
DL Rm
c ac Rm
c ac Rm
c ac Rm
c ac
103 1143.702 0.817 915.136 0.626 293.610 0.0 681.075 0.629

10 1040.533 0.801 765.178 0.617 256.085 0.0 641.025 0.618
1 849.144 0.738 543.208 0.569 170.687 0.0 523.700 0.569
10−1 778.597 0.712 476.496 0.548 142.562 0.0 474.583 0.548
10−2 769.653 0.708 468.486 0.545 139.218 0.0 468.295 0.545
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Table 2. Tabulated values of critical Rayleigh number Rm c and critical wave number ac for
N1 = 0.1, N3 = 2.0, N5 = 1.0, BiL = 106 and different parameter values.
DL = 10−6 , DU = 10−6 DL = 106 , DU = 10−6 DL = 106 , DU = 106

BiU = 106 BiU = 106 BiU = 106
BiL Rm
c ac Rm
c ac Rm
c ac
103 767.657 0.706 1144.646 0.817 2020.623 0.989

10 696.372 0.684 1099.387 0.793 1928.985 0.958
1 544.891 0.607 990.526 0.692 1764.278 0.842
10−1 478.089 0.556 928.480 0.631 1687.693 0.773
10−2 468.671 0.547 918.708 0.623 1675.962 0.760
DL = 10−6 , DU = 10−6 DL = 106 , DU = 10−6 DL = 106 , DU = 106

BiU = 10−6 BiU = 10−6 BiU = 10−6
BiL Rm
c ac Rm
c ac Rm
c ac
103 466.826 0.545 680.794 0.629 1672.534 0.762

10 409.635 0.524 625.233 0.604 1522.570 0.733
1 269.935 0.419 475.021 0.481 1175.863 0.589
10−1 180.560 0.258 357.686 0.298 949.783 0.368
10−2 151.584 0.148 314.167 0.170 869.968 0.212
Figure 1. Plot of Nusselt number Nu vs. Rayleigh number R for different values of N1 .
Rayleigh number R for different values of N1 . It is observed from these figures that increase in
R increases Nu, i.e. the heat transport is increased. The conduction value of Nu = 1 for R ≤ Rc
is observed in the results depicted on the Nu–R plane and this is indicative of the absence of
sub-critical motions. This reaffirms the finding of Straughan (2004).
REFERENCES
Platten, J.K. & Legros, J.C. 1984. Convection in liquids. New York: Springer.
Siddheshwar P.G. & Pranesh, S. 2002. Magnetoconvection in fluids with suspended particles under 1 g and
µg. International Journal of Aerospace Science and Technology 6: 105–114.
Siddheshwar, P.G. 1995. Convective instability of ferromagnetic fluids bounded by fluid-permeable boundaries.
Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials 149: 148–150.
Straughan, B. 2004. The energy method, stability and non-linear convection. New York: Springer.
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Dispersion in a Hagen-Poiseuille flow of Casson fluid
P.G. Siddheshwar
S. Markande
Department of Mathematics, ICFAI Institute of Science and Technology, Gottigere, Bangalore, India
ABSTRACT: The influence of interphase mass transfer on dispersion of solute in a tube flow of
a Casson fluid is examined at all times after the injection of the solute. Three important dispersion
mechanisms are shown to arise in the study in place of two in classical studies. The situation is
representative of local situations in twin-coil dialysers and such other artificial kidneys. The present
analytical result on dispersion of solute with wall catalyzed reaction at long times is compared with
the analytical solution when reaction is absent. The Taylor (1953) and Aris (1956) regimes of
dispersion are obtained as limiting cases from the study. The graphical results of the study serve
as a jury on any numerical treatment of the present problem that might be undertaken considering
non-asymptotic all-time analysis.
1 INTRODUCTION
The first analytical description of the dispersion of soluble material in fluid flow was given by
Taylor (1953) who pointed out that the dispersion relies on dispersion across a velocity shear.
Taylor examined the dispersion of solute in laminar and turbulent flows in circular pipes and
presented a theory that was applicable at asymptotically long times. Aris (1956) extended Taylor’s
theory to include longitudinal diffusion. Barton (1983) resolved certain technical difficulties in
the Aris method of moments and obtained a dispersion coefficient which is valid for all times.
Gill & Sankarasubramanian (1970) proposed a different method to study dispersion and obtained
a model that is valid for all times. The solvent considered in all the aforementioned works is
Newtonian. Also the solute is assumed in these works to be non-reactive, i.e. there is neither
homogeneous nor heterogeneous chemical reaction. The assumption of Newtonian non-reactive
solvent may be quite restrictive in some applications. In view of this Sankarasubramanian & Gill
(1973) analysed dispersion affected by heterogeneous chemical reaction of solute at the wall of the
tube. He, however, considered a Newtonian solvent. Dispersion in other continuum fluid flows has
also been investigated (Siddheshwar & Markande 1999, Siddheshwar et al. 2000). In the present
paper we consider a solvent which subscribes to a Cassonian fluid description. We provide an
analytical treatment of dispersion of both passive and reactive solutes in a Hagen-Poiseuille flow
of a Cassonian solvent. The problem has possible applications in extracorporeal biomechanical
applications, in environmental problems and in chromatography.
The physical situation consists of a rigid cylindrical tube at the walls of which dilute miscible solute
disappears at a rate proportional to the solute concentration C (Fig. 1). The fully developed velocity
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Figure 1. Schematic of the flow configuration anddescription of initial slug input configuration.
of a Casson fluid is (Kooijman & Van Zanten 1972)
where U = u/u0 , Y = r/R,Yc = Rc /R, and u0 = −R2 /4η, Px is the center-line Hagen-Poiseuille veloc-
ity and Rc is the critical radius which arises due to plug flow nature of the Casson fluid. We introduce
the following dimensionless groups in arriving at the above equations:
The local concentration of the dilute solute satisfies the unsteady convective diffusion equation
(Sankarasubramanian & Gill 1973)
subjected to the conditions
where β = ks R/D (reaction rate parameter). The solution of Equation 3, subject to conditions 4, is
now assumed in the form (Gill & Sankarasubramanian 1970)
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Following Sankarasubramanian & Gill (1973), we can arrive at the dispersion model
where Ki ’s are given by
Further we consider the simplest case of the initial concentration occupying the entire cross section
of the tube and we have ψ(Y) = 1. We now proceed and do only a long time analysis for the case
β = 0. The three coefficients appearing in Equation 6 are now given by
where
and µn ’s are the roots of µn J1 (µn ) = βJ0 (µn ), n = 0 (1) 10. The solution of Equation 6 for θm ,
subject to θm (τ, ∞) = 0, is
When β = 0, i.e., when there is no chemical reaction at the wall, we have K0 = 0 and f0 = 1.
Following the Gill & Sankarasubramanian (1970), we obtain K1 and K2 as
where
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and µj ’s are the roots of the equation J1 (µj ) = 0. With K0 = 0, and K1 , K2 given by Equation 14,
Equation 6 for θm can be written as
Equation 17 subject to the initial condition
can be solved in terms of error function (see Gill & Sankarasubramanian 1970).
In the paper we have modeled the solvent as a Casson fluid and studied dispersion of solute in
a Hagen-Poiseuille flow of this fluid considering heterogeneous-chemical reaction. The wall of
the tube acts as a catalyst to the reaction. The effect of wall reaction on dispersion is highlighted
against the background of the results in respect of no wall reaction. Both the studies are analytical
and the results serve as initial values for a much-needed numerical study of a more general problem.
The problem brings into focus three important dispersion mechanisms in the wall-reaction case as
against two in the classical no-wall-reaction case.
Figure 2 is the plot of the convective coefficient −K1 versus β for different values of Yc . Clearly
for the wall-reaction case −K1 increases with increase in β. We also observe that −K1 decreases
with increase in Yc . Increase in Yc indicates that more and more of the fluid enjoys the constant
velocity of plug flow and hence −K1 should naturally decrease. In contrast to the above effect of
β on −K0 and −K1 , it is found from Figure 3a that K2 decreases with increase in β. This is only to
be anticipated because increase in β signifies the increasing predominance of transverse transport
over molecular diffusion. Diminishing extent of plug flow (i.e., small Yc ) results in enhanced
diffusion as compared to transverse transport. We note here that in the case of channel flow an
eight fold decrease was observed. We also find from the Figure 3a that K2 decreases with increase
in Yc . Figure 3b predicts the possible range of K2 in case a numerical study of reaction modified
dispersion is performed. At long times the results of the study must coincide with the accurate
results of the present asymptotic study. Thus, these serve as jury to the numerical results and serve
as useful check values. Having discussed about the dispersive mechanism in the no-wall-reaction
and wall-reaction cases we now proceed to make observations on θm for β = 0 and then for β = 0.
Figure 4 is a plot of the mean concentration distribution θm against τ for β = 0 and for different
values of Yc . We observe from the figure that for observation points outside the input slug i.e.,
X > Xs, the concentrations are obviously less than at points inside the slug. We also see that θm
increases with increase of Yc for points inside and outside the input slug. We now go on to discuss
the results on the mean concentration distribution in the wall-reaction case i.e. β = 0. We note
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Figure 2. Plots of convection coefficient (−K1 ) versus wall reaction parameter β.
Figure 3a. Plots of dispersion coefficient

(K2 − 1/Pe2 ) 103 versus β. Figure 3b. Plots of (K2 − 1/Pe2 ) 1000 versus τ.
Figure 4. Plots of dimensionless mean concentration

θm versus τ. Figure 5. Plots of θm versus τ for different β’s.
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that in this case the mean concentration distribution is approximate at small and moderate times
but accurate at long times. Figure 5 is a plot of θm versus τ of both no-wall-reaction (β = 0) and
wall-reaction (β = 0) cases. It is amply clear the mean concentration distribution of β = 0 is much
over and above the one of β = 0. Also the mean concentration distribution in the Casson fluid is over
and above that of the Newtonian case. It is apt to mention here that at asymptotically long-times
the convective and diffusion coefficients of the tube flow are less than that of channel flow.
REFERENCES
Aris, R. 1956. On dispersion of a solute in a fluid flowing slowly through a tube. Proceedings of Royal Society
of London A 235: 67–77.
Barton, N.G. 1983. On the method of moments for solute dispersion. Journal of Fluid Mechanics 126: 205–218.
Gill, W.N. & Sankarasubramanian, R. 1970. Exact analysis of unsteady convective difusion. Proceedings of
Koojiman, J.M. & Van Zanten, D.C. 1972. The flow of a Cassonian fluid through parallel-plate channels and
through cylindrical tubes. Chemical Engineering Journal 4: 185–194.
Sankarasubramanian, R. & Gill, W.N. 1973. Dispersion from a prescribed concentration distribution in time
variable flow. Proceedings of Royal Society of London A 333: 115–223.
Siddheshwar, P.G. & Markande, S. 1999. Unsteady convective diffusion of a solute in micropolar fluid flow
through a cylindrical tube. ZAMM 79: 821–833.
Siddheshwar, P.G., Manjunath, S. & Markande, S. 2000. An exact analysis of unsteady convective diffusion
of solute in a powerlaw fluid part II Hagen Poiesueille flow. Chemical Engineering Communications 180:
209–229.
Taylor, G.I. 1953. Dispersion of soluble matter in solvent flowing slowly through a tube. Proceedings of Royal
Society of London A 219: 186–203.
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Dispersion in a plane-Poiseuille flow of Casson fluid
P.G. Siddheshwar
S. Manjunath
Department of Mathematics, BNM Institute of Technology, Bangalore, India
ABSTRACT: The influence of wall-catalyzed reaction on dispersion of solute in a Casson-fluid

flow is investigated and three important dispersion mechanisms are shown to arise in the study in
place of two in classical studies. The solvent (e.g. blood of healthy humans or diseased ones) is
modeled as a Casson fluid and the solute (e.g. medicine or tracer) is allowed to undergo reaction
with the bounding walls of the parallel plate channel. The situation is representative, in a good
measure, of situations in parallel-plate dialysers and such other artificial kidneys. The present
analytical result on dispersion of solute with wall catalyzed reaction at long times is compared
with the analytical solution when reaction is absent. The Taylor (1953) and Aris (1956) regimes
of dispersion are obtained as limiting cases from the study. The graphical results of the study
serve as a jury on any numerical study that might be undertaken considering non-asymptotic all-
time analysis. The results have implications in extracorporeal biomechanical applications and may
possibly answer “compatibility questions” of solvent and solute with the material of the dialyser
equipment.
1 INTRODUCTION
Engineering applications are good hunting ground for fluid dynamicists who have an eye for variety
and application. But the ground reality in practical situations warrants the use of “model geome-
tries”, fairly good, representative boundary conditions and apt “fluid modeling” and “process
modeling”. With this underlying philosophy that makes the problem mathematically manageable
we now embark on modeling the mass transfer process in a configuration which is a prototype
for many engineering problems like chlorine transport in water networks, conveyance of waste
or slurry through pipes etc. Most of the applications involve a carrier fluid with suspended par-
ticles. Siddheshwar & Manjunath (2000), Siddheshwar, et al. (2000), have considered a number
of continuums/micro continuum to analyze dispersion. In the paper we model the solvent (carrier
fluid + suspended particles) as Casson fluid and assume the solute to react with the walls which
act as a catalyst. The modeling of the dispersion problem is straight forward and involves the clas-
sical parabolic partial differential equation for solute transport (Fick’s second law) with third type
boundary condition. The “dispersion phenomena” is handled using the elegant tool provided by
Sankarasubramanian & Gill (1973) and Gill & Sankarasubramanian (1970) in their papers. The
problem has immense engineering applications.
The physical situation consists of a rigid parallel plate channel at the walls of which dilute mis-
cible solute disappears at a rate proportional to the solute concentration C (see Figure 1). The fully
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Y
Y=1
U(Y)
Y = Yc
X
Y = - Yc
Y=-1
Figure 1. Schematic of the flow configuration and description of initial slug input configuration.
developed velocity of a Casson fluid flowing through the channel is (Kooijman & Van Zanten 1972):
where U = u/u0 , Y = y/h, Yc = hc /h, and u0 = −h2 /4ηc ; hc is the critical height which arises due
to the plug flow nature of the Casson fluid. The local concentration of the solute satisfies the
non-convective diffusion equation (Sankarasubramanian & Gill 1973):
subject to the conditions
where β = ks h/D (reaction rate parameter). We introduced the following dimensionless groups in
arriving at the above equations.
The solution of Equation 2, subject to conditions 3, is now assumed in the form (Gill &
Sankarasubramanian 1970)
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Following Sankarasubramanian & Gill (1973), we can arrive at the dispersion model
where Ki ’s are given by
Further we consider the simplest case of the initial concentration occupying the entire cross
section of the tube and we have ψ(Y) = 1. We now proceed and do only a long time analysis for
the case β = 0. The three coefficients appearing in Equation 6 are now given by
where
and µn ’s are the roots of µn tan µn = β, n = 0(1) 10. The solution of Equation 6 for θm , subject to
θm (τ, ∞) = 0, is
When β = 0, i.e., when there is no chemical reaction at the wall, we have K0 = 0 and f0 = 1.
Following the Gill & Sankarasubramanian (1970), we obtain K1 and K2 as
where
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and µj ’s are the roots of the equation sin(µj ) = 0. With K0 = 0, and K1 , K2 given by Equation 14,
Equation 6 for θm can be written as
Equation 17 subject to the initial condition
can be solved in terms of error function (see Gill & Sankarasubramanian 1970).
In the paper we have modeled the solvent as a Casson fluid and studied dispersion of solute in a
Hagen-Poiseuille flow of this fluid considering heterogeneous-chemical reaction. The wall of the
tube acts as a catalyst to the reaction. The effect of wall reaction on dispersion is highlighted against
the background of the results in respect of no wall reaction. Both the studies are analytical and
the results serve as initial values for a much-needed numerical study of a more general problem.
The problem brings into focus three important dispersion mechanisms in the wall-reaction case as
against two in the classical no-wall-reaction case. Figure 2 is the plot of the convective coefficient
−K1 versus β for different values of Yc . Clearly for the wall-reaction case −K1 increases with
increase in β. We also observe that −K1 decreases with increase in Yc . Increase in Yc indicates
that more and more of the fluid enjoys the constant velocity of plug flow and hence −K1 should
naturally decrease. In contrast to the above effect of β on −K0 and −K1 , it is found from Figure 3a
that K2 decreases with increase in β. This is only to be anticipated because increase in β signifies
the increasing predominance of transverse transport over molecular diffusion. Diminishing extent
of plug flow (i.e., small Yc ) results in enhanced diffusion as compared to transverse transport. We
note here that in the case of channel flow an eight fold decrease was observed. We also find from
the Figure 3a that K2 decreases with increase in Yc . Figure 3b predicts the possible range of K2
in case a numerical study of reaction modified dispersion is performed. At long times the results
of the study must coincide with the accurate results of the present asymptotic study. Thus, these
serve as jury to the numerical results and serve as useful check values. Having discussed about
the dispersive mechanism in the no-wall-reaction and wall-reaction cases we now proceed to make
observations on θm for β = 0 and then for β = 0.
Figure 4 is a plot of the mean concentration distribution θm against τ for β = 0 and for different
values of Yc . We observe from the figure that for observation points outside the input slug i.e.,
X > Xs, the concentrations are obviously less than at points inside the slug. We also see that θm
increases with increase of Yc for points inside and outside the input slug. We now go on to discuss
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Figure 2. Plots of convection coefficient (−K1 ) versus wall reaction parameter β.
Figure 3a. Plots of dispersion coefficient Figure 3b. Plots of (K2 − 1/Pe2 ) 1000 versus τ.
(K2 − 1/Pe2 ) 103 versus β.
Figure 4. Plots of dimensionless mean concentration Figure 5. Plots of θm versus τ for different β’s.
θm versus τ.
the results on the mean concentration distribution in the wall-reaction case i.e. β = 0. We note
that in this case the mean concentration distribution is approximate at small and moderate times
but accurate at long times. Figure 5 is a plot of θm versus τ of both no-wall-reaction (β = 0) and
wall-reaction (β = 0) cases. It is amply clear the mean concentration distribution of β = 0 is much
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chap-66 20/9/2004 16: 38 page 506
much over and above the one of β = 0. Also the mean concentration distribution in the Casson
fluid is over and above that of the Newtonian case. It is apt to mention here that at asymptotically
long-times the convective and diffusion coefficients of the tube flow are less than that of channel
flow.
REFERENCES
Aris, R. 1956. On dispersion of a solute in a fluid flowing slowly through a tube. Proceedings of Royal Society
of London A 235: 67–77.
Barton, N.G. 1983. On the method of moments for solute dispersion. Journal of Fluid Mechanics 126: 205–218.
Gill, W.N. & Sankarasubramanian, R. 1970. Exact analysis of unsteady convective diffusion. Proceedings of
Koojiman, J.M. & Van Zanten, D.C. 1972. The flow of a Cassonian fluid through parallel-plate channels and
through cylindrical tubes. Chemical Engineering Journal 4: 185–194.
Sankarasubramanian, R. & Gill, W.N. 1973. Dispersion from a prescribed concentration distribution in time
variable flow. Proceedings of Royal Society of London A 333: 115–124.
Siddheshwar, P.G. & Manjunath, S. 2000. Unsteady convective diffusion with heterogeneous chemical reaction
in a plane-Poiseuille flow of a micropolar fluid. International Journal of Engineering Science 38: 765–783.
Siddheshwar, P.G., Manjunath, S. & Markande, S. 2000. An exact analysis of unsteady convective diffusion
of solute in a powerlaw fluid part I plane Poiesueille flow. Chemical Engineering Communications 180:
187–207.
Taylor, G.I. 1953. Dispersion of soluble matter in solvent flowing slowly through a tube. Proceedings of Royal
Society of London A 219: 186–203.
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The limiting internal solitary wave in a stratified fluid
X.B. Su & G. Wei

School of Naval Architecture, Ocean and Civil Engineering, Shanghai Jiaotong University,
Shanghai, P.R. China
S.Q. Dai
Shanghai Institute of Applied Mathematics & Mechanics, Shanghai, P.R. China
ABSTRACT: A new theoretical model formulating the interaction of a submerged moving body
with the conjugate flow in the three-layer fluid is proposed. It is then extended to a two-layer
system with the free surface. Based on the theories of both Boussineq’s shallow water wave and
Helmholze’s shear stability in the stratified fluid, the limiting internal solitary waves with the
weakly nonlinear and weakly dispersive is numerically verified unique.
1 INTRODUCTION
Some theoretical workers on water waves have been devoting themselves to a unified theory for
modeling water waves, which is included from Fully Nonlinear Fully Dispersive water waves
(FNFD) to Weakly Nonlinear Weakly Dispersive ones (WNWD) (Wu 2001). Internal wave, often
in a form of the finite-amplitude waves in the stratified ocean, should be studied under the frame
of the FNFD theory, in which the WNWD’s internal solitary waves formulated by Boussinesq’s
shallow water wave model should also be involved.
Internal waves with the greater amplitude often exert additional loads on a floating or submerged
body in the ocean, and on the other hand, the characteristics of internal waves at the free surface
plays an important role in our realizing inner ocean. Therefore it has been emphasizing how
to effectively predict the maximum or limiting internal wave in a stratified ocean. Early Long
(1956) and Benjamin (1966) pointed out that the Boussinesq approximation applied widely in the
investigation of internal waves can result in an abortive prediction for the internal wave with the
finite amplitude. A great deal of studies has shown that there exists one sort of limiting internal
solitary wave, i.e. the flat solitary wave that possesses properties of the conjugate flow. It is first
proposed by Benjamin (1967) that the limiting internal waves can be studied by virtue of the concept
of the conjugate flow in a stratified fluid, because the conjugate flow is modeled on the case of
the non-Boussinesq approximation and the fully nonlinear boundary conditions. In addition, the
presence of the conjugate flow is a necessary condition for the existence of flat solitary waves (Lamb
2000). The increasing investigations on conjugate flows have shown the fact that it is available for
predicting the limit internal waves in a stratified fluid (Lamb & Wan 1998, Lamb 2000, Rusas &
Grue 2002, Wei et al. 2002).
On the basis of theoretical and experimental studies by Zhu (1986), Turkington 1991, Shishkin
(1996), Sha & Vanden-Broeck 1993, Lamb (2000) and so on, a new model for the prediction of
the limiting internal solitary wave generated by a submerged body moving in a stratified fluid is
proposed by using the conjugate flow model. It is also shown that the conjugate flow model without
any body obtained by Lamb (2000) is covered in our new model. In addition, it is verified that
the actually possible conjugate flow with the WNWD’s flat internal solitary wave is unique in the
multi-value solutions for the case of the non-time sequence or the more complicated flow patterns
induced by topography or a submerged moving body.
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2 BASIC MODEL
Assume that the fluid is inviscid and incompressible and the flow is irrotational. Now consider
a two-dimensional conjugate flow in a three-layer fluid, as shown in Figure 1, and let ρi , hi , Ui
and pi be the density, thickness, constant current and pressure in the ith layer, numbered from
the bottom up. The total thickness is H = h1 + h2 + h3 . The hydrostatic equilibrium assumption is
made, i.e. ρ1 > ρ2 > ρ3 . The rigid lid approximation is kept at the free surface. In order to establish
the model for the interaction of the conjugate flow with a body of L long and d0 high moving in a
three-layer fluid, it is assumed that the body is put at the bottom and moves at the constant speed as
same as the propagation speed c of the conjugate flow, and its front end extends to the undisturbed
region (in the upstream) and its back end to the disturbed region (in the downstream). Let a and
b be the lower and upper interface displacements in the downstream respectively, so that the layer
thicknesses numbered from the bottom up become h1 + a, h2 + b − a, and h3 − b. The current in
the ith layer of the downstream is taken as Upi . A rectangular coordinate system (O-xyz) attached
to the moving body is taken, in which the plane of z = 0 is put on the bottom and the positive z-axis
points upward. Conservation of volume then gives
Applying the Bernoulli’s theorem along the boundaries and interfaces and Eq. (1)∼(3) give
where N12 = −(ρ1 − ρ2 )g/ρ2 , N22 = (ρ2 − ρ3 )g/ρ2 , so that the propagating velocity c can be gained
from Eq. (4) or (5). Upon some mathematical manipulation, the first constraint equation for the
Figure 1. Sketch of the conjugate flow generated by a submerged body moving in a three-layer fluid. The
dash line denotes the control volume.
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lower interface displacement a and the upper one b is given by
in which c − Ui = cVi and σ = (ρ2 − ρ3 )/(ρ1 − ρ2 ).

In order to get the second constraint equation for a and b, a control volume surrounding the
object, the top and bottom borders and the upstream and downstream is taken, just as the close dash
line shown in Figure 1. Since the flow force is independent of the coordinate x for steady flows,
conservation of the momentum in the horizontal direction gives
Similar to the derivation by Lamb (2000), the integral-equation for the displacement η(z) in a
continuously stratified fluid can be obtained
For a three-layer fluid, using Eqs (1)∼(3), Eq. (8) can be directly employed to obtain
It is readily verified that as d0 = 0, Eq. (9) is degenerated to the version of Lamb (2000) for no any
body. Equation (9) is also called the second constraint equation for the interfacial displacements
a and b. Thereby the governing equations describing the interaction of conjugate flows with a
submerged moving object consists of two coupled high-order nonlinear algebraic Eqs (6) and (9),
which are usually solved by using certain numerical methods. The behavior of the solutions can
be determined from the point of intersection between the functions F(a, b) and G(a, b) in the ab-
plane, so that characteristics of the limiting internal solitary wave can be analyzed qualitatively.
Here the solutions in the first (or third) quadrant of the ab-plane are defined as mode-1 solutions
corresponding to two simultaneous convex (or concave), and the solutions in the second (or fourth)
quadrant are defined as mode-2 solutions corresponding to one convex and another concave (or
one concave and another convex).
Let ρ3 = 0 and h3 (h1 , h2 ). Thus the conjugate flow model in the three-layer fluid can be used
to formulate the conjugate flow model with a free surface in the two-layer fluid. In terms of the
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mass conversation law and Bernoulli’s equation, the propagating velocity can be arrived at
in which σ0 = (ρ2 /ρ1 ). It is known that Helmhotz’s stability theorem (Yih 1983) at the interface
implies the fact that the stable flow at the interface should be corresponding both to the density
difference as large as possible and to the velocity difference as small as possible between two fluid
layers. It can be shown that for the small interfacial displacement, the relatively stable conditions
keeping the speed difference as small as possible between the neighboring layers are h3 = h2 = h1
for a three-layer fluid and ρ1 h1 → ρ2 h2 for a two-layer fluid with a free surface respectively.
It is readily found that almost all of the WNWD’s internal solitary waves with the assumptions of
a/H = ε 1, H 2 /λ2 = µ2 1 and ε ∼ µ2 , such as those governed by KdV, mKdV, eKdV, f KdV
equations and so on, possess their propagating (phase) velocity c different from the linear long-
wave speed c0 themselves by O(ε) or even O(ε2 ). According to Lamb’s opinion that the presence
of the conjugate flow is a necessary condition for the existence of flat solitary waves, thus it seems
reasonable to take such a set of conditions
in the conjugate flow as a criterion for the existence of the WNWD flat solitary internal waves.
Here c0 , denoting the propagation velocity of the linear long-wave, is written as
for a two-layer fluid with a free surface (Dai 1983) and
for a three-layer fluid (Baines 1995), in which r = h2 /h1 , g = g(ρ1 − ρ3 )/ρ1 and the plus denotes
the fast-mode (c0+ ) and the minus the slow-mode (c0− ).
3 EXAMPLES
3.1 For a three-layer fluid

Numerical calculations have shown some significant results for the conjugate flow in the three-
layer fluid system. A submerged moving body gives rise to the general existence of solutions in the
first and fourth quadrants, which correspond to such conjugate flows with the simultaneous convex
interface displacements and with one concave and another convex ones respectively. In addition,
the increase of vertical thickness of the body will gradually confine the evolution of the solutions
in the second quadrant, which correspond to those conjugate flows with one convex upper interface
and another concave lower interface, as shown in Figure 2.
3.2 For a two-layer fluid with a free surface

Two cases for the conjugate flows in a two-layer fluid system with a free surface are analyzed
numerically as follows.
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Figure 2. For the case of h1 = 4, h2 = 2, h3 = 4, the behaviors of conjugate flows altering in a three-layer
fluid with the variation of vertical thickness d0 of the moving submerged body.
mode-2 a b 0.2
a b σ 0=0.9775
mode-2 0.6
0.6 σ 0=0.9775 0.6
σ 0=0.7775
σ 0=0.7775 0.1
b σ 0=0.3775
0.4 σ 0=0.3775 0.4 0.4
Displacement b
Displacement b
Displacement a
Displacement a
0.0
0.2 0.2 0.2
b
-0.1
0.0 0.0 0.0
a
-0.2 WNWD -0.2 WNWD -0.2
a -0.2
-0.4 -0.4 -0.4 -0.3
-0.6 -0.6 -0.6 -0.4

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
h2/H h2/H
(a) d0 = 0 (b) d0 ≠ 0
Figure 3. In a two-layer fluid with free surface, the displacements a & b of the mode-2 conjugate flow with
the slow-mode c → c0− vary with the thickness h2 . The WNWD’s flat solitary wave appears near c → c0−
where there are no any bifurcations.
Figure 3(a) shows that for d0 = 0 only mode-2 solution is found to satisfy the conditions that the
propagation velocity approaches to the linear fast-mode one (c → c0− ) and both the free surface and
interfacial displacements are very small, i.e. (a/H , b/H → 0) near h2 ≈ 0.5H . It is the conjugate
flow that has the characteristics of WNWD flat solitary wave and is unique in the two-layer fluid. It is
also seen that aand b vary monotonously with the upper thickness h2 . And there exist such conjugate
flows with the concave lower interface (a < 0) and convex upper (b > 0) interfaces for h2 < h1 and
with the convex lower (a > 0) and concave upper (b < 0) interfaces for h2 > h1 respectively.
For the Boussineq approximation (σ0 → 1), the displacement at the free surface is always much
less than that at the interface, i.e. a b. With the decreasing σ0 , the displacement b at the free
surface increases and the displacement a at the interface decreases, and the intersection between
the curves a − h2 and b − h2 , which corresponds to the stable WNWD’s conjugate flow, shifts
appreciably to the rising h2 . The presented tendency is similar qualitatively to that of KdV internal
solitary wave in a two-layer fluid (Dai 1983).
In parallel, Figure 3(b) shows that for d0 = 0.02H only mode-2 solution is found to satisfy the
conditions of c → c0− and to keep very small but no zero interfacial displacements and be also
unique near h2 /H ≈ 0.5. This conjugate flow near h2 /H ≈ 0.5 can be regarded as the WNWD flat
solitary wave. But for the smaller density ratio σ0 (for example, σ0 = 0.2775), the bifurcation in
the ab-plane, which represents uncertain solution in mathematics and possible unstable flows in
nature, comes to increase both at the thinner upper layer and at the thicker upper layer. It is also seen
that because of d0 = 0 the conjugate flow always appear in the form with one concave free surface
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(b < 0) and another convex interface (a > 0), which is consistent qualitatively with the behavior
possessed by fKdV’s internal solitary wave in a two-layer fluid system (Zhu 1986).
4 CONCLUSIONS
A new theoretical model formulating the interaction of a submerged moving body with the conjugate
flow in the stratified fluid is obtained, by which the limiting flat internal solitary wave can be
predicted. A criterion for the existence of weakly-nonlinear weakly-dispersive flat solitary internal
waves is worked out and the conditions satisfied by relatively stable conjugate flows in the two- or
three-layer fluid system are obtained. The numerical calculations indicates that the forced action
exerted by a moving body generally bring on more complicated solutions in ab-plane and the
increment of vertical thickness of the body will gradually confine the evolution of solutions in
some quadrants. And the solutions satisfying the above criterion, whether in the presence or in
the absence of the moving body, are verified to be unique. The numerical analysis is qualitatively
consistent with the associated solitary waves theory.
REFERENCES
Baines, P.M. 1995. Topographic effects in stratified flows. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Benjamin, T.B. 1966. Internal waves of finite amplitude and permanent form. J. Fluid Mech. 25: 241–270.
Dai, S.Q. 1982. Solitary wave at the interface in a two-layer fluid. Applied Math. Mech. 3(6): 721–731 (in
Chines).
Evans, W.A.B. & Ford, M.J. 1996. An integral equation approach to internal (2-layer) solitary waves. Phys.
Fluids 8(8): 2032–2047.
Huyun Sha & Vanden-Broeck, J.M. 1993. Two-layer flow past a semicircular obstruction. Phys. Fluids A5(11):
2661–2668.
Lamb, K.G. & Wan, B. 1998. Conjugate flows and flat solitary waves for a continuously stratified fluid. Phys.
Fluids 10(8): 2061–2079.
Lamb, K.G. 2000. Conjugate flows for a three-layer fluid. Phys. Fluids 12(9): 1070–6631.
Long, R.R. 1956. Solitary waves in one- and two-fluid system. Tellus 8: 460–471.
Rusas, P.O. & Grue, J. 2002. Solitary waves and conjugate flows in a three-layer fluid. Euro. J. Mech. Fluids
B 21: 185–206.
Shishkin, O.D. 1996. Resonant generation of a solitary waves. Experiments in Fluid 21: 374–377.
Turkington, B. Eydeland, A. & Wang, S. 1991. A computational method for solitary internal waves in a
continuously stratified fluid. Stud. Appl. Math. 85: 93–127.
Wei, G., Le, J.C. & Dai, S.Q. 2002. Conjugate flows over a step in a three-layer fluid. J. Hydrodynamics, Ser.
B 12: 24–30.
Wu, T.Y. 2001. A unified theory for modeling water waves. Advance in applied mechanics 37: 1–87.
YIH, C.S. 1983. Fluid Mechanics. New York, Academic Press, 1983.
Zhu, J.L. 1986. Internal solitons generated by moving disturbances. Ph. D. Thesis. California Institute of
Technology.
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A transformation method for unsteady convection-diffusion equations

in non-uniform difference grid systems
X. Wang & Z.F. Yang

State Key Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, School of Environment,
Beijing Normal University, Beijing, P.R. China
ABSTRACT: A transformation method for solving unsteady convection-diffusion equations

(CDE) in non-uniform difference grid systems is developed. To eliminate the difficulty in dealing
with convection terms, a transformation function is given to turn the CDE into their equivalent dif-
fusion equations (DE) on non-uniform grids. Then the high-order compact scheme for the CDE is
derived from that for the DE through converse transformation. Theoretically, the proposed scheme
has the third- to fourth-order accuracy; its fourth-order accuracy is achieved under uniform-grid
settings. Two examples are provided to examine performance of the proposed scheme. Compared
with the traditional implicit difference scheme, the proposed scheme can produce better results
in the same non-uniform grid system. With the efforts in optimizing the grid configuration and
allocation, solution under the non-uniform-grid setting would be more accurate than that under the
uniform-grid manipulation, with the same number of grid points.
1 INTRODUCTION
The convection-diffusion equations (CDE) are widely used in the field of fluid flow and heat/mass
transfer. For example, the Naviers-Stokes equation for the viscous fluid flow is convection-
diffusion type. In environmental sciences, the CDE are usually used for the numerical simulation
of transportation and diffusion processes of pollutants in air, surface water, and groundwater.
As for numerical methods for solving the CDE, it is a common approach to consider convection
and diffusion processes respectively. Other traditional methods mainly include wide-molecule
method, compact difference method (Yang & Wang 1999b). Recently, much attention has been
drawn to the high-order compact difference schemes (HOCDS), since they can improve the accuracy
and computing efficiency obviously (Chen et al. 1993, Choo & Chung 2000, Dennis & Hundson
1989). Through introducing a transformation function to eliminate the convection term, the fourth-
order scheme with unconditional stability was developed for one dimensional unsteady CDE by
Yang & Wang (1999a). However, similar to most of the existing HOCDS, this scheme was applicable
to uniform grids.
In actual engineering, there always are some complicated problems existing, such as boundary-
layer problems, sudden changes of temperature or concentration, and so on. As to these problems,
for adequate resolution of unknowns more grid points are required, thus the computational effort
for a uniform grid over the whole region will be prohibitively expensive and wasteful (Agrawal &
Peckover 1980). One of solutions is to employ non-uniform grids. Through an extension of the opti-
mal difference method (Chwang & Chen 1987) to non-uniform grids, a HOCDS with unconditional
stability was developed for diffusion equations (DE) (Wang & Yang 2001). Since the non-uniform
grids were generated by changing the grid spacings directly, the uniform grids were special cases
of the non-uniform grids when identical grid spacings were used. Theoretically, the scheme was
third- to fourth-order accurate; its fourth-order accuracy was achieved under uniform-grid settings.
Further extensions to more common cases that contain convection terms are desired. Therefore, the
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objective of this study is to develop a HOCDS for solving the unsteady CDE under a non-uniform
grid setting.
In this paper, a transformation method for solving the unsteady CDE in non-uniform difference
grid systems will be developed. Firstly, through introducing a transformation function, the CDE will
be turned into the DE, whose HOCDS has been obtained in the previous work of authors. Then, the
corresponding HOCDS for the CDE will be developed based on the HOCDS for the DE through
the converse transformation. Finally, two examples will be provided to examine performance of the
proposed scheme.
2 A TRANSFORMATION METHOD TO GET THE HIGH-ORDER COMPACT

DIFFERENCE SCHEME FOR UNSTEADY CONVECTION-DIFFUSION EQUATIONS
One-dimensional unsteady CDE can be written as follows:
where T is the convective diffusion quantity (e.g. heat, concentration or momentum); u and D
are convection coefficient and diffusion coefficient, respective; and f is the source term. f is the
function of the independent variable x and t, and assumed to be sufficiently smooth. For representing
universal cases, u and D are constant here. The first derivative and the second derivative about x
represent convection and diffusion, respectively.
One of the main difficulties to get a HOCDS for equation (1) is the appearance of the non-
symmetrical convection-operator, easily leading to numerical oscillation (Chen et al. 1993). To
avoid the difficulty in dealing with the convection term, a transformation function will be intro-
duced to turn the CDE into the DE. Based on the HOCDS for the DE under a non-uniform grid
setting, the corresponding HOCDS for equation (1) can be further developed through a converse
transformation. More details are as follows.
Define ψ(x)ϕ(t) as the transformation function. Let
Substituting equation (2) into (1), we get:
To eliminate the convection factor and reaction term in equation (3) (i.e. the items that involve
∂θ/∂x and θ, respectively), we assume:
and
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Then equation (3) can be simplified as:
where
where (x) and ϕ(t) are determined by equations (4) and (5). In difference subdomain, they can
be expressed as:
where ς and η are local space coordinate and time coordinate respectively, and ς ∈ [−h1 , h2 ], η ∈
[−τ, 0].
Equation (6) is a DE with the convection term; we name it as the equivalent DE of equation
(1). θ is the equivalent diffusion variable. In other words, with the transformation function (x)
and ϕ(t), the CDE (1) can be turned into the DE (6). Thus the HOCDS using non-uniform grids
for equation (1) can be obtained easily through that for (6), i.e. the following formula (10) that
involves only three adjacent grid points (Wang & Yang 2001).
where the superscript and the subscript are time and space position of each grid point around center
j j j−1 j−1 j−1
grid point P(i, j); Ki−1 , Ki+1 , Ki , Ki−1 and Ki+1 are difference coefficients for these points,
respectively; and kS is the difference coefficient for the source term.
According to equations (2), (8) and (9), we have:
Assume the HOCDS for equation (1) on non-uniform grids has the same grid distribution as that
for (6). From equations (10) and (11), we obtain that HOCDS as follows:
where
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j j j j−1 j−1 j−1

where Ci , Ci−1 , Ci+1 , Ci , Ci−1 and Ci+1 are the difference coefficients for each grid point; Cf is
the difference coefficient for the source term; h1 and h2 are space steps, i.e. distances from center
point P(i, j) to its adjacent points (i − 1) and (i + 1), respectively; and τ is the time step.
Considering the expression of T = Const being a special solution for the CDE (1), we have the
following to reflect this feature (Chen et al. 1993):
To correct the errors yielding from discretization, the first formula of equation (13) should be
replaced by (14). So far, the HOCDS using a non-uniform grid for solving CDE (1) has been
established.
From the equivalent differential equation of difference scheme (12), it is easily proved that the
proposed scheme maintains the third- to fourth-order accuracy of the scheme for one dimensional
DE on non-uniform grids (Wang & Yang 2001). Through Fourier analyses method, difference
equation (12) is also unconditionally stable. When u = 0, CDE (1) becomes a DE. Therefore, the
earlier scheme for the DE (Wang & Yang 2001) can be regarded as a special case of the proposed
scheme for the CDE on non-uniform grids.
The proposed scheme can be used both on uniform grids (h1 = h2 ) and non-uniform grids (h1 =
h2 ). Through the accuracy analyses we know, the truncation error of the scheme is O(h4 + τ 2 ) as
h1 = h2 , it means the scheme has fourth-order accuracy if τ = O(h2 ); it is third-order accurate as
h1 = h2 .
From equation (13) we can see, with the increase of time steps, the contributions of last time
j−1 j−1 j−1
interval (Ci , Ci−1 , Ci+1 ) reduce gradually and tend finally to zero. It is proved that the proposed
scheme can reflect the evolution effect of unsteady convection-diffusion problems.
3 CASE STUDY
Example 1
Consider the following problem:
where u = 100, D = 1.0. This convection-diffusion problem refers that there are some pollutants
continually entering into the system from the left boundary, with the convection speed u. Its analytic
solution is
where erf (x) and erfc(x) can be defined as:
For comparison, the proposed scheme (12) and the implicit scheme using the same non-uniform
grid system are used to solve equation (15) simultaneously. Grid distributions are as follows. For
points No. 0∼4, 4∼19 and 19∼75, grid spacings are 0.01, 0.008 and 0.015, respectively.
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0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
T
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3

X
Analytic solution; Numerical solution (proposed scheme);
Numerical solution (implicit scheme)
Figure 1. Analytic and numerical solutions for equation (15).
Table 1. Calculated errors at each point when t = 0.32 for Example 2.
Error reduction ratio when

x N = 6, τ = 0.04 N = 11, τ = 0.01 grid spacings are halved
0.06 – 4.608 × 10−7 –

0.12 1.462 × 10−5 9.186 × 10−7 15.9
0.20 – 1.456 × 10−6 –
0.28 3.134 × 10−5 1.969 × 10−6 15.9
0.38 – 2.437 × 10−6 –
0.48 4.483 × 10−5 2.817 × 10−6 15.9
0.60 – 2.885 × 10−6 –
0.72 4.305 × 10−5 2.705 × 10−6 15.9
0.86 – 1.659 × 10−6 –
Simpson integral method, with discretization points N = 3000 and spacing h = 0.01, is used
for the computation of analytic solution. The computation process stops when the area difference
between two adjacent curvilinear polygons is less than 10−300 . When t = 1.5 × 10−3 , the result
comparisons of the analytic solution and the numerical solution resulting from two schemes are
shown as Figure 1. From it we can see, the proposed scheme can satisfactorily reflect the diffusion
and transportation laws of pollutants, and give more accurate results than the implicit scheme.
Example 2
Consider an unsteady linear convection-diffusion problem with the source term as follows:
Its analytic solution is T = ex−t .

The difference scheme (12) is used for solving this problem. Table 1 gives the errors of each
point when t = 0.32. The method can always give accurate results under non-uniform-grid settings.
With each unit of decrease in grid spacing, the errors from the proposed scheme will reduce
by 16 times (which is close to the theoretical result of 23 to 24 = 8 to 16 times). This reflects
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Table 2. Dynamic variations of resulting errors.
Uniform Grid Non-uniform Grid
t Maximum error Root-mean-square error Maximum error Root-mean-square error
0.04 1.173 × 10−5 8.238 × 10−6 1.633 × 10−5 1.002 × 10−5

0.08 1.981 × 10−5 1.316 × 10−5 1.873 × 10−5 1.151 × 10−5
0.16 2.702 × 10−5 1.786 × 10−5 2.205 × 10−5 1.470 × 10−5
0.24 2.880 × 10−5 1.900 × 10−5 2.238 × 10−5 1.541 × 10−5
0.32 2.829 × 10−5 1.865 × 10−5 2.156 × 10−5 1.504 × 10−5
0.40 2.687 × 10−5 1.770 × 10−5 2.030 × 10−5 1.425 × 10−5
0.48 2.514 × 10−5 1.656 × 10−5 1.892 × 10−5 1.331 × 10−5
0.56 2.335 × 10−5 1.538 × 10−5 1.754 × 10−5 1.236 × 10−5
the accuracy characteristic of the third- to fourth-order schemes. Table 2 shows dynamic variations
of maximum errors and root-mean-square errors under both the uniform grid and non-uniform
grid settings with the same time step (τ = 0.04) and grid points (N = 6, for uniform grid x = 0.0,
0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0; for non-uniform grid x = 0.0, 0.2, 0.5, 0.6, 0.75, 1.0). With the increase of the
time, two kinds of errors on non-uniform grids become smaller than those on uniform grids. This
reconfirms the earlier statement that efforts in optimizing the grid configuration and allocation can
improve solution accuracy and efficiency.
4 CONCLUSIONS
(1) A transformation method has been used to develop high-order compact difference scheme
(HOCDS) for one dimensional unsteady convection-diffusion equations (CDE). To eliminate
the difficulty in dealing with convection terms, a transformation function is given to turn the
unsteady CDE into their equivalent diffusion equations (DE) on non-uniform grids. Through
converse transformation, the HOCDS for the unsteady CDE has been obtained based on the
HOCDS for the DE.
(2) The proposed scheme reflects the evolution characteristics of the unsteady problems. Theo-
retically, the scheme is third- to fourth-order accurate; its fourth-order-accuracy is achieved
under uniform-grid settings.
(3) Two examples have been presented to test performance of the proposed scheme. Under the
same non-uniform grid system, the proposed scheme can produce more accurate results than
the traditional implicit difference scheme. Compared with the solution under the uniform-
grid manipulation, that under the non-uniform-grid setting would be more accurate. It is thus
indicated that efforts in optimizing the grid configuration and allocation can improve solution
accuracy and efficiency in actual engineering.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This study was supported by the Major State Basic Research Development Program of China
(G1999043605).
REFERENCES
Agrawal, A.K. & Peckover, R.S. 1980. Nonuniform grid generation for boundary-layer problems. Computer
Physics Communications 19: 171–178.
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chap-68 20/9/2004 16: 38 page 519
Chen, G.Q. et al. 1993. A perturbational h4 exponential finite difference scheme for the convective diffusion
equation. J. Comput. Phys. 104: 129–139.
Choo, S.M. & Chung, S.K. 2000. High-order perturbation-difference scheme for a convection-diffusion
problem. Comput. Meth. Appl. Mech. Engng 190: 721–732.
Chwang, A.T. & Chen, H.C. 1987. Optimal finite difference method for potential flows. Int. J. Engng. Mech.,
ASCE 113(11): 1759–1773.
Dennis, S.C.R. & Hundson, J.D. 1989. Compact h4 finite-difference approximations to operators of Naviers-
Stokes. J Comput. Phys. 85: 390–416.
Wang, X. & Yang, Z.F. 2001. A high-order-accurate difference scheme with unconditional stability for the
diffusion equation on nonuniform grid. J. of Hydrodynamics (B) 13(1): 92–98.
Yang, Z.F. & Wang, X. 1999a. A high-order finite difference method for unsteady convection-diffusion
problems with source term. J. of Hydrodynamics (B) 11(2): 97–102.
Yang, Z.F. & Wang, X. 1999b. Progress in the high-order-accurate finite difference methods for fluid flow and
heat transfer. Progress in Natural Science 9(11): 801–811.
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Environmental fluid mechanics and hydrodynamics

chap-69 20/9/2004 16: 39 page 523

Fluid forces and bistable flow on two circular cylinders in

staggered arrangement
Md. Mahbub Alam

Dep. of Mechanical Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University,
Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong
H. Sakamoto
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Kitami Institute of Technology,
Kitami, Hokkaido, Japan
ABSTRACT: Fluid forces acting on a cylinder often characterizes flow configuration on the cylin-
der. Fluid forces acting on two cylinders in staggered configurations were measured in wind-tunnel
test at a Reynolds number of 5.5 × 104 and, then magnitudes and trends of fluid force coefficients
with change in spacing ratio T /D are discussed in light of flow configurations determined on the
basis of time-averaged and fluctuating surface pressure, surface oil-flow patterns, and flow visual-
ization patterns. At all stagger angles of two cylinders with very smaller spacings, lift forces acting
on the cylinders are mainly governed by the behavior of flow in the gap between the cylinders, and
a series of bistable flow caused by intermittent formation and burst of separation bubble on the
upstream cylinder was found.
1 INTRODUCTION
In many engineering applications of cylinder-like structures, i.e., groups of chimney stacks, tubes
in heat exchangers, overhead power-line bundles, adjacent skyscrapers, etc, fluid forces and flow
configurations are major criteria for the design of structures. A pair of two cylinders in various
arrangements can be chosen as the simplest case of group of structures. Time-averaged drag and
lift forces acting on two staggered cylinders were measured by Zdravkovich & Pridden (1977),
Price & Paidoussis (1984) and Gu et al. (1993). Their data, however, are mostly concerned with
the downstream cylinder. Therefore, there is still a lack of steady drag and lift force data of the
upstream cylinder and of studies pertaining to fluctuating lift forces acting on two cylinders in any
arrangements. The aim of the present study was to investigate steady and fluctuating fluid forces
and flow configurations of two staggered circular cylinders.
2 EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
The experiments were performed in a low-speed, closed-circuit wind tunnel at a Reynolds number
of 5.5 × 104 . Fluid forces were measured with a load cell installed inside a circular cylinder of
49 mm in diameter. A semiconductor pressure transducer was used to measure time-averaged and
fluctuating pressures on the surfaces of the cylinders. To get a clear understanding of qualitative flow
configurations, flow visualizations test in water channel were conducted at a Reynolds number of
350. Moreover, configurations of flow on the surfaces of the cylinders were obtained from results of
surface oil-flow technique. Systematic measurements were performed for stagger angles of α = 10◦ ,
25◦ , 45◦ , 60◦ and 75◦ in the range of T /D = 0.1∼5.0; where, the symbols are defined in Fig. 1.
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D
CL
T θ
CD
D
Flow
Flow α
θ C
CLL DD
C Inner shear layer
Outer shear layer
Figure 1. Notation of staggered configuration.
0.2
0
-0.2 Mode 2 t=7s
-0.4
CLi
-0.6
-0.8
-1
-1.2 Mode 1
Figure 2. Lift force signal showing bistable flow at T /D = 0.10, α = 10◦ .
3.1 α = 10◦
A bistable nature of two flows over two cylinders was observed during experiments for α = 10◦ ,
T /D < 1.3. The two flow patterns were sufficiently stable as is observed in lift force signal shown
in Fig. 2. It is clear from the signal that there are two modes of lift force corresponding to two modes
of flow pattern. The flow mode that corresponds to the higher magnitude of lift force is denoted
by mode 1 and the flow mode that corresponds to the lower magnitude of lift force is denoted by
mode 2.
In order to elucidate the flow patterns which are responsible for such a nature of flow, time-
averaged pressure coefficient, CP , on the surface of the downstream cylinder was calculated
separately for the two modes (Alam et al., 2003) for T /D = 1.0. The trends of CP distributions and
sketches of the two modes of flow pattern are shown in Fig. 3. The shown CP distributions indicate
that the position of separation of the outer shear layer of the downstream cylinder for modes 1 and
2 is the same; however, the inner shear layer separates at θ = −70◦ and −30◦ for modes 1 and 2,
respectively. That is, in mode 1, the inner shear layer of the downstream cylinder sweeps along
the surface of the downstream cylinder for a longer peripheral length, and a high suction pressure
region is created before the shear layer separation.
Distributions of time-averaged lift coefficient, CL , of the upstream and downstream cylinders
are shown in Fig. 4. It has been discussed that there are two modes of flow pattern for T /D < 1.3.
So there are two sets of values of lift force coefficient of each cylinder for T /D < 1.3. Here the
range of T /D = 0.1∼1.3 is identified as bistable flow region I. An interesting feature of mode 1 is
that it induces a higher negative lift force (CL = −1.22) on the downstream cylinder at T /D = 1.0.
The range of 2.1 < T /D < 2.4, marked by shadow, is another bistable flow region identified as
bistable flow region II. The bistable nature of flow was also found in flow visualization experiments.
However, in flow visualization test (Re = 350), the switching of flow (bistable flow) was detected
at T /D = 2.5 and the two flow patterns are shown in Fig. 5. The first flow pattern (Fig. 5a),
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Inner surface Outer surface

1.0
Mode 1
0.5 Mode 2 (a)
Single cylinder
CP
0
-0.5
-1.0
90°
-1.5
0° ±180°
-2.0 Flow
-90°
-2.5
-180 -120 -60 0 60 120 180
θ (deg)
(b)
Mode 1 Mode 2
Figure 3. (a) CP distributions on the surface of downstream cyl. for α = 10◦ , T /D = 1.0; (b) sketches of
modes of flow pattern.
0
-0.2
Bistable flow region II
Mode 1
-0.4
Mode 2
CL
-0.6
Bistable flow
-0.8 region I
Upstream cylinder
Downstream cylinder
-1.0
Mode 1
-1.2
0 1 2 3 4 5
T/D
Figure 4. Time-averaged lift coefficient, CL , distributions for α = 10◦ .
(a) No Karman vortex behind up. cyl. (b) Karman vortex behind up. cyl.
Figure 5. Visualized flow for α = 10◦ , T /D = 2.5.
reattachment flow, is the same as that of mode. In the second flow pattern (Fig. 5b), fully developed
Karman vortices are shed from the upstream cylinder.
3.2 α = 25◦
Figure 6 shows CL distribution for α = 25◦ . For simplicity to discuss, the main features of CL
distributions are pointed out first, and then they will be discussed consecutively. The main features
seen in the figure are: (a) lift force acting on the upstream cylinder drastically changes in the
ranges of 0.10 < T /D < 0.30 and of 0.30 < T /D < 0.50 (bistable flow region I), (b) bistable flow
region II in the range of 1.9 < T /D < 2.1, and (c) higher magnitude of negative lift force acting on
downstream cylinder for T /D = 2.10∼4.0.
(a) In order to have a clear understanding of the flow patterns which are responsible for such
changes of CL , CP distributions on the surface of the upstream cylinder for T /D = 0.10, 0.30 and
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0.20
0
-0.20 Bistable flow region II
Bistable flow region I

-0.40
CL
-0.60
-0.80 Upstream cylinder
Downstream cylinder
-1.00
-1.20
0 1 2 3 4 5
T/D
Figure 6. Time-averaged lift coefficient distributions for α = 25◦ .
1.0
-90°
0.5
Flow 0° ±180°
0
90°
CP
-0.5
-1.0
T/D=0.10
-1.5 =0.30
-2.0 =0.50
-180 -120 -60 0 60 120 180

θ (deg)
Figure 7. CP distributions on the surface of upstream cyl. for α = 25◦ .
Figure 8. Surface oil-flow flow patterns and sketches of flow patterns for α = 25◦ . SL = separation line,
RL = reattachment line, StgL = stagnation line.
0.50 and oil-flow visualization patterns together with sketches of flow patterns are shown in Figs 7
and 8. The figures show clear distinctions among the flow patterns for the three spacings.
For T /D = 0.30, for which magnitude of CL acting on the upstream cylinder is maximum, a
large area of suction is developed on the inner side surface (Fig. 7) due to the occurrence of a
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(a) T/D=1.9 (b) T/D=2.1
Figure 9. Visualized flow patterns for α = 25◦ .
laminar separation followed by a turbulent reattachment of the inner shear layer of the upstream
cylinder. The inner shear layer separating from the upstream cylinder at θ = −102◦ reattaches again
onto the rear surface at θ = −150◦ , as has been shown in Fig. 8(b): a separation bubble is formed in
the range of θ = −102◦ ∼−150◦ . The longer pressure recovery region in the pressure distribution
for T /D = 0.30 also bears the sign of turbulent reattachment. For T /D = 0.50, the flow over the
upstream cylinder with regard to separation positions of the shear layers is almost similar to that of a
single cylinder; thus the value of CL for T /D = 0.50 is very small. The main difference between the
flow patterns at T /D = 0.30 and 0.50 is the existence of the separation bubble for T /D = 0.30. That
is, if the separation bubble, which forms for T /D = 0.30, bursts, the flow pattern for T /D = 0.30
will be modified to that for T /D = 0.50. Hence the bistable flow in the region 0.3 < T /D < 0.5 is
due to formation and burst of the separation bubble.
(b) The region 1.9 < T /D < 2.1 identified as bistable flow region II is another bistable flow
region. The first flow pattern is that the downstream cylinder squeezes the inner shear layer of the
upstream cylinder together with a share of mean flow to form a weak and narrow wake behind the
upstream cylinder as shown in Fig. 9(a). The second flow pattern is that fully developed alternating
Karman vortex forms behind the upstream cylinder (Fig. 9b). In other words, the first flow pattern is
one which appears for T /D < 1.9 and the second flow pattern is one which appears for T /D > 2.1.
(c) The third feature in Fig. 6 is that the downstream cylinder experiences a constant negative
lift force for T /D = 0.5∼1.9, and a highly negative lift force for T /D = 2.1∼4.0. The later range
of spacing, T /D = 2.1∼4.0, is within the region of so-called ‘outer negative lift force’ region in the
contour map of CL in T /D − α plane (Zdravkovich, 1977). In order to acquire the insight of the flow
pattern inducing the negative lift force, time-averaged pressures on the surface of the downstream
cylinder were measured for T /D = 1.40, 1.80 and 2.60, and the results are shown in Fig. 10. For
T /D = 1.4 and 1.80, it is clear that the stagnation point shifts toward the outer side (θ = 10◦ and
9◦ for T /D = 1.40 and 1.80, respectively) and the pressure distributions are almost symmetric
about the stagnation point. So it can be concluded that negative lift force acting on the downstream
cylinder for T /D = 0.5∼1.9 is mainly due to shift of stagnation point to the outer side. However,
for T /D = 2.6, the negative lift can be attributed to three causes: (i) shift of stagnation point to
the outer side, the stagnation point is at θ = 8◦ confirmed by surface oil-flow pattern, (ii) lower
magnitude of pressure on the outer surface, with respect to the single cylinder pressure distribution
and (iii) higher magnitude of pressure on the inner surface. The contributions of the causes (i),
(ii) and (iii) to the negative lift force are about 37% (θ = −70◦ ∼70◦ ), 38% (θ = 70◦ ∼180◦ ) and
25% (θ = −70◦ ∼−180◦ ), respectively. It is, therefore, clear that the contribution of cause (ii) is
the greatest, but it was not pointed out to be a cause by previous researchers.
Figure 11 shows CLf distributions of two cylinders for α = 25◦ . Here also, sudden changes of
CLf in ranges of T /D = 0.10∼0.30 and 0.30∼0.50 occur. The flow pattern at T /D = 0.30, in which
a separation bubble forms on the inside surface of the upstream cylinder, induces a minimum CLf
on the upstream and downstream cylinders. A striking feature in Fig. 11 is that the value of CLf of
the upstream cylinder approaches to the single cylinder value as T /D reaches to 5.0; however, the
value of CLf of the downstream cylinder is considerably high for T /D > 2.1 and magnitude of CLf
of the downstream cylinder is constant even up to T /D = 5.0, indicating at least one characteristic
of flow on the downstream cylinder does not change with change in T /D for T /D = 2.1∼5.0.
In order to acquire the information about the flow characteristics of the downstream cylinder for
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1.0
Downstream cylinder
0.5
T/D=1.40
=1.80
CP
0 =2.60
Single cylinder
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-180 -120 -60 0 60 120 180
θ (deg)
Figure 10. CP distributions on the surface of downstream cyl. for α = 25◦ .
0.80
0.70
Bi
0.60
st
ab
le
0.50
flo
w
CLf
II
re
0.40 ion
gi
on
reg
I
0.30
w
Upstream cylinder
flo
ble
0.20 Downstream cylinder

sta
Bi
0.10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
T/D
Figure 11. Fluctuating lift coefficient distributions for α = 25◦ .
90°
0.80
0.70 -90° 0° ±180°
±180° -90°
0.60 Flow 0°
0.50
90°
CPf
0.40
0.30
0.20 Single cylinder
0.10 T/D=2.6
=5.0
0
-180 -120 -60 0 60 120 180
θ (deg)
Figure 12. CPf distributions on the downs. cyl. for α = 25◦ .
T /D = 2.1∼5.0, fluctuating pressure on the surface of the downstream cylinder was measured
for T /D = 2.60 and 5.0 and the results are shown in Fig. 12. CPf distribution on the downstream
cylinder for T /D = 2.60 shows that value of CPf on the inside surface is extremely high. At and near
T /D = 2.6, CLf of the downstream cylinder is strong mainly due to higher fluctuation of pressure
on the inside surface, and higher fluctuation of pressure on the inside surface is due to alternating
buffet of the incident vortices during convection on the inside surface of the downstream cylinder
(Gursul & Rockwell, 1990). A comparison of CPf distributions for T /D = 2.6 and 5.0 reveals that,
as T /D increases to 5.0, CPf on the inside and outside surfaces decreases and increases, respectively;
that is, the direct interaction of the incident vortices to increase fluctuating pressure on the inside
surface of the downstream cylinder decreases as T /D increases. For the range of T /D = 2.1∼5.0,
vortex shedding from the inside of the downstream cylinder was found to be synchronized and
coupled with the incident vortices from the inside of the upstream cylinder (Fig. 13).
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(a) T/D=2.6 (b) T/D=5.0
Figure 13. Visualized flow patterns for α = 25◦ .
0.80
0.60 Bistable flow region Upstream cylinder
0.40 Downstream cylinder
0.20
CL
0
-0.20
-0.40
0 1 2 3 4 5
T/D
Figure 14. CL distributions for α = 45◦ .
3.3 α = 45◦
Figure 14 shows CL distributions of the upstream and downstream cylinders for α = 45◦ . The
bistable nature of flow, which was due to intermittent appearance and disappearance of fully
developed Karman vortex behind the upstream cylinder for α = 25◦ , was not found for α = 45◦ . At
very small spacing, in the range of T /D = 0.10∼0.30, a sudden drop of CL of the upstream cylinder
is seen in the figure. A bistable nature of flow was found for T /D = 0.10∼0.30. For α = 25◦ , lift
force acting on the upstream cylinder was highly negative at T /D = 0.30. Now for α = 45◦ , there
is no sign of negative lift force of the upstream cylinder.
Time-averaged pressure distributions, surface oil-flow patterns and corresponding sketches of
flow patterns are shown in Fig. 15 for T /D = 0.10 and 0.30. For T /D = 0.10, the pressure distribu-
tion implies that there are two reasons of generating such a higher magnitude of positive lift force:
one is the shift of stagnation point to the inner side and the other is the developing of high pressure
region (θ = −20◦ ∼−130◦ ) on the inside surface, considering sign and magnitude of pressure with
respect to that of the single cylinder. It is seen that the inner shear layer of the upstream cylinder
firstly separates at θ = −89◦ which is in the first pressure recovery region of the pressure distri-
bution, and pressure is still positive near the first separation; in other words, pressure gradient in
the range of θ = 0◦ ∼−70◦ is substantially lower than that of the single cylinder, implying the flow
on the inside surface of the upstream cylinder is obstructed by the front surface of the downstream
cylinder. As the gap width between the cylinders is very small for this spacing, the inner shear
layer of the downstream cylinder is forced to reattach again onto the rear part of the inside surface
and finally separates at θ = −141◦ which is in the second pressure recovery region of pressure
distribution. Hence a separation bubble is formed on the inside surface of the upstream cylinder. It
is interesting that high pressure gradient occurs in the range of θ = −100◦ ∼−135◦ where the gap
flow area is like a convergent nozzle and pressure on the surface reaches its maximum negative
value at the position {θ = −(180◦ − 45◦ ) = −135◦ } where the gap width between the surfaces of
the cylinders is minimum. In the region of T /D = 0.10∼0.30, the change of the flow pattern from
that at T /D = 0.10 to that at T /D = 0.30 was found to be discontinuous due to appearance and
disappearance of the separation bubble, as found for α = 25◦ also.
3.4 α = 60◦ and 75◦

Figure 16 shows CL distributions of the two cylinders for α = 60◦ and 75◦ with change in T /D.
An interesting feature of the CL distributions is that, when T /D increases from 0.10 to 0.20,
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1.0
0.5 Upstream cylinder
0 T/D=0.10
CP
=0.30
-0.5 Single cylinder
(a)
-1.0
-1.5
-180 -120 -60 0 60 120 180
θ (deg)
Figure 15. α = 45◦ : (a) CP distributions; (b), (c) surface oil-flow patterns and corresponding sketches.
0.80
0.70 Bistable flow region
0.60 Upstream cyl. (α=60°)
0.50 Downstream cyl. (α=60°)
0.40 Upstream cyl. (α=75°)
CL
0.30 Downstream cyl. (α=75°)

0.20
0.10
0
-0.10
0 1 2 3
T/D
Figure 16. Time-averaged lift coefficient distributions.
CL suddenly jumps from a lower value to a higher one for both the cases; then CL gradually
changes for T /D > 0.20. In the range of 0.10 < T /D < 0.20, a bistable nature of flow was detected.
Measurement results of time-averaged pressure and surface oil-flow patterns suggested that the
bistable flow was due intermittent formation and burst of a separation bubble on the inside surface
of the upstream cylinder.
4 CONCLUSIONS
(i) At very small spacing ratios, lift forces acting on the cylinders are mainly governed by the
behavior of flow in the gap between the cylinders.
(ii) At all stagger angles of two cylinders with very small spacing, a series of bistable flow caused
by intermittent formation and burst of separation bubble on the upstream cylinder was found.
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(iii) When there occurs a formation of a separation bubble on the surface of a cylinder and if the
flow changes from that consisting a separation bubble to that without the separation bubble,
the change of flow from one to the other is always discontinuous and a spontaneous bistable
nature of flow persists in almost the cases of the changes.
(iv) The downstream cylinder experiences a highly negative lift force at α = 10◦ , T /D = 0.9 and
the upstream cylinder at α = 25◦ , T /D = 0.3. The highly negative lift force acting on the
upstream cylinder is mainly due to a greater circulation of gap flow on the inside and rear
surfaces. The upstream cylinder experiences highly positive lift forces for α = 45◦ , T /D = 0.1;
α = 60◦ , T /D = 0.2; and α = 75◦ , T /D = 0.2. These highly positive lift forces are due to shift
of stagnation point toward the inside surface of the upstream cylinder and retardation of flow
on the inside surface of the upstream cylinder by the front surface of the downstream cylinder.
(v) Maximum fluctuating lift forces acting on the downstream cylinder occurs for α = 25◦ ,
T /D = 2.1∼5 where the inner shear layer of the upstream cylinder sheds vortices in synchron-
ization with the incident inner vortices from the upstream cylinder. Interaction of incident
vortices from the upstream cylinder onto the downstream cylinder and synchronized vortex
shedding cause such a high fluctuating lift force acting on the downstream cylinder.
REFERENCES
Zdravkovich, M.M. & Pridden, D.L. 1977. Interference between two circular cylinders; series of unexpected
discontinuities. Journal Industrial Aerodynamics 2: 255–270.
Price, S.J. & Paidoussis, M.P. 1984. The aerodynamic forces acting on groups of two and three circular cylinders
when subject to a cross-flow. J. of Wind Eng. & Indus. Aerdyn. 17: 329–347.
Gu, Z.F., Sun, T.F., He, D.X. & Zhang, L.L. 1993. Two circular cylinders in high-turbulence flow at supercritical
Reynolds number, J. of Wind Eng. & Indus. Aerdyn. 49: 379–388.
Alam, M.M., Moriya, M. & Sakamoto, H. 2003. Aerodynamic characteristics of two side-by-side circular
cylinders and application of wavelet analysis on the switching phenomenon, Journal of Fluids & Structure
18: 325–346.
Zdravkovich, M.M. 1977. Review of Flow Interference Between Two Circular Cylinders in Various
Arrangement. Trans. ASME, Journal of Fluids Eng. 199: 618–633.
Gursul, I. & Rockwell, D. 1990. Vortex street impinging upon an elliptical leading edge. Journal of Fluid
Mechancis 211: 211–242.
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Study on the control of flow past circular cylinder at subcritical

Reynolds number by LES
Cui Guixiang, Liu Yi, Xu Chunxiao & Zhang Zhaoshun

Department of Engineering Mechanics, Tsinghua University, Beijing China
ABSTRACT: The paper investigates the dynamic performance of incompressible flow around
circular cylinder with cyclic oscillation around the cylinder axis by Large Eddy Simulation (LES)
with dynamic model for subgrid stress. The filtered N-S equation is solved numerically by finite
volume method with rectangular grids and the immersed boundary method is used to satisfy the
non-slip condition. The results show that the drag is increased when the oscillating frequency
equals the frequency of vortex shedding of flow around stationary circular cylinder, i.e. non-
dimensional frequency equaling 0.2, while the drag is reduced at non-dimensional oscillating
frequency equaling 1.0.
1 INTRODUCTION
Flow past circular cylinder is an interesting case which involves most of important phenomena
in complex flows, such as flow transition, separation, vortex shedding and so on. In this paper the
incompressible flow past oscillating circular cylinder with cyclic oscillation around the cylinder
axis is investigated by Large Eddy Simulation with dynamic model for subgrid stress at subcritical
Reynolds number. Large Eddy Simulation (LES) is a promising method for complex turbulent
flows, in particular for non-stationary turbulent flows. The finite-volume method is used for the
discretization of the governing equations and SIMPLE algorithm for handling the pressure-velocity
coupling with third order interpolation of momentum. The immersed boundary method (Jungwoo
et al. 2001) is utilized for the boundary condition at the cylinder surface in order to use rectangular
grid meshes with sufficient accuracy. The Reynolds number, defined as UD/v, is fixed at 3900.
Two oscillation cases are tested with non-dimensional frequency 0.2 and 1.0.
The flow past stationary circular cylinder has been calculated and the flow performance is in
good agreement with previous numerical and experimental results (Ong and Wallace 1996, Jordan
and Ragab 1998). The major results of the rotating cylinder are summarized below.
1. The drag is increased at the non-dimensional frequency of 0.2, approximately equaling the
frequency of vortex shedding of flow past stationary cylinder. While the drag force is reduced
at non-dimensional frequency of 1.0.
2. The spectra of drag and lift coefficients together with the pictures of flow pattern show that the
change of drag is caused by the vortex structure.
2 THE NUMERICAL METHOD
2.1 The governing equations

The governing equation of LES is the filtered Navier-Stokes equation:
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in which the flow quantities are filtered by a box filter such that
in which τij = ui uj − ui uj is the subgrid stress which is closed by a the dynamic Smagorinsky
model as follows

∂ui ∂uj
where S ij = 12 ∂xj
+ ∂xi
, C = −Lij Mij /221 Mij Mij , Lij = (ūi ūj − ūi ūj ) − 13 δij (ūk ūk − ūk ūk ),
1
Mij = α2 |S̄|S̄ ij − |S̄|S̄ ij , |S̄| = (2S̄ ij S̄ ij ) 2 . The first over bar denotes the usual filtering with filter
length of 1 = (xyz)1/3 and the double over bar denotes the second filtering with the filter
length equaling α1 (α = 2 in the computation).

The flow domain is in a rectangular parallelepiped with longitudinal length 71d, transverse length
36d and axial length πd/2, d is the diameter of the cylinder. The axis of cylinder is located
at 6d behind of the inlet plane. The uniform velocity (U , 0, 0) is given at the inlet plane and
fully developed condition at outlet plane. The symmetrical condition is posed at upper and lower
boundaries in transverse direction, i.e. ∂u/∂y = 0, ∂w/∂y = 0 and v = 0. Periodic condition is
applied in axial direction.
At the surface of cylinder we use the immersed boundary condition in replace of non-slip
condition. The principle of immersed boundary condition is that a local force is imposed in the
governing equation in order to force the velocity to vanish at the surface. There are various ways
to design the surface force and we use the direct surface force method proposed by Jungwoo et al.
that the governing equation is written as
in which RHS stands for right hand terms of LES equations, i.e. the pressure and subgrid stress
terms, the force terms is designed in the time advancement as
The grid points are 400 × 200 × 20 in streamwise, transverse and axial directions respectively. We
tested computation with finer grids and it has been verified that the numerical results is almost
grid independent.
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3 RESULTS
3.1 Testing cases

The flow Reynolds number is Ud/ν = 3900 and two non-dimensional frequencies of cyclic oscilla-
tion are tested, namely 0.2 and 1.0. The tangential velocity is equal to 0.4U sin(2πf ). The time step
of integration is determined by CFL criterion and t = 0.01d/U is used in computation. After the
flow reaches to fully developed turbulent state the computation is continued to 70 non-dimensional
time. The statistics is taken by the average on time and axial grids.
3.2 Flow past stationary cylinder

The dynamic performance is given in Table 1 and it is in good agreement with the previous numerical
and experimental results.
The mean velocity profiles in the wake region are presented in Figures 1 & 2 shows the turbulence
intensity and the drag spectrum is demonstrated in Figure 3 in which it is clear shown that the peak
frequency equals 0.2 and also sub-harmonics around 0.1 and super-harmonics around 0.4. The
typical vortex structure (ωZ ) is given in Figure 4 where the vortex shedding is illustrated.
3.3 Flow past oscillating cylinder

The frequency spectra of drag are compared between stationary and oscillating cylinders in Figure 5.
It is clear that the higher drag is produced in the low frequency range at f = 0.2 although the peak
drag is reduced. As a result the mean drag is increased by 29.3% at f = 0.2. At higher oscillating
frequency the low frequency drag is suppressed as well as the peak drag is reduced, hence the mean
drag is decreased by 6%.
The suppression of low frequency drag can be interpreted by the vortex patterns in the wake
of the flows. Figure 6 shows that the vortex patterns are similar between flow past stationary
Table 1. Dynamic performance of flow past stationary circular cylinder.
Location of Length of Strouhal

separation bubble Drag coefficient number
Present 89◦ 1.32 1.09 0.19

Experiment 86◦ ± 2 1.4 ± 0.1 0.99 ± 0.05 0.215 ± 0.005
Numerical 88◦ 1.35 1.04 0.21
1.4 0.9
0.8
1.2
0.7
1 0.6
0.5
0.8
0.4
u/U0
u/U0
0.6 0.3
0.2
0.4
Current LES 0.1
0.2 Experiment 0
Current LES
Moin -0.1 Experiment
0
-0.2 Moin
-0.2 -0.3
-0.4 -0.4
-4 -2 0 2 4 0 2 4 6 8 10
y/d x
(a) Mean velocity U(y) at x/d=1.54 (b) Mean velocity U(x) at center line
Figure 1. The mean velocity profiles in the wake region.
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0.24
0.22 Current LES
0.25 Current LES
Experiment
Experiment 0.2
Moin
Moin 0.18
0.2
0.16
0.14
u'u'
u'u'
0.15
0.12
0.1
0.1 0.08
0.06
0.05 0.04
0.02
0 0
-4 -2 0 2 4 -4 -2 0 2 4
y/d y/d
(a) <u’u’>(y) at x/d=1.54 (b) <u’u’>( y) at x/d=2.02
Figure 2. Streamwise fluctuating intensity in the wake region.
2.5
2
0.4 1.5
0.35 1
0.3 0.5
Y
0.25 0
E
0.2 -0.5
0.15 -1
0.1 -1.5
0.05 -2
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 -1 0 1 2 3 4
f X
Figure 3. The drag spectrum. Figure 4. The vortex pattern ωZ at t = 51.3.

0.13
0.14
0.12 0.13
0.4
0.11 0.12
0.35 0.1 0.11
0.09 0.1
0.3
0.08 0.09
0.25 0.07 0.08
E
0.06 0.07
0.2
0.05 0.06
0.15 0.05
0.04
0.04
0.1 0.03
0.03
0.02 0.02
0.05
0.01 0.01
0 0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
f f f
(a) Stationary cylinder (b) f=0.2 (c) f=1.0
Figure 5. Comparison of drag spectrum.
cylinder and oscillating cylinder with f = 0.2, nonetheless the vortex shedding is more concentrated
in the oscillating case due to the phase locking and this is reason for higher mean drag. On contrast,
the small vortices is shedding at higher frequency f = 1.0 and the big vortex is suppressed, hence the
drag is reduced.
The dynamic performance of flow past oscillating cylinder is depends on the frequency. When the
oscillating frequency equals to the vortex shedding frequency of flow past stationary cylinder the
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2.5
2 2.5 2.5
2 2
1.5
1.5 1.5
1
1 1
0.5
0.5 0.5
Y
Y
0
0 0
-0.5
-0.5 -0.5
-1 -1 -1
-1.5 -1.5 -1.5
-2 -2 -2
-1 0 1 2 3 4 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -1 0 1 2 3 4
X X X
(a) t=54.9 (b) t=55.8 (c) t=56.7
Figure 6. Comparison of vortex patterns. (a)–(c) stationary cylinder, (d)–(f) f = 0.2, (g)–(i) f = 1.0.
mean drag is increased due to generation of low frequency drag. However the oscillation with higher
frequency suppresses the low frequency drag and reduces the mean drag. The drag performance is
closely related to the mechanism of vortex shedding.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The financial supports by NSFC (grant: 10272065, 10232020) and China-French Laboratory,
LIAMA (97-3), are greatly appreciated.
REFERENCES
Jungwoo K., Dongjoo K., Haecheon C. 2001 An immersed boundary finite-volume method for simulation of
flow in complex geometries. J. Comput. Phys. 171: 132–150
Ong L., Wallace J. 1996 The Velocity fields of the turbulencet very near wake of a circular cylinder. Exp.
Fluids. 20: 441
Jordan S.A., Ragab S.A. 1998 A large eddy simulation of the near wake of a circular cylinder. J. Fluids Eng.
120: 243–252
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Numerical analysis of 3-D turbulent flow in the sump of

the pump station
Jia-Hong Guo, Hong-Xun Chen & Mian Zhao

Shanghai Institute of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics, Shanghai University
Shanghai, P.R. China
ABSTRACT: In this paper, a numerical model for three-dimensional turbulent flow in the sump
of the pump station is presented. A reasonable boundary condition for the flow in the sump with
multiple water intakes, each of which may have different flow rate respectively, is proposed. The
finite volume method is employed to solve the governing equation using the body fitted grid
generated by multiblock grid technique. Using the method obtained in this paper, the fluid flow in
the sump of the pump stations with multiple water intakes is calculated. The numerical result of
the examples is fairly good.
1 INTRODUCTION
In the sump of the pump station there always exist several water intakes, each of which may have
different flow rate respectively. Although the flow in the sump of the pump station with one water
intake has been studied by numerical method in former literatures by Constantinescu (1998, 2000)
and Xu (2001), few literatures (Matahel, 2002) dealt with numerical simulation of the flow in the
sump with multiple water intakes. Furthermore, in the literature by Matahel (2002) in which the
flow in the sump with two water intakes was studied, the velocity known according to the flow rate
of the whole pump station, was given as the boundary condition at the inlet of the sump, and the
non-gradient physical parameter condition was given in the water intakes. So, the flow rate through
each water intake became the result of calculation, which would not meet the prescribed flow rate
through each water intake, fixed by each pump according to the requirement for safe operation of
the pump station with high efficiency.
In this paper, a numerical model for the three dimensional turbulent flow in the sump of the pump
station with multiple water intakes is presented. According to the fact that the flow rate of each
pump of the pump station should be prescribed before numerical calculation, the given boundary
condition is the flow rate through each water intake, and the non-gradient physical parameter
condition at the inlet of the open channel connecting with the sump, which is located far enough
from the region of the sump instead. The Navier-Stokes equation and the k-ε model are employed
to solve the turbulent flow in the sump. The finite volume method and body fitted grid system are
used to solve the governing equations.
2 GOVERNING EQUATIONS AND BOUNDARY CONDITION

The continuity equation and conservation of momentum in the x, y, z direction for a Cartesian
coordinates are described by
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where µ is the molecular viscosity and µt is the turbulent viscosity.

In an arbitrary curvilinear coordinates system (ξ, η, ζ), prescribed by function x = x(ξ, η, ζ),
y = y(ξ, η, ζ), z = z(ξ, η, ζ), the equation (1) can be rewritten as follows:
2.2 Turbulence model

The k-ε model is adopted in this paper. The relations for turbulence closure are:
where Cµ = 0.09, C1 = 1.44, C2 = 1.92, σk = 1.0, σε = 1.3

(1) Condition in the water intakes
The interface of the inlet of each pump and the water intake is treated as the boundary where the
velocity is given according to the prescribed flow rate of each pump, and also
where ūin and L are the velocity at the inlet of each pump and the characteristic length.
(2) Condition at the inlet of the sump
The inlet should be located at an open channel connecting to the sump, which is far enough from
the region of the sump. The boundary condition was
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(3) Wall condition

The wall function is employed to reduce the number of grid needed near the wall of the water
intakes, the sump and the open channel.
(4) Free surface condition
The upper surface of the water in the sump and the open channel is regarded as free surface. If
there is not tangent stress caused by wind and heat transfer with the aerosphere on the surface, the
velocity and kinetic energy on the free surface is treated the same as on the symmetrical surface.
However, according to Hossain (1980), the dissipation rate of kinetic energy is
where zs is the distance from the center of the element involving the free surface to the free surface.
ks is the kinetic energy of the element. The value of CBE is 0.07.
3 MULTI-BLOCK BODY FITTED GRID AND EQUATION DISCRETIZATION
Because the geometry of the solving domain of the sump of the pump station is much complicated,
the multiblock body fitted grid (Chen, 1986) is employed in this paper. The solving domain is
divided into several blocks, in each of which the grid is obtained respectively and is coupled on the
interface of neighboring block. z = z(ζ) is prescribed for the grid generation on z coordinates. The
body fitted grid is obtained by solving following Laplace equations
where
The finite volume method (Patankar S.V. et al. 1972) is employed for discretization of the
governing equations using above mentioned mesh grid.
4 NUMERICAL EXAMPLE OF THE FLOW IN THE SUMP OF THE PUMP STATION
The flow in two types of sump of the pump stations is calculated to validate the numerical method
presented in this paper. The first example is an outspread fanlike sump in which there are three
horizontal water intakes (Fig.1). The flow rate through water intakes 1 and 2 is the same, and the
flow rate through water intake 3 is zero.
Figure 2-A, -B and -C show the velocity and the stream line on the surface of the grid points
having the same value of η coordinates. The velocity and the stream line on the plane of the grid
points having the same value of z coordinates is shown in Fig.2-D. In this example, if the velocity
condition is given at the inlet of the sump and the non-gradient physical parameter condition is
given in the water intakes, the calculated flow rate through water intake 1 will not be equal to that
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A
Inlet of
solving
60
80 40
domain
40 1
2 Flow induction pier
56
400
928
60 40 80
30o
100 100 150 1450
Water intakes A
A-A
160
Figure 1. The contour of the outspread fanlike sump of the pump station.
near the bottom of the sump on axial symmetric plane of the water intakes
Figure 2. The calculated velocity and the stream line in the sump.
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Water intake 1 Water intakes 2
grid on x-y plane grid on y-z plane
Figure 3. Grid for calculation in the solving domain.
Figure 4. The velocity and streamline on the y-z symmetry plane of the two water intakes.
through water intake 2. From the pictures we can see that there exists a large circumfluence in front
of the water intake 3 because the flow rate through water intake 3 is zero.
The second example is a sump in which there are two vertical water intakes. The flow rate through
water intake 2 is two times that of water intake 1. Fig.3 shows the grid on the x-y plane where the
upper and lower water intake is water intake 1 and 2 respectively, and also the grid on the y-z axial
symmetry plane of the two water intakes.
Figure 4 shows the velocity and streamline on the y-z axial symmetry plane of the two water
intakes in the sump. Figures 5 and 6 show the velocity and streamline on the x-y plane at the
entrance of the water intakes and near the surface of the water in the sump respectively. From the
picture we can see the vortex in the sump caused by suction of water into the vertical water intakes.
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Figure 5. The velocity and streamline on the x-y Figure 6. The velocity and streamline on the x-y
plane at the entrance of the water intake. plane near the surface of the water.
Figure 7. The velocity and streamline on the x-z axial Figure 8. The velocity and streamline on the x-z
symmetry plane of the water intake 1. plane near the wall of the water intake 2.
Figure 7 shows the velocity and streamline on the x-z axial symmetry plane of the water intake 1.
The velocity and streamline on the x-z surface with y coordinate a little smaller than that of the
wall of the water intake 2 is shown in Fig.8. From the picture we can see that there exists flow
separation near the wall of the water intake 2 because of bigger flow rate through it.
5 CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, a numerical model for solving three-dimensional turbulent flow in the sump of the
pump station is presented. A reasonable boundary condition for the flow in the sump with multiple
water intakes, each of which may have different flow rate respectively, is proposed. The numerical
method of which the finite volume method is employed to solve the governing equation using the
body fitted grid obtained by multiblock grid technique is obtained. Two numerical examples using
the method obtained are presented in this paper. All the numerical results show that the numerical
method obtained is efficient for prediction of three-dimensional turbulent flow in the sump of the
pump station with multiple water intakes.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The support of the Shanghai Key Subject Program is gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
Constantinescu, G.S. & Patel, V.C., 1998, A numerical model for simulation of pump-intake flow and vortices,
ASCE Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, 124(2):123–134
Constantinescu, G.S. & Patel, V.C., 2000, Role of turbulence model in prediction of pump bay vortices, ASCE
Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, 126(5):387–391
Xu Yu, Wu Yu-lin & Wang Lin, 2001, Simulation of Vortex in a Pump Sump, Journal of Engineering
Thermophysics, 22(Suppl.):33–36(in Chinese)
Matahel, A., Tatsuaki, N. & George, C., 2002, Numerical simulation of inviscid three-dimensional flows at
single- and dual-pump intakes, Journal of Hydraulic Research, 40(4):461–470
Chen, Y.S., 1986, Computer code for three-dimensional incompressible flows using nonorthoganal body-fitted
coordinate system, NASA CR-178818
Patankar, S.V. & Spalding, D.B., 1972, A calculation procedure for heat, mass and momentum transfer in
three-dimensional parabolic flows, International Journal of Heat Mass Transfer, 15:1787–1806
Hossain, M.S., 1980, Mathematical Modeling of Turbulent Boundary Flows, Ph.D. Thesis, University of
Karlsruhe
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Slamming – horizontal circular members in intertidal zone
V. Hariprasad, S. Neelamani & R. Sundaravadivelu

Research Scholar, Associate Professor, Professor, Department of Ocean Engineering, Indian
Institute of Technology, Chennai, INDIA
ABSTRACT: Wave forces on slender horizontal and vertical cylinders are normally estimated
using Morison equation (1950). When a structural member is near the free water surface, it expe-
riences the slamming force, which is crucial to its design. The horizontal cylinders in the inter
tidal zone for Port craft jetties are subjected not only to slamming force in the vertical direction
and horizontal direction but also berthing force in the horizontal direction. If two cylinders are
kept in close spacing, then the load on each members will be different compared to force on a
single member kept alone. In this paper, the results of investigations of the effect of tidal variation
on slamming forces are reported. The comparison of single circular member and twin circular
members with c/c spacing varying from two to six times the diameter of cylindrical member in
regular waves is also included in this paper.
1 INTRODUCTION
Wave slamming forces on structural members closer to free water surface is one of the interesting
area in ocean engineering, which has good potential for research. API Recommended Practice 2A-
WSD (2000) recommends slamming coefficient CS equal to π for circular cross sectional members
near the still water level. But, unfortunately the slamming coefficient is found to be not a constant
value and it varies with respect to the following parameters:
1. Spacing between the cylinder and free water surface
2. Cross sectional shape of the member
3. Incident wave height
4. Wave period etc.
Experiments are conducted for single and twin cylinders of circular cross sectional shapes. The
horizontal and vertical forces on different cylinders are measured by keeping the distance between
the flume bed and centre of the cylinders constant and by varying the water depth (d) to simulate
the various tidal conditions (Example: Some of the locations in Gujarat coastal waters, where the
tidal variations are from 5 to 10 m).
The main purpose of this investigation is to study the effect of wave height, wave period, the
distance between the free water surface and the centre of the cylinders, the spacing between the cylin-
ders in the horizontal directions etc. on the vertical slamming coefficient (CSV ) and the horizontal
slamming coefficient (CSH ). The results of this investigation can be used for the hydrodynamic
design of horizontal cylinders in the intertidal zone for any ocean structure. This paper includes the
wave slamming forces on single circular cylinder and twin circular cylinder models due to regular
waves.
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
There are studies carried out on wave slamming forces around a single circular cylinders kept closer
to the free water surface and in the wave field. But the investigations did not cover a large range of
input conditions and hence warrants the present work.
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Dalton et al. (1976) has investigated the slamming forces on the horizontal member fixed in the
splash zone. The slamming coefficients obtained experimentally were reported to vary from 1.0
to 4.5. The variation of Cs with KC for different wave periods and at different submergence levels
was reported. Faltinsen et al. (1977) provided slamming coefficient as 3.1 for the numerical study
and 5.3 for experimental study. Garrison (1996) investigated the impact loads on circular members
both experimentally and theoretically. A new design method for computing stresses in cylindrical
members due to impact is developed based on the energy principle showing well agreement with the
experiments. Kaplan et al. (1976) presented a mathematical model for determining time histories
of vertical impact forces on platform horizontal structural members in the splash zone. Martin
et al. (1983) studied experimentally and theoretically the scattering of regular surface waves on
a fixed, half immersed circular cylinder, which is partially reflected and partially transmitted and
also induce hydrodynamic forces on the cylinder. Miyata et al. (1990) made an experimental
and numerical study of forces and flow about a circular cylinder steadily advancing beneath the
free surface. Sarpkaya (1978) estimated wave forces acting on horizontal cylinders subjected to
impact both theoretically and experimentally. The results have been expressed in terms of two
force coefficients one slamming coefficient at the time of impact and another drag coefficient
when cylinder is immersed approximately 1.8 times diameter inside water. It is found that at initial
instants of impact, CS is very close to the theoretical value of π. Also it is found that CS may be
amplified to a value as high as 6.3 through the dynamic response of the cylinder.
A detailed investigation of slamming forces on single horizontal cylinder for wide range of tidal
variation is not available in the literature. Also studies on twin cylinders in the splash zone are not
given much attention so far, which has motivated the authors to carryout this work. For experimental
investigations on the cylindrical members regular waves are generated in a wave flume of 30 m
length, 2 m wide and 1.7 m depth in the Department of Ocean Engineering, Indian Institute of
Technology, Chennai, India.
3 EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP, PROCEDURE
The experimental set up to solve the present problem is provided in Fig. 1. The experimental
investigations were carried out using a 0.063 m outer diameter circular cylinder model. Two load
cells are fixed at the two ends to measure the horizontal and vertical forces. Water depth is varied
Figure 1. Diagram showing the experimental setup.
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from 0.4 m, 0.45 m, 0.50 m, 0.55 m, and 0.6 m. Wave Periods are varied from 1 sec to 3 sec with
interval of 0.2 sec. Wave heights were varied from 10 cm to 25 cm with increment of 5 cm. This
model cylinder subjected to these lab conditions represent prototype wave heights of 2.5 to 6.25 m
and wave periods from 5 sec to 15 sec with a scale ratio of 1:25. The corresponding water depth in
the field is from 10.0 to 15 m. However, since the results are presented in non-dimensional form,
there is no need of strictly following the scale ratio of 1:25.
The experimental investigation was carried out first for single circular cylinder. The results of
this study are taken as the reference case for the force variation for the twin circular cylinders.
The spacing kept for double cylinder could represent prototype spacing of two-times diameter to
six-time diameter of the member. Fig. 2 shows all the required parameters, which are defined below.
The different ranges of the normalized hydrodynamic parameters obtained are shown in Table 1.
To measure the wave forces on the cylinders, two-component strain gauge type load cells of two
numbers, each of capacity 300N were fabricated. This loadcell is capable of measuring forces in the
horizontal (X) and vertical (Z) directions. These loadcells were fixed at the both of the cylinder with
proper sealing arrangements in order to prevent the entry of water into the cylinder. Final alignment
of the load cell was based on the elimination of vertical force channel output when the loadcell was
loaded in the horizontal direction, and vice-versa. Calibration was done by applying weights to the
model fixed with loadcell, which is mounted in the framework in the expected principal wave force
component directions.
S
D=0.063m
0.5 Z = (d-0.5)
H
d
Table 1. Ranges of the normalized hydrodynamic parameters.
Parameter Range
Incident wave steepness, H/L 0.013 to 0.102

Relative water depth, d/L 0.069 to 0.283
Normalized wave height, H/D 1.39 to 3.17
Relative level of submergence, z/D −1.59 to +1.59
Scattering parameter, D/L 0.009 to 0.033
Keulegan Carpenter Number, KC 5 to 21
Spacing parameter, S/D 2, 4 & 6
(S/D = 0 for single cylinder case)
where
Hi : Incident wave height (m)
D : Diameter of the cylinder (m) (D = 0.063 m)
d : Depth of water (m)
z : Distance between the centre of the cylinder and still water level (m)
(The origin is at the cylinder centre and ‘z’ is positive upward)
S : Centre to centre spacing between the cylinders (m)
L : Wave length (m)
KC : Keulegan Carpenter number (KC = umaxT/D)
umax : Maximum water particle velocity at SWL (m/sec) [umax = Hi gT/(2L)]
T : Wave period (sec)
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Four wave probes were used in the study. One to measure incident second kept infront of the first
cylinder, third in between the two cylinders and fourth one at its trailing edge. Standard conductance
type wave gauges were used for the measurements of wave fields. The natural frequency of the model
cylinder with setup is estimated experimentally, which are 44 Hz. Regular waves were generated
for a total duration of 60 s and the data were collected for 60 s at a sampling rate of 40 Hz.
4.1 General
The present experimental investigations on wave loads on the horizontal circular members were
carried out mostly in the drag-dominated region. The slamming force can be estimated as
where
FS : The slamming force
CS : The slamming coefficient
ρ : The water density
AP : The projected area of the member normal to the plane of impact, which is equal to D
per unit length of the circular cylinder
U : The maximum water particle velocity at SWL in the wave field.
The measured slamming coefficient is determined using threshold crossing analysis of the force
time series. From the horizontal force time series shoreward and seaward forces were obtained.
Similarly from the vertical force time series upward and downward forces were obtained. The
notations for the coefficients for the front (u/s) and rear (d/s) cylinders are shown below:
Csh1 : horizontal slamming coefficient in the front cylinder
Csv1 : vertical slamming coefficient in the front cylinder
Csh2 : horizontal slamming coefficient in the rear cylinder
Csv2 : vertical slamming coefficient in the rear cylinder
From the previous literatures the impact force is defined as the rate of change of momentum
associated with mass of water moving past the structure. When the body becomes more immersed,
buoyant force will be more predominant. Here in still water condition itself it is reduced so that
the obtained vertical force will be buoyant force excluded.
4.2 Typical wave force time series of the single and double cylinder cases
A typical plot of the horizontal and vertical wave force time series on the horizontal single and
twin circle (S/D = 4) cases for T = 2.0 s and H = 0.15 m for a water depth of d = 0.45 m is given in
Fig. 3. The cylinder is emerged (z = −5 cm). It is observed that the in-line force is higher than the
vertical force for the single cylinder case. For the twin cylinder case, it is seen that the horizontal
force is less than vertical force for the front cylinder. For the rear cylinder, the horizontal force is
more than the vertical slamming force. In all the plots, sharp peaks in the forces with smaller rising
time indicate the wave slamming effect. This increase in horizontal slamming forces on the rear
cylinder is due to the additional waves generated from the front cylinder.
4.3 Effect of Keulegan Carpenter KC on slamming forces on the horizontal circular member
for depth of submergence z/D = 0.0 and D/L = 0.016
The effect of KC number on horizontal and vertical slamming forces on the single cylinder and
twin cylinder cases are given in Fig. 4 for S/D = 2, 4 & 6 and z/D = 0.0. In general it is found
that as the KC value increases, Cs value reduces for all S/D values. In general, for all S/D ratios,
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Single circle (z/D = -0.8) Twin circle-(S/D=4)-(u/s) Twin circle-(S/D=4)-(d/s)

5 5 5
4 4 4
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
0 0 0
-1 -1 -1
-2 -2 -2
10 15 20 25 10 15 20 25 10 15 20 25
Time(sec) Time(sec) Time(sec)
5 5 5
4 4 4
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
0 0 0
-1 -1 -1
-2 -2 -2
10 15 20 25 10 15 20 25 10 15 20 25
Time(sec) Time(sec) Time(sec)
Figure 3. Time series of the in-line forces (horizontal and vertical) on the horizontal cylinder.
S/D = 0 S/D = 2
S/D = 4 S/D = 6
4 4
D/L=0.016
3 z/D=0.0 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
KC KC
S/D = 0 S/D = 2
S/D = 4 S/D = 6
7 8
6 D/L=0.016 7
z/D=0.0 6
5
5
4
4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
KC KC
Figure 4. Effect of KC on Cs for single and double circular cases for different S/D ratios.
the vertical slamming coefficient is more than the horizontal slamming coefficient. It seems that
vertical slamming coefficient of about 6.5 needs to be used in the design compared to a value of
1.5 for the horizontal slamming coefficient for S/D = 6. The vertical slamming is more significant
for the twin cylinder cases compared to the horizontal slamming force. The interference effect has
resulted in the reduction of horizontal slamming force in the case of twin cylinder compared to
the single cylinder case. But as the S/D ratio increases, this interference effect decreases and the
vertical slamming coefficient of S/D = 6 becomes almost equal with single cylinder case as KC
value increases from 7.5 to 15.
4.4 Effect of z/D on slamming forces on the horizontal circular member for
relative wave height H/D = 1.34-1.55 & D/L = 0.018 to 0.021
The effect of z/D on horizontal and vertical slamming forces on the single cylinder and twin cylinder
cases are given in Fig. 5 for three different S/D ratios and D/L = 0.018 to 0.021. It is interesting
to observe that, as the S/D increases from 0 (single cylinder case) to 6, all the slamming force
coefficients (both horizontal and vertical) decreases from S/D = 0 to 2 then it increases and at
S/D = 6 the slamming coefficient becomes almost near to the single cylinder case for z/D = −1.59
and +1.59. Also for all the cases the peak slamming force coefficient occurs when the cylinder is
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S/D = 0 S/D = 2
S/D = 4 S/D = 6
8 8
Emerged Submerged 7
7
6 D/L=0.014-0.017 6
5 H/D=1.42-1.57 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
-2 -1 0 1 2 -2 -1 0 1 2
z/D z/D
S/D = 0 S/D = 2
S/D = 4 S/D = 6
9 9
Submerged
8 Emerged 8
7 D/L=0.014-0.017 7
6 H/D=1.42-1.57 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
-2 -1 0 1 2 -2 -1 0 1 2
z/D z/D
Figure 5. The effect of z/D on Cs for single and double cylinder cases for different S/D ratios.
z/D = -1.6 z/D = -0.8

z/D = 0 z/D = 0.8
z/D = 1.6
5 5
D/L=0.014-0.017
4 H/D=2.95-3.17 4
3 3
Csh2
Csh1
2 2
1 1
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
S/D S/D
z/D = -1.6 z/D = -0.8

z/D = 0 z/D = 0.8
z/D = 1.6
5 5
D/L=0.014-0.017
4 H/D=2.95-3.17 4
3 3
Csv2
Csv1
2 2
1 1
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
S/D S/D
Figure 6. The effect of S/D on Cs for different z/D ratios for D/L = 0.014–0.017 and H/D = 1.42–1.56.
slightly emerged from the water. Hence to avoid such peak impact forces the designer should try
to avoid such configuration, if possible.
4.5 Effect of spacing ratio, S/D on the slamming forces on the horizontal circular member
for different submergence levels
a. The variation of S/D from 0.0 to 6.0 varies both the horizontal and vertical slamming force
coefficients, but the trend of variation is different for horizontal and vertical components and
for front cylinder and rear cylinder.
b. z/D = −0.8 is the critical case, which attracts the highest Cs for most of the S/D values.
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c. In general, when the cylinder is near to the still water level, the vertical slamming coefficient
is higher than the horizontal slamming coefficient for any S/D value.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The effect of z/D, KC, H/D and S/D are investigated on Csh and Csv due to regular waves by using
physical model studies. The salient important conclusions of this study are given below:
1. In general, as the Keulegan Carpenter number, KC increases, Cs value reduces for all d/L values
studied.
2. In general, for the single cylinder case, the vertical slamming coefficient is more than the
horizontal slamming coefficient by about 25% to 35%.
3. The vertical slamming is more significant for the twin cylinder case compared to the horizontal
slamming coefficient when cylinder is near still water level.
4. The interference effect has resulted in the reduction of horizontal slamming force in the case of
twin cylinder compared to the single cylinder case.
5. The peak slamming force coefficient occurs when the cylinder is slightly emerged from the
water. The designer should try to avoid such configuration, if possible.
REFERENCES
API Recommended Practice 2A-WSD (RP 2A-WSD), 2000. Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing
and Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms-W. S. Design, 134–140.
Dalton, C. & Nash, J. M., 1976. Wave Slam on Horizontal Members of an Offshore Platform, Offshore
Technology Conference in Houston, May, 769–780.
Faltinsen, O. et al. 1997. Water impact loads and dynamic response of horizontal circular cylinders in offshore
structure, 9th Annual Offshore Technology Conference in Houston, 2–5.
Garrison, C. J., 1996. Water impact loads on circular structural members, Applied Ocean Research, Vol. 18,
45–54.
Kaplan, P. & Mark Silbert, N., 1976. Impact Forces on Platform Horizontal Members in the Splash Zone,
Offshore Technology Conference in Houston, May, 749–758.
Miyata, H. et al. 1990. Forces on a circular cylinder advancing steadily beneath the free-surface, Ocean
engineering, Vol. 17, No. ½, 81–104.
Martin, P. A. & Dixon, A. G., 1983. The scattering of regular surface waves by a fixed, half immersed, circular
cylinder, Applied Ocean Research, Vol. 5, 13–23.
Sarpkaya, T., 1978. Wave impact loads on cylinders, 10th Annual Offshore Technology Conference, May, 8–11.
553
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Nonlinear wave motions in containers and wave breaking

characteristics
A. Royon, E.J. Hopfinger & A. Cartellier

LEGI-CNRS, Grenoble Cedex
ABSTRACT: Liquid sloshing in cylindrical and square containers has been investigated for con-
ditions where the container is subjected to lateral excitations giving rise to asymmetric gravity
wave motions. Image analysis as well as capacitance probe measurements of the time variation of
the wave amplitude were conducted to determine the wave motions and wave front destabilization.
Rayleigh-Taylor instability seems at the origin of the first observed, shorter wavelength instability
of the wave crest, followed by a longer wavelength instability which is rapidly amplified. The origin
of this longer wavelength destabilization is attributed to a parametric instability. Wave breaking
occurs when the forcing frequency is slightly below the linear resonance frequency. For frequencies
just above resonance, a swirling wave mode emerges.
1 INTRODUCTION
Liquid sloshing in containers is of considerable practical and fundamental interest. On the practical
side, large amplitude sloshing motions in fuel tanks of spacecrafts for instance can lead to a
destabilization by the varying forces exerted on the walls of the tank. On the fundamental side large
amplitude standing wave motion leads to instabilities of the wave crest or to a bifurcation from
sloshing to swirling (Abramson et al., 1966). While these phenomena are known, the mechanisms
are still unclear. The purpose of the present study was to determine the modes of sloshing in the
non-linear regimes and especially the conditions and mechanisms of wave breaking when the tank
is subjected to horizontal, harmonic forcing. The time dependency of these phenomena are also
more explicitly identified here. Experiments were conducted in circular cylindrical as well as square
containers subjected to a lateral forcing of displacement x(t) = Af cos ωt, where Af is the forcing
amplitude and ω the forcing frequency which was in the neighbourhood of the first asymmetric
mode frequency.
In Section 2 the experimental installation is described and in Section 3 observations of nonlinear
sloshing are presented. Conditions of wave breaking are discussed in Section 4 and the boundaries
of bifurcation to a swirling mode are given in Section 5.
2 EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS
The sloshing experiments were conducted in circular, cylindrical and square containers. One of the
cylindrical containers was made of plexiglass of diameter d = 300 ± 4 mm and 60 cm deep and the
other of glass of diameter d = 156 ± 1 mm and 25 cm deep. The square container, was made of glass
of 280 × 280 mm in cross-section and 50 cm deep. These containers, filled with water or alcohol
(glass container) to the desired depth h, were mounted on an oscillating table. The oscillating table
is driven by a linear motor with electro-magnetic control. It is possible to generate any displacement
from impulsive forcing to harmonic forcing as desired. The excitation frequency and amplitude
were, respectively controlled to within ω ≤ 0.05 rad/s and Af ≤ 0.02 mm. Figure 1 shows a
schematic drawing of the experimental configuration. The table displacement was measured with
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Figure 1. Schematic of the experimental installation. The tank is subjected to horizontal, harmonic forcing.
an optical displacement probe and the wave amplitude with capacitance probes. The capacitance
probes could be positioned anywhere in the container. In the cylindrical containers these were
positioned at about 1 cm from the tank wall and along a line parallel (θ = 0◦ ) and/or perpendicular
(θ = 90◦ ) to the direction of the container movement. The shape of the liquid surface was obtained
by visualizations using backlighting and image analysis. The results presented in this paper were
obtained for water.
3 NON-LINEAR SLOSHING
3.1 Visual observations

Figure 2 shows a side view (perpendicular to direction of tank motion) of large amplitude slosh-
ing and wave breaking. The horizontal scale in this figure is the tank diameter (here 300 mm).
Wave breaking such as shown in Fig. 2 is obtained close to but just below the linear resonance
frequency. This frequency is given by the general dispersion relation for surface waves. For cylin-
drical containers of radius R and liquid depth h the frequency of the first asymmetric mode is
2
ω11 = k11 g tanh k11 h with k11 = 2π/λ = 1.841/R, where k11 is the wave number and g the axial
(gravitational) acceleration. For the conditions of Fig. 2, ω11 = 11.1 s−1 (h ≈ 2R).
3.2 Forced mode

The analogy with forced oscillators (Landau & Lifchitz, 1966) allows a good prediction of the
growth and decay of sloshing motion. In particular, the maximum stationary amplitude of the
forced mode is:
where K = ω/ω11 and Af the lateral forcing amplitude. Equation (1) has been confirmed by exper-
iments (see Figure 3). The stationary amplitude of the forced mode is indeed independent of the
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Figure 2. Typical image of large amplitude liquid sloshing in a cylindrical tank of 30 cm diameter, showing
wave breaking (view perpendicular to the tank motion). The scale is given by the cylinder diameter, the
frequency of forcing is close to but slightly below the resonance frequency.
Figure 3. Amplitude–frequency diagram for different forcing amplitudes, 3.10−3 ≤ Af /R ≤ 2.7.10−2 . Solid
line corresponds to equation (1).
tank dimensions and depends only on forcing amplitude and frequency. Note also, that the sloshing
motion is in phase when K < 1 and out of phase when K > 1.
3.3 Damping
The free decay of oscillation amplitude or energy E is exponential (provided E/E per period is
small):
Miles (1958) gives for the damping coefficient γ = C1 ν1/2 R −3/4 g−1/4 where ν is the cinematic
viscosity and C1 a constant of order unity to be determined from experiments. The experimental
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value is C1 ≈ 0.8. The damping coefficient γ can be expressed in terms of a viscous time scale
tv = R 2 /ν and the Stokes layer thickness δs = (ν/ω11 )1/2
This indicates that wave dissipation takes place essentially in the Stokes boundary layers at the wall
(Batchelor, 1967).
3.4 Growth of asymmetric mode 1 near resonance conditions

Due to the negative non-linearity, of the wave amplitude–frequency relation (Taylor, 1953), the
nonlinear resonance frequency is shifted to a value slightly smaller than the linear resonant fre-
quency ω11 . Figure 4 shows the increase in wave amplitude as a function of the non-dimensional
time t/T. The excitation frequency was maintained at ω = 0.94ω11 up to t/T ≈ 10 so that the sloshing
motion remained at constant maximum amplitude. Then, the forcing frequency was increased by
a small increment ω to ω = 0.98ω11 and this leads to the growth in wave amplitude shown in
Figure 4. The wave amplitude grows practically linear with time and this grows is approximated by
where C2 is determined from experiments and is close to 0.7 in Figure 4. In general, C2 is a weakly
increasing function of Af /R. The wave amplitude increases until it reaches a value of about 1.5 bc
2
where bc = g/ω11 . Then, the increase levels off and the whole wave starts to disintegrate when
t/T > 28 and the amplitude falls rapidly back to the initial value. It is seen that the sloshing motion
is in phase up to b ≈ bc . The phase shift increases more and more rapidly and sloshing collapses
when the phase shift is 90◦ .
The value of bc corresponds to the condition of downward acceleration ω2 b = g. When the
downward acceleration of the wave crest is larger than g(b > bc ), onset of Rayleigh-Taylor instability
Figure 4. Amplitude of sloshing, non-dimensionalized by bc , as a function of non-dimensional time t/T. On

the left hand side the non-dimensional forcing amplitude x/R is given with xmax /R = Af /R = 0.023.
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is observed and perturbations can grow (Taylor, 1953). The critical amplitude for a cylindrical tank
of radius R is
the number of periods needed until onset of breaking is
4 BREAKING MECHANISMS
Figure 5 shows images of wave breaking, taken in the square container of L = 28 cm. A destabi-
lization of the wave front first appears when the wave front acceleration exceeds the acceleration of
gravity g, that is when b > bc = 0.32 L. The first destabilization is of short wavelength and develops
for almost 2 to 3 periods after bc has been reached. It is attributed to Rayleigh- Taylor instability
of wavelength λRT . Then, a second disturbance appears with wavelength λF > λRT (λF ≈ 0.5 L or
L). The two coexist for approximately 2–3 periods and then the short wave length disappears. The
amplitude of the long wavelength instability reaches large values. This long wavelength instability
is a higher harmonics Faraday instability (Miles & Henderson, 1990).
Figure 5. Images of the destabilization of the wave crest, viewed in the direction of the container motion at
successive periods t = T ≈ 0.6 s. (a), onset of Rayleigh-Taylor instability; (c) and (d), coexistence of R-T
and Faraday instability; (e) and (f), development of Faraday instability.
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Figure 6. Amplitude–frequency diagram for different forcing amplitudes Af . The amplitude is here
non-dimensionalized by the wavelength which is λ = 3.4 R. Open symbols sloshing mode, bold faced symbols
swirling mode. ∇ and , Af /R = 2.3 × 10−2 , R = 15 cm; and •, Af /R = 4.5 × 10−2 , R = 7.8 cm. Solid
and dashed lines, sloshing modes of Abramson et al (1966).
5 SWIRLING MODE
Most of the time the large amplitude sloshing motion bifurcates to a swirling motion, as was
shown already by Abramson et al. (1966). When the system is forced at the resonance frequency
of mode 1 or slightly above the motion always bifurcates to a swirling mode well before wave
breaking conditions are reached (already for b < bc ). This swirling motion is relatively robust.
Wave breaking via mode 1 can only be reached by a forcing slightly below the linear resonance
frequency. The boundaries of existence of the swirling mode depend on forcing amplitude and
frequency. For different relative excitation amplitudes these boundaries are indicated in Figure 6
and compared with the results of Abramson et al. (1966).
It is seen from Figure 6 that the swirling mode, once established, can be maintained up to
frequencies of nearly twice the resonant frequency. This is because the swirling wave mode generates
a rotation of the liquid, hence increasing the effective resonance frequency by the Doppler shift.
The amplitude of the swirling wave motion can reach values of 2 bc or b ≈ R without breaking
(bc = g/ω2 ).
6 CONCLUSIONS
The sloshing motion in containers subjected to a harmonic forcing, at frequencies close to the res-
onance frequency of the first asymmetric mode, exhibits some interesting behaviours. The wave
amplitude increases nearly linearly with time and the growth rate is proportional to the forcing
amplitude. Incipient destabilization of the wave crest (near the wall) is observed when the ampli-
tude reaches a value bc = g/ω2 , that is, when the downward acceleration of the liquid surface
is equal to the gravitational acceleration. Experiments show that the maximum wave amplitude
can considerably exceed this critical value (almost by a factor of 1.5 to 2) so that the wave front
acceleration can exceed g. The wave crest is, therefore, expected to be Rayleigh-Taylor unstable.
Onset of such an instability is actually observed (see Figure 5) but is rapidly replaced by a longer
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wavelength instability which is of the Faraday type. These breaking events occur mainly at forcing
frequencies slightly below the linear resonance frequency.
At resonant forcing or slightly above, the sloshing mode always bifurcates to a swirling wave
mode, similar to what is observed for pendulum. Contrary to the pendulum, the swirling mode
can be maintained up to forcing frequencies of about 1.5 times the resonant frequency (Figure 6).
This is possible because the swirling wave mode generates a rotational motion of the liquid, hence
increasing the effective frequency of the swirling wave mode by the Doppler shift.
The rate of damping of sloshing amplitude after the forcing has been stopped is shown to be
predicted by the theoretical model of Miles (1958) with the unknown constant determined from
experiments.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by CNES grant n◦ 5866 under the COMPERE program.
REFERENCES
Abramson, H.N., Chu, W. H. & Doge, F. T. 1966. Nonlinear effects in lateral sloshing. In “Dynamic behaviour
of liquids in moving containers”, NASA Report SP-105, Chapter 3, pp. 79–103
Batchelor, G.K. 1967. An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics. Cambridge University Press
Landau, L. & Lifchitz, E. 11966. Mécanique, Mir
Miles, J.W. 1958. Ring damping of free surface oscillations in a circular tank; J. Appl. Mech. 25, pp. 274–276
Miles, J.W. & Henderson, D. 1990. Parametrically forced surface waves; Ann. Rev. Fluid Mech. 22, pp. 143–165
Taylor, G.I. 1953. An experimental study of standing waves. Proc. Royal Soc. A, vol CCXVIII, pp. 44–59
561
chap-73 20/9/2004 16: 40 page 563

Effects of travelling water screen configurations on pump sump flows
Kao-Shu Hwang & Ching-Hsu Yang

Tainan Hydraulics Laboratory, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
Hwung-Hweng Hwung
Department of Hydraulic and Ocean Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
ABSTRACT: Flow fields under a center-flow screen (CFS) and a through flow screen (TFS)
configurations of a circulating water pump (CWP) sump were investigated. To improve the filter-
ing efficiency, the TFS type of screen was replaced by the CFS type. However, this configuration
change in turn caused worse flow conditions and excessive vibrations. Based on dynamic simil-
itude, a 1:10 scaled sump model test was conducted. The flow field in the approach channel of
the CFS layout was characterized by shedding vortexes from the two sides of the dividing wall.
Wall-attached subsurface vortexes were observed occasionally around the suction bell. Free sur-
face vortexes in both sump configurations seemed to be a rather minor effect than those of the
wall-attached subsurface vortexes to the flow. Velocity measurements showed that the flow condi-
tions in the CFS layout were much more unsteady and non-uniform than those of the TFS type. To
provide a more steady and uniform flow condition, several added devices proposed to prevent flow
separation and to well-guide the flow into the suction bell were tested.
1 INTRODUCTION
Excessive vibrations were detected on a circulating water pump of the Sheh-Ho power plant after
it’s through flow screen type of travelling water screen of the sump was renewed with a center-flow
screen type. Sources causing pump vibrations may include: 1. Poor installation, ex, shaft mis-
alignment; 2. Resonance when the nature frequency of the machine is nearly equal to the exciting
frequency; 3. Flow problems, ex, vortexes generated by fluid passing through obstructions and
4. Insufficient net positive suction head (NPSH) that is likely to induce cavitation and associated
vibration. A preliminary in situ inspection had excluded the first two reasons. Moreover, the exces-
sive vibrations were usually taken place during lower tide level at spring tides. A lower water level
not only represents the decrease on the suction head, average velocities would also increase and
result in adverse flow and more head loss. So that the subsequent efforts were concentrated on the
remained two possibilities.
A sump is a buffer between the open environments and the pump. Its main function is to provide
a satisfactory flow condition for pump performance. Tullis (1979) summarized some common flow
related problems of a generic sump intake. Among these, there were four problems that could cause
pump vibrations, which are: 1. Air-entraining free surface vortices; 2. Wall-attached subsurface
vortices; 3. High-level of non-uniformity and unsteadiness of the flow and 4. Flow separation at
pump suction bell.
A high efficiency travelling water screen is of great importance where large volume of water
must be screened to remove floating and suspended material that could badly damage the pump. To
improve the filtering efficiency in a circulating water system of power plants, more and more modern
types of travelling screen have been recommended. Among these configurations, the “CFS” has
been one of the most popular types. Most traditional types of travelling water screens, for example,
the so-called “TFS” type, are simply to install the screens perpendicularly to the sidewalls of the
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Figure 1. A through-flow screen (left) and a center-flow screen configuration (right) of pump sumps.
sumps. Fluid passing through this kind of screen will go straightforward to the downstream pump
suction mouth. Besides, screens of this kind have more or less some regulated effects on the flows.
While for the “CFS” type, normally the flow is guided to pass a short contracted tunnel first. Then
it plunges on a dividing wall and turns 90 degree toward the two screens, which were installed
parallelly to the side-walls. After penetrating the screen, it immediately turns 90 degree again as
striking on the side-wall and finally ejects into the downstream channel. Flows passing through this
kind of screen just like two jets issuing into a pool and forming a pair of large scale vortexes in the
approaching channel (Figure 1). A CFS may improve the filtering efficiency, while from the view
point of a more favorable flow condition to the pumps, the configuration of a TFS sump obviously
provide a more uniform and steady flow than that of the CFS type. The head loss as flows passing
through a TFS sump would also be smaller than that of the CFS type.
Flow fields in pump sumps have received significant attention because of their importance in
practical applications. Flow conditions to generate free surface vortexes and subsurface vortexes
have been extensively studied by Jain et al. (1978), Hecker (1987) and Ranga & Grade (1987).
To well-model a prototype pump sump flow phenomena, special cares on hydraulic modeling
scale effects were presented by Jain et al. (1978) and Padmanabhan & Hecker (1984). As for
practical design phase, Padmanabhan (1987) proposed some pump sumps design recommendations
and added devices to cope with adverse flow conditions. Most of the updated popular design
guidelines such as the “American National Standard for Pump Intake Design” (referred as HI (1998)
hereafter) and “The Hydraulic Design of Pump Sumps and Intakes” (referred as BHRA hereafter)
have upgraded their contents with the mentioned contemporary research results. Recently, Arboleda
& El-Fadel (1996) and Ansar & Nakato (2001) have considered effects of the approaching channel
flows under various sump geometry. However, none of the above reference has looked into flow
fields inside a complicated pump sump geometry like the CFS type yet. In this paper, a case study
on a CWP sump in the Sheh-Ho fossil power plant, Taipei, Taiwan is presented. The objectives of
this study are to observe flow fields under the mentioned two sump configurations, qualitatively
and quantitatively. Then some guiding structures were proposed to prevent flow separation and to
well-guide the flow into the suction bell.
2 EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP AND PROCEDURES
2.1 Model design and construction

The flow fields in a pump intake being apparently dominated by the gravity and the inertia forces,
the dynamic similitude between the model and the prototype was based on the Froude similarity.
In addition, in studying flow fields involving a potential that could generate vortexes, the model to
prototype length scale should be large enough to minimize viscous and surface tension scale effects.
Base on the above considerations, a 1:10 geometrically undistorted sump model was constructed.
The approaching channel length, counted from the dividing wall to the suction bell centerline, was
6.450 m, the channel width was 0.430 m. The suction bell diameter, D, was 0.213 m and the suction
pipe diameter, d, was 0.160 m. The clearance from the floor to the bell mouth, C, was 0.064 m, the
distance from the pipe center to the back wall was 0.128 m. The prototype cooling system withdraws
7.8 CMS from the sump, the model flow rate was thus 24.7 liters/s. The corresponding Reynolds
number based on the average axial velocity at the bell mouth and its diameter was 1.39 × 105 . The
Weber number was 1.38 × 104 . Both index numbers were larger than the minimum suggested values
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sluice gate U-shape contraction

stop log travelling screen
dividing wall X6 X1
forebay ADV ADV

64
tank
50 200 397
flow meter
X6 X1
pump
perforated plates LLWL LLWL
427
645 128
unit : mm
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of experimental set-up and locations of the measured points.
in the HI (1998). All major structures that could influence the flows including the stop log, the
sluice gate, the U-shape contraction, the travelling screen, the dividing wall, the beams, the suction
bell and even the three guide vans fixed inside the suction bell were precisely simulated. Special
care was taken in modeling the traveling screen to keep the same head loss coefficient between
the model and the prototype. The sidewalls and the bottom were all made of reinforced transparent
glass. The bell mouth and part of the suction pipe were made of acrylic resin. A schematic diagram
of the model and the accessory apparatus is illustrated in Figure 2.
2.2 Instrumentation
A centrifugal pump driven by a frequency-adjustable motor was used to withdraw desired quantity of
flows. The discharges were measured by a calibrated magneto-inductive flow meter. Instantaneous
water surface levels at different locations were measured by capacitance type surface elevation gages
with 25 Hz. Two acoustics Doppler velocimeters (ADV, Sontech 16-Mhz) were used to measure
instantaneous three-components velocities at different points. The sampling rate was 25 Hz and the
sampling length was 120 seconds. All theADV measuring points were distributed in the approaching
channel between the dividing wall and the front face of the suction pipe supporting deck (Figure 2).
A swirl meter composed of four blades with zero pitch was installed in suction pipe to measure the
rotation frequency.
The test conditions are listed in Table 1. Velocity measurements were performed only in two cases
for comparing the flow fields under the two sump geometry. For cases without added devices, three
water levels were simulated. While for the rest cases, only the low tide level, which was also the
most critical condition, was considered.
3.1 Hydraulic performance

Before proceeding to see details in the approaching flows, an alternative was to measure the swirl
in the suction pipe. This has been a widely adopted method on qualifying whether a sump is
hydraulically well design or not. It is because that either the generation of free surface vortexes or
subsurface vortexes would contribute to the swirl in the suction pipe eventually. Table 1 shows that
under the same sump configuration, the lower the tide level, the larger the swirl angle. The definition
of a swirl angle is the arctangent of the ratio between the tangential and the axial velocities in the
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Table 1. Test configurations and swirl angles
Max. swirl ADV

Case Configurations and water levels angle (◦ ) measurement
Sg_H TFS at high tide 2.5 –

Sg_M TFS at mean tide 4.0 –
Sg_L TFS at low tide 5.8 Yes
Du_H CFS at high tide 5.6 –
Du_M CFS at mean tide 8.2 –
Du_L CFS at low tide 11.8 Yes
Du_CN_L CFS & floor cone at low tide 2.6 –
Du_SP_L CFS & floor splitter at low tide 1.4 –
Du_FI_L CFS & corner fillet at low tide 8.8 –
Du_CN_FI_L CFS & floor cone & corner fillet at low tide 6.5 –
Du_SP_FI_L CFS & floor splitter & corner fillet at low tide 2.0 –
Figure 3. Large scale vortexes form behind the dividing wall (left); Wall-attached subsurface vortexes form
around the suction bell (right).
suction pipe. The swirl angle for the CFS type is about two times greater than that of the TFS type.
Following HI (1998), the accepted swirl angle should be less than 5◦ . Based on this criterion, the
both sump configurations were not acceptable under the low tide level. In this paper, the maximum
swirl angle values were used for comparison simply because that the normally used average swirl
angle seemed not sensitive enough to reflect the different incoming flow conditions. And this was
probably due to the fact that there had been three guide vanes fixed inside the suction bell already.
Dye injection illuminating with a laser light sheet was able to reveal a pair of large-scale vor-
texes forming downstream the dividing wall (Figure 3, left). For the both configurations, only up
to the “Type 2” free surface vortexes classified in the HI (1998) were observed even under the
lowest operation water level. The suction bell seemed to be free from surface disturbance and the
available NPSH value should be enough. On the other hand, sidewall-attached, backwall-attached
and bottom-attached subsurface vortexes were intermittently detected around the suction bell when
used dye-injection or seeded with fluorescent particles (Figure 3, right). De Siervi et al. (1982)
indicated that the amplification of ambient vorticity had been a basic mechanism of wall-attached
intake vortex generation. Padmanabhan (1987) also pointed out that one of the major sources caus-
ing wall-attached subsurface vortexes could be the existence of high velocity gradients. Velocity
measurements at three layers indicated that the TFS type apparently had more uniform velocity
distributions than those of the CFS type. Large-scale vortexes in Z coordinate were also identified
in the CFS sump. The upper layer velocity distribution of the TFS type showing two parts moving
oppositely was believed to be influenced by the sluice gate (Figure 4). To see the unsteadiness of
the flow, the standard deviations for each component of velocities at different measured points on
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sluice gate sluice gate
0.5m/s 0.5m/s
150 mm
150 mm
50 mm
0.5m/s
0.5m/s
0.5m/s 0.5m/s
Figure 4. Mean velocities on different levels for the CFS type (left) and the TFS type (right).
50 Y060_DU Y060_DU Y060_DU

Y110_DU Y110_DU Y110_DU
Y160_DU Y160_DU Y160_DU
Y210_DU Y210_DU Y210_DU
Y260_DU Y260_DU Y260_DU
40 Y310_DU Y310_DU Y310_DU
Y360_DU Y360_DU Y360_DU
Y367_DU Y367_DU Y367_DU
Y060_SG Y060_SG Y060_SG
Y110_SG Y110_SG Y110_SG
30 Y160_SG Y160_SG Y160_SG
Z (cm)
Y210_SG Y210_SG Y210_SG

Y260_SG Y260_SG Y260_SG
Y310_SG Y310_SG Y310_SG
Y360_SG Y360_SG Y360_SG
20 Y367_SG Y367_SG Y367_SG
10
0
0 4 8 12 16 4 8 12 16 4 8 12 16
U_std (cm/s) V_std (cm/s) W_std (cm/s)
Figure 5. Three components velocity standard deviations on section X1 (symbol legends with SG:TFS; symbol
legends with DU:CFS).
section “X1” were calculated. Figure 5 shows the velocity standard deviations of the CFS type
were two to four times greater than that of the TFS type for the corresponding point.
3.2 Modified layout

Hecker (1987) showed that in many applications, those of wall-attached subsurface vortexes would
sometimes be even more detrimental than those of free surface vortexes. Fundamental ways to
reduce subsurface vortexes are to eliminate large velocity gradients in the flow and to avoid ambient
or upstream flow separation. Checking the prototype sump dimensions with those which recom-
mended in HI (1998), it quickly showed inadequacy for the back-wall clearness and the approaching
channel length. Thought it’s not practical to use current standards to check a sump constructed some
30 years ago, it had revealed the reason why even the swirl angle in the original geometry (TFS)
was sometimes over the acceptable criterion at lower tides. Unless to re-constructed or to re-layout
the whole sump, the shortage on the back-wall clearness and the approaching channel length had
been the facts. A more realistic approach was to find possible solutions needless to re-construct
the civil work.
There have been some conceptual added devices to reduce subsurface vortexes proposed in the
HI (1998) and the BHRA. A floor cone, a floor triangle splitter and corner fillets were selected and
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fillet
A 1.2m
cone 0.6m splitter 0.6m
A Section A-A
Figure 6. Modified layouts to reduce subsurface vortexes.
arranged in several configurations (Figure 6). To survey a better added structure, the swirl angle
was used again as a judge index. The performance of the floor triangle splitter was obviously the
most effective one, while the corner fillets were the poorest.
4 CONCLUSIONS
The CFS type of sump configuration resulted in a worse approaching flow conditions that lost both
the steadiness and the uniformity possessed in the TFS layout. Wall-attached subsurface vortexes
were identified intermittently around the suction bell and was believed to contribute much more
than the free surface vortexes on increasing the swirl angle in the suction pipe. The maximum swirl
angle of the CFS type is about two times greater than that of the TFS type in all corresponding
upstream flow conditions. Judging by the modern design guidelines, the back-wall clearness and
the approaching channel length of the both sump geometry were apparently too short. Not to re-
construct the sump, several added devices to well-guide the flow into the suction bell were proposed
and tested. The floor triangle splitter was the most recommended in this sump.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was supported by the Research Institute of Taiwan Power Company, Taiwan, R.O.C.,
under Grant No. T5469200004 and partially supported by the Ministry of Education, Taiwan,
R.O.C., under Grant No. 91-E-FA09-7-3.
REFERENCES
Ansar, M. & Nakato, T. 2001. Experimental Study of 3D Pump-Intake Flow with and without Cross Flow,
J. of Hydr. Eng., ASCE, 127(10): 825–834.
Arboleda, G. & El-Fadel, M. 1996. Effects of approach flow conditions on pump sump design, J. of Hydr.
Eng., ASCE, 122(9): 489–494.
De Siervi, F., Viguier, H.C., Greitzer, E.M. & Tan, C.S. 1982. Mechanism of inlet vortex formation, J. Fluid
Mech., 124: 173–207.
Hecker, G.E. 1987. Fundamentals of Vortex Intake Flow, In J. Knauss (cor. ed.), Swirling Flow Problems at
Intakes: 13–38. Rotterdam: Balkema.
Jain, A.K., Raju, K.G.R. & Garde, R.J. 1978. Vortex Formation at Vertical Pipe, Intakes, J. of Hydr. Div., ASCE,
104(HY10): 1429–1445.
Padmanabhan, M. & Hecker, G.E. 1984. Scale Effects in Pump Sump Models, J. of Hydr. Eng., ASCE, 110(11):
1540–1556.
Padmanabhan, M. 1987. Design recommendations – Pump sumps, In J. Knauss (cor. ed.), Swirling Flow
Problems at Intakes: 101–123. Rotterdam: Balkema.
Prosser, M.J. 1977. The Hydraulic Design of Pump Sumps and Intakes, Bedford, England: British Hydromech
Research Association.
Ranga Raju, K.G. & Grade, R.J. 1987. Modelling of Vortices and Swirling Flows, In J. Knauss (cor. ed.),
Swirling Flow Problems at Intakes: 77–90. Rotterdam: Balkema.
Tullis, J.P. 1979. Modeling in Design of Pumping Pits, J. of Hydr. Div., ASCE, 105(9): 1053–1063.
American National Standard for Pump Intake Design. 1998. New Jersy: Hydraulic Institute.
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Air entrainment induced by vorticity–free-surface interaction
A. Iafrati & E.F. Campana

INSEAN – Italian Ship Model Basin – Rome, Italy
ABSTRACT: The free surface dynamics induced by a rising vortex pair is numerically investigated
through a two-fluids Navier-Stokes solver coupled with a Level-Set technique for the interface
capturing. Surface tension is modelled with a continuum force acting on a small neighbourhood of
the interface. The method is applied to simulate the motion of a viscous vortex pair rising toward the
free surface leading to a strong vorticity–free-surface interaction. A validation of the approach is
carried out for a gentle rising vortex, recovering single-fluid results available in literature obtained
by using moving grid technique. At higher Froude numbers a much larger free surface distortion
takes place, eventually giving rise to the air entrainment which changes the dynamics of the primary
vortex. The Weber number is found to play an important role on that respect as well.
1 INTRODUCTION
A strong vorticity–free-surface interaction is studied through a two-fluids numerical model. The

method is applied to simulate the viscous interaction of a vortex pair rising vertically toward the
free surface. This problem has been investigated by Ohring & Lugt (1991) (referred to hereinafter
as OL) who used a single fluid model based on a boundary fitted, moving grid approach. In their
study, OL performed a parametric study by varying the free surface stiffness and evaluating the
effect on the dynamics of the primary vortex. The occurrence of secondary vorticity structures
has been found, intensity of which depends on the free surface compliance and can significantly
affect the path of the primary vorticity peak. The decay rate of the primary vortex peak and the free
surface deformation are evaluated as well. Owing to the adopted numerical approach, results are
limited by capability of the numerical method to describe the flow in presence of large free surface
deformation.
The above limitation motivated the analysis of the same flow by using a two-fluids approach which
can easily handle the occurrence of strong free surface deformations, even beyond the conditions at
which air entrainment occurs (Iafrati et al. 2001). The model is based on a Navier-Stokes solver for
a single incompressible fluid having density and viscosity smoothly varying across the interface.
The formulation is written in curvilinear coordinates and solved with a fractional step approach
(Zang et al. 1994). The interface between air and water is captured with the help of a Level-Set
technique, as proposed in Sussman et al. (1994) while surface tension effects are introduced in the
form of a continuum force as suggested by Brackbill et al. (1992).
As a first step, the two fluid model is carefully verified and validated and comparisons with
results presented in OL are established for two sets of governing parameters for which free surface
is stiff enough to prevent air to be entrained. Then, the free surface stiffness is reduced and the
occurrence of air entrainment. The last result significantly differs from what found in OL for the
same parameter set.
2 TWO-FLUIDS NAVIER-STOKES SOLVER
With the aim of describing the free surface flow even when complex topologies of the air and water
domains occur, the two-fluids flow is modelled as that of a single fluid with physical properties,
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like density and viscosity, varying smoothly across the interface. By assuming the fluids to be
incompressible and temperature uniform, in generalised coordinates continuity and momentum
equations governing the flow are given by
where ui is the i-th cartesian velocity component, δij is the Kronecker delta and
are the Froude, Reynolds and Weber number, respectively, with Ur = /(2πa) denoting the transla-
tion velocity of the vortex pair, and a being the initial values of the circulation and of the distance
between them, while ρw and µw are the density and dynamic viscosity in water.
In the above equations, Um denotes the volume flux through the ξm surface, J −1 the inverse of the
Jacobian, k the local free surface curvature and G ml , Bmlji are metric quantities which are defined
in Iafrati & Campana (2003) and not repeated herein. As originally suggested in Brackbill et al.
(1992), surface tension contributions to the momentum equation are modelled with a continuum
force, intensity of which comes from the gradient of a smoothed Heaviside function defined as
where d is the signed normal distance from the interface, positive in water and negative in air. The
thickness of the region along which surface tension effects are spread is governed by the parameter
δT . In the calculations this parameter is assumed large enough to include at least five grid cells.
In terms of the numerical solution of the above set of equations, the system of Navier-Stokes
equations is discretized on a non-staggered grid layout in a way similar to that suggested by Zang
et al. (1994): cartesian velocity components and pressure are defined at the cell center whereas
volume fluxes are defined at the mid point of the cell faces. A fractional step approach used to
advance the system in time. In the predictor step, the momentum equation is integrated by neglecting
the pressure contribution which is successively reintroduced when enforcing the continuity of
the velocity field (corrector step). When discretizing in time the momentum equation, a Crank-
Nicolson scheme is used for the dominating diffusive part while all other terms are computed
explicitly with a third order low storage Runge-Kutta method. At the end of the predictor step
an auxiliary velocity field ûi is obtained which is not necessarily divergence free. Hence, in the
corrector step, the continuity of the velocity field is enforced within each cell, leading to a Poisson
equation in terms of the pressure corrector φ (Rai & Moin 1991, Kim & Moin 1985). The numerical
solution of the discrete Poisson equation is achieved though a multigrid technique. The auxiliary
velocity fluxes at the cell faces, which appear at the source term of the Poisson equation, are
obtained through a quadratic upwind interpolation.
At t = 0 the function d is initialised as the signed normal distance from the interface and the
density and viscosity distributions in the domain are assigned according to the equation
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where f (d) is the local value of the physical property nondimensionalised by the corresponding
value in water fw , while fa is the value in air and δP is the thickness of the region along with the
jumps in physical properties is spread by the smoothed Heaviside function. During the motion, the
function d is simply transported by the flow through the equation
and the new location of the air-water interface is captured as the level-set d = 0 (Sussman et al.
1994). But for the fluid particles lying on the free surface, the function d, initialised as the distance,
looses its geometrical meaning. In other words, in the new configuration the actual distance from
the interface differs from the local value of d.As a result, in order to ensure a uniform and constant
thickness of the transition region, the function d is reinitialised at every time step as the minimum
(signed) distance from the interface.
3 NUMERICAL RESULTS
The numerical method described in the previous section is used to simulate the flow generated by
a viscous vortex pair vertically rising toward the free surface. A similar study has been carried out
by OL who used a boundary fitted numerical method which describes the flow in a single fluid by
tracking the free surface through a moving-grid approach. In that approach, the interface is sharp
and exact boundary condition are applied there. OL performed a parametrical study by varying the
Reynolds, Froude and Weber numbers and evaluated the different behavior in terms of free surface
deformation, path and decay of the primary vortices and secondary vorticity resulting from the
interaction.
On the basis of the above considerations, a careful verification and validation of the present two-
fluid model is carried out, aimed at understanding the role played by the two parameters δP and
δT governing the interface smoothness. In the calculation shown hereinafter, two grids (400 × 304
and 800 × 608) are used to discretize the computational domain −11 ≤ x1 ≤ 11, −6 ≤ x2 ≤ 6. The
coarse one is uniform in the region |x1 | ≤ 3, −4 ≤ x2 ≤ 0.5 with x1 = x2 = 0.02, while a gradually
growing grid spacing is adopted outside. It is worth noticing that the grid spacing used for the coarse
grid is comparable to that adopted in OL to discretize the fluid domain at t = 0, although in the
moving grid approach the grid size changes in space and time due to the deformation of the fluid
boundary.
At t = 0, the free surface is assumed to be flat and the centres of the submerged vortices located at
(x1 , x2 ) = (±0.5, −3). In the vicinity of the vortex centre the Lamb’s formula for the decaying vortex
is used to assign the initial velocity distribution whereas the potential velocity field is used further.
All along the boundary of the computational domain the two velocity components are assigned
by a second order extrapolation. More details concerning the initial and boundary conditions are
described in OL. In the present two-fluids formulation density and viscosity ratios are assumed as
the real ones for air and water.
With the aim of investigating the role played by the finite thickness along which the density
jump is smeared, a first calculation is performed for the case Re = 100, Fr = 0.2, We = 0. The
calculation is done by using the two grids with the same thickness δP = 0.05, thus implying that
five and ten grid cells are within the transition region in the coarse and fine grid computations,
respectively. In Figure 1a,b the vorticity contours obtained with the two grids at time t = 6.5 are
drawn by using the same levels as in OL. Time sequences provided by the two calculations (not
shown here) are in quite good agreement between them and compare well with the results by OL.
The most relevant difference between the two figures concerns the lack of the vorticity contour at
ω = +0.45 in the coarse grid result. In order to investigate if this lack is associated to an excessive
numerical diffusion, the dissipation rate of the primary vortex is evaluated and compared with
the theoretical law given by Lamb (1932) from which it follows that the vorticity peak decays as
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(a) (b)
Figure 1. Coarse (a) (400 × 304) and fine (b) (800 × 608) grid computations for Re = 100, Fr = 0.2, We = 0
and same thickness δP = 0.05. The vorticity contours at t = 6.5 show the lack of the contour at ω = +0.45 in
the coarse grid result, while fine grid computation exactly recovers the OL contour distribution.
(a) (b)
Figure 2. (a) Comparison between the computed dissipation rate (coarse and fine grids) of the primary vortex
and the theoretical law (Lamb) reveals a good agreement up to t ≈ 6. (b) Paths of the vorticity peak obtained
with the coarse and fine grids.
(a) (b)
Figure 3. Effect of the δT on the generation of secondary vorticity for the case Re = 100, Fr = 0.4, We = 1.
On δT = 0.05 and δT = 0.025 have been used for the calculation shown in (a) and (b), respectively.
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Figure 4. Time sequence of the rising vortex pair for Re = 100, Fr = 0.4, We = 0 (coarse grid, δP = 0.1). The
entrapped air bubble wraps around the primary vortex and gradually rises due to the buoyancy and eventually
approaches the free surface.
|ωMAX | = Re/[2(t + tL )], where tL = 0.25 according to the initial data. The decay of the vorticity
peak obtained with the two grids are essentially overlapped and a rather good agreement with the
theoretical estimate can also be noted up to t ≈ 6 (see Figure 2a). After this time the intense free-
surface/vortex interaction begins to matter, giving rise to a faster decay rate. On the basis of the
above considerations, it can be said that the coarse grid accurately describes the vorticity dynamics
while the (weak) underproduction of secondary vorticity is due to the small number of grid cells
within the transition region. In Figure 2b the paths of the vorticity peak obtained with the two grids
are shown and differences are always smaller than the cell dimension.
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In order to get a better comprehension of the role played by the thickness of the region along
which surface tension effects are smeared, two calculations are performed for the case Re = 100,
Fr = 0.4, We = 1 by using the fine grid with δP = 0.05 and two different values of δT (0.05 and
0.025). Also in this case the two time sequences (not shown) are in rather good agreement with the
results shown in OL. The vorticity plots at t = 5.0, displayed in Figure 3a,b, show that the contour
at ω = +1 is missing when using δT = 0.05. Hence, in order to correctly evaluate surface tension
effects, they have to be spread onto a region which is region small compared to the local radius
of curvature but still large enough to include at least five grid cells to assure that the continuum
model works appropriately.
What presented so far shows that the two-fluids model adopted is rather accurate and allows to
face problems where a large free surface deformation can lead to entrainment of air. Hence, the case
Re = 100, Fr = 0.4, We = 0 is numerically simulated by using the coarse grid and δP = 0.1. Some of
the most relevant configurations of the time sequence are shown in Figure 4a-l and clearly display
the entrapment of an air bubble not found in OL. In order to give an explanation for this difference,
we observe that the density contour at ρ = (ρa + ρw )/2 taken at t = 3.5 is rather distorted, probably
beyond the maximum distortion permitted by the moving grid approach (see comment to Figure
3 in OL). In spite of this very remarkable difference, some similarities in terms of the secondary
vorticity produced can be found at least until t = 4.5 when the air bubble has not yet significantly
affected the dynamics of the primary vortex. Successively, the air bubble wraps around the primary
vortex and gradually rises due to the buoyancy, eventually approaching the free surface on the top
and disappearing.
REFERENCES
Brackbill, J.U., Kothe, D.B. & Zemach, C. 1992. A continuum model for modeling surface tension. Journal of
Fluid Mechanics 100: 335–354.
Iafrati, A., Di Mascio, A. & Campana, E.F. 2001. A level-set technique applied to unsteady free surface flows.
International Journal for Numerical Methods in Fluids 35: 281–297.
Iafrati, A. & Campana, E.F. 2003. A domain decomposition approach to compute wave breaking. International
Journal for Numerical Methods in Fluids 41: 419–445.
Kim, J. & Moin, P. 1985. Application of a fractional-step method to incompressible Navier-Stokes equations.
Journal of Computational Physics 59: 308–323.
Lamb, H. 1932. Hydrodynamics. New York: Dover.
Ohring, S. & Lugt, H.J. 1991. Interaction of a viscous vortex pair with a free surface. Journal of Fluid
Mechanics 227: 47–70.
Rai, M.M. & Moin, P. 1991. Direct simulation of turbulent flow using finite-difference schemes. Journal of
Computational Physics 96: 15–53.
Sussman, M., Smereka, P. & Osher, S. 1994. A level-set approach for computing solutions to incompressible
two-phase flow. Journal of Computational Physics 114: 146–159.
Zang, Y., Street, R.L. & Koseff, J.R. 1994. A non-staggered grid, fractional step method for time-dependent
incompressible Navier-Stokes equations in curvilinear coordinates. Journal of Computational Physics 114:
18–33.
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Hydrodynamic load acting on an oar blade and an improvement

of rower’s motion and equipments by using rowing velocity
prediction program
T. Kinoshita
Institute of Industrial Science, University of Tokyo, Japan
H. Kobayashi
National Maritime Research Institute, Japan
ABSTRACT: In a bid to attain faster rowing hull speed through increased efficiency of the rower’s
body motion and rowing equipment, we simulate and analyze the motions of a single scull shell
and oars. We resolve energy equations for the hull, rower, and oars, calculating the inconstant
load that acts on the oar blade. The oar blade behaves as unsteady hydrofoil and the load strongly
depends on a reduced frequency. We carried out tank test using a circulating water channel to
estimate the load. The force that pulls the oar handle and the motion of the rower’s centre of mass
are input values for the simulation. The input values represent the rower’s performance, that is, the
rower’s power and body movements. The results of the simulation are in good agreement with the
In-situ experiments, and the simulation can be used as a VPP (Velocity Prediction Program). We
examine which parameter among many dimensions of oars, and rower body motion has greatest
significance, and how it should be changed to improve hull speed and mechanical efficiency.
1 INTRODUCTION
Although sport rowing has a long history, few engineering studies have been made on the subject.
For a realistic simulation of rowing boat motion it is essential to accurately evaluate hydrodynamic
force acting on the oar blade and to fully and accurately model the rower’s body motion.
Fluid motion around the oar blade is transient and the hydrodynamic force of the oar blade should
be unsteady. Both the relative speed of the oar blade to the water and the angle of attack of the
oar blade to the water are transiently changed from catch to finish of the stroke. However, Hayashi
et al. (1990 & 1991), Suzuki (1996) and Doi et al. (1999) simulated rowing boat speed, assuming
a steady hydrodynamic force acting on the oar blade.
Hayashi et al. (1990 & 1991) and Doi et al. (1999) modeled the rower’s mass as a point mass
and input the oar motion to the simulation system. In reality the use of legs, back swing and arms
are very important parameters of rowing motion, and they cannot be considered as a point mass.
The oar motion is not an input, but an output of rowing. The input to the simulation should be the
rower’s motion and the inboard torque of the oar.
In this study we evaluate the unsteady blade force from a “reduced frequency”, as well as the
relative speed of the oar blade to the water and the angle of attack of the oar blade to the water by
using a circulating water channel. We make a simulation to estimate the boat speed and oar motion
by solving energy equations for the hull, rower, and oars. The inputs to the simulation are an inboard
torque (the force that pulls the oar handle) and the rower’s motion; leg movement, back swing and
arm movement, identified from a skilled rower. They represent the rower’s performance, that is,
the rower’s power and body movements. The simulated boat speed and oar motion are compared
with In-situ measurements and are in very good agreement, and the simulation can be used as a
VPP (Velocity Prediction Program).
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We examine which parameter among many dimensions of oars, and rower body motion has
greatest significance, and how it should be changed to improve hull speed and mechanical efficiency
using the newly developed VPP.
2 BLADE FORCE CHARACTERISTICS OF ROWING
2.1 Blade force from in-situ measurements of a single scull

In-situ measurements of a single scull rowed by a skilled athlete were carried out. These items were
measured:
• Two direction (normal and lateral) forces acting on the pivot axis of both sides of the crutch
• Bending moments of the inboard length of both oars
• Oar swing angles both sides
• Pushing force on the stretcher
• Acceleration of the hull
• Mean hull speed
The normal force acting on the oar blade FBV is normalized as follows,
where ρ, VB , S are the density of water, the velocity of the oar blade in the water, and the area of
the oar blade respectively.
Figure 1 shows the results versus the angle of attack. The normal force has a peak around the
angle of attack α = π/2, which is the middle of the stroke. The blade force is totally different from
the one on a steady state. The “tank test” denotes the result of tank test using a circulating water
channel as explained in the following sections. Groups A–D show the different measurements of
group where the target hull speeds are different as shown in Table 1.
Cn vs angle of attack
6
Group A
Group B
5 Group C
Group D
steady state
4
3
Cn
-1
0 π/4 π/2 3π/4
(angle of attack) [rad]
Figure 1. Normal blade force coefficient vs the angle of Figure 2. Schematics of the set up.
attack.
Table 1. Mean hull speed of each Group (Unit [m/s]).
Group A B C D
Mean hull speed unit [m/s] 3.1 3.3 3.5 3.7

Measured actual speed unit [m/s] 3.097 3.349 3.571 3.698
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2.2 Blade tests using a circulating water channel

To confirm the dependency on the reduced frequency of the blade force, we carried out forced
rotating tests in a circulating water channel using a flat plate instead of a real oar blade. The water
channel was 1.8[m] in width and 1.0[m] in depth. We set a Planer Motion Mechanism (PMM) on
the channel with a flat plate of the same area and the same aspect ratio as the oar blade, as well
as its scale models, connected to the PMM through the force gauge, as shown in Figure 2. The
parameters of this experiment are the flow velocity, the angular velocity of the rotation, and the
scale ratio of the flat plate.
From the measurement it becomes clear that the normal force Fy of the plate is dominating in
the total forces and that both the vertical force Fz and tangential one Fx are negligible. The normal
force coefficient versus the angle of attack is shown in Figure 3. Reduced frequency fr is defined
as fr = 2πc/TU . c, T , and U are a chord length, period of cycle, and velocity of uniform flow.
Figure 4 shows Cn (α = π/2) versus the reduced frequency, and clearly shows the dependency on
the reduced frequency even in different scale models and at different flow speeds. Here we adopt
the uniform flow velocity of the channel rather than relative flow velocity of the plate as a fluid
flow velocity.
3 HULL SPEED PREDICTION FOR SINGLE SCULL ROWING
The equations of motion of the hull, the rower and the oar on the space fixed coordinate system
and the increase of the kinematics energy dK are as follows,
where drr = dRr − dRh , dro = dRo − dRh , dRB = dRo + dθ × (lout u)
Cn vs Angle of Attack on each fr(1.0[m/s])

5
steady state
fr = 0.4991 × 10 −1
0.9933 × 10 −1
4 0.2463 × 100
0.4837 × 100
0.7028 × 100
3 0.8991 × 100
0.1074 × 101
Cn
0.1216 × 101
2 0.1435 × 101
0
0 π/4 π/2 3π/4 π
Angle of Attack [rad]
Figure 3. Normal force coefficient vs. angle of Figure 4. Normal force coeffcient vs. reduced fre-
attack. quency.
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Figure 5. Definition of variables of the rower’s position.
where M , I , R, θ, F, D, l, and u are mass, inertial moment, position vector, oar swing angle, force,
hull resistance, length, and unit vector toward the oar shaft respectively. And h, r, o, C, S, H , B, in,
out means hull, rower, oar, crutch, stretcher, oar handle, oar Blade, oar inboard, and oar outboard
respectively.
drr , dro , and dRB are movement of the rower, movement of the oar center of gravity on the
hull-fixed coordinate system and the blade movement in the water, respectively. The Equation (2)
means that the total kinematical energy increase consists of one caused by the motion of the center
of gravity of the rower, one caused by the motion of the center of gravity of the oar, one spent by
hull resistance, slip loss of the oar blade and input of the inboard torque.
The motion simulation is done by time marching of Equations (2) with inboard torque, and the
rower’s motion (leg movement, back swing, and arm movement – identified from a skilled rower),
which are input to obtain the hull speed and the oar motion. The rowing rate and the range of the
oar swing are also constrained.
In the simulation we need the following input data. For the stroke phase, the oar handle force
FH and the angle derivative of the mass center of the rower dxg /dθ (dro = dxg /dθ · dθ) are given
as functions of θ for the input data as well as the hull resistance. For the forward phase, the time
derivative of the mass center of the rower and the hull resistance are given.
The seat position xcr , the stooping angle φ, and the shortened arm length larm should hold the
following equation on the hull fixed coordinate system (see Figure 5).
where xcrutch is position of the crutch and h is the height of the handle. The angle derivative of the
mass center of the rower xg is
where a is the height of the rower’s center of gravity from the seat. These values are manually
identified versus the oar swing angle from the In-situ data and visual data of a video recording.
The acceleration of the rower’s mass center in the forward phase is averaged in the each Group
A–D versus the normalized time by the forward phase period and inputted. Hull resistance D is
estimated using the drag coefficient Cd given by Abbot et al. (1995).
The hydrodynamic force on the oar blade is estimated by the results of tank test in above section.
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Mechanical Efficiency vs Rowing rate

Velocity of the hull 1
5
Experiments
Simulation 0.9
4.5
0.8
4
velocity [m/s]
Efficiency
0.7
3.5
group A
0.6 group B
3 group C
group D
VPP for group A
2.5 0.5 VPP for group B
VPP for group C
VPP for group D
2 0.4
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
time [sec] rowing rate [stroke/min]
Figure 6. Comparison of hull speed: Group A. Figure 7. Efficiency vs rowing rate.
The simulated and measured hull speeds and oar swing angles are compared. Very good agree-
ments are obtained for all cases, Groups A–D. Results are obtained for all cases, Groups A–D.
Result of hull speed is shown in Figure 6 for Group A.
From Equation (2) the mechanical efficiency η is defined by
where DM , ṘM , T , θc and θf are averaged hull resistance, averaged hull speed, cycle period, catch
swing angle of the oar, and finish swing angle of the oar, respectively.
Simulated and measured mechanical efficiencies are compared with each other in Figure 7. The
results show good agreement and demonstrate that the rowing oar has a rather high efficiency, of
approximately 0.5–0.7.
4 MAXIMIZATION OF THE HULL SPEED AND THE MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY
The results of the simulation were in good agreement with the In-situ experiments, so that the
simulation can be used to maximize hull speed and mechanical efficiency. Rowing is composed
of many types of equipment; hull, stretcher, sliding sheet, riggers, oars and so on. There are many
parameters that have influence upon hull speed or mechanical efficiency. The simulation can be
used to estimate which parameter has more influence and how it should be changed to improve hull
speed and mechanical efficiency. We clarify how the most significant parameters may be changed.
We evaluate the following parameters.
(A) Stiffness of the oar shaft EI has almost no effect on either the hull speed or the efficiency.
Therefore it can be selected according to the rower’s comfort.
(B) The blade area S has a positive effect on both hull speed and efficiency. A 10% increase of the
blade area gives about 0.5% increase of mean hull velocity.
(C) Inboard ratio of the oar length lin /(lin + lout ) has a negative effect on both hull speed and
efficiency. Here we assume that the total oar length is fixed, the rowing range is shortened
according to the inboard increase, and that the input energy for a cycle is fixed. A 3% increase
of the ratio gives about 2.5% decrease of mean hull velocity.
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(D) Outboard length lout has positive effect on both hull speed and efficiency. Here we assume no
change of the inboard length. A 3% increase of the outboard length gives about 0.4% increase
of mean hull velocity.
(E) The longer stroke the range θf − θc , the better the hull speed and the higher the efficiency, and
the shorter stroke the range, the slower the hull speed. Here we assume that the input energy for
a cycle is fixed by adjusting the handle force. A 3% decrease of the stroke range gives about
1.0% decrease of mean hull speed.
(F) Strong pull FH (θ) in the latter half of the stroke phase is generally effective even though we
can see a few exceptions. The input energy for a cycle remains fixed for each group.
(G) The stronger the handle force FH (θ), the faster the hull speed and the less the mechanical effi-
ciency. A 5% increase of FH (θ) gives about 1.0% decrease of mechanical efficiency compared
to original one, and 1.5% increase of mean hull speed.
(H) It is very interesting to know which is better to leg-push first and then back-swing, or to
simultaneously leg-push and start back swing. Modified motion of the rower’s mass center
dxg /dθ in the stroke phase is to simultaneously use his body. The modified motion produces
higher hull speed in all cases and higher efficiency in many cases in this simulation.
(I) Acceleration of the rower’s mass center d 2 xg /dt 2 in the forward phase remarkably affects both
mean hull speed and efficiency. We produced a modified acceleration, where the rower’s body
was more constantly accelerated after the finish of the stroke than in the original case. The
modified case shows less hull speed and less efficiency in most cases in this simulation.
(J) Improvement of the blade performance Cn of fore half in the stroke shows almost similar
increase of efficiency to the improvement of both fore and latter half of the blade performance.
It means that the oar blade of high performance from the catch until middle is essentially
important.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The load that acts on the oar blade is unsteady force because the flow around the oar blade is
not steady but transient. The unsteady load is much larger than the steady one. And the load was
properly arranged by reduced frequency. A method to estimate the unsteady load from the angle of
attack and the velocity of incoming flow was established.
We simulate the motions of a single scull hull and its oars in order to improve equipment; such
as the oars, and the movement of the rower’s body for faster hull speed and higher efficiency.
We solved energy equations of the hull, the rower, and the oars with estimating the load that acts
on the oar blade using above method. The force that pulls the oar handle, and the motion of the
rower’s center of gravity are the input values to the simulation. The results of the simulation are in
good agreement with In-situ experiments, so that the simulation can be used as a VPP (Velocity
Prediction Program).
By using the VPP we obtained the following results. Stiffness of the oar shaft has almost no effect.
The blade area and the outboard length have positive effect on both hull speed and efficiency. The
longer the rowing range, the better the hull speed and the higher the efficiency. Strong pull in the
latter half of the stroke phase is generally effective on both hull speed and efficiency. The stronger
the handle force, the faster the hull speed and the less the mechanical efficiency. Acceleration of the
rower’s mass center in the forward phase remarkably affects both mean hull speed and efficiency.
This means that we should be very careful about the forward phase motion of the body. The high
performance of the oar blade from the catch until middle is important for higher efficiency.
REFERENCES
Abbott, A. V. & Wilson, D. G. 1995. Human-powered vehicles. Human Kinematics.

Doi, Y., Ueda, T., Mori, K., & Ninomiya, S. 1999. Study on rowing simulation and its application to evaluate
oar size and rowing pattern. Journal of The Society of Naval Architects of Japan 186: 89–96.
580
chap-75 20/9/2004 16: 40 page 581
Hayashi, I., Fukuda, J., & Yamada, H. 1990. Effects of oar shape on thrust of a shell four in the numerical
model, 1st report. Human Science, Synthetic Human Research Center, Waseda University 3(2).
Hayashi, I., Fukuda, J., & Yamada, H. 1991. Effects of oar shape on thrust of a shell four in the numerical
model, 2nd report. Human Science, Synthetic Human Research Center, Waseda University 4(2).
Suzuki, K. 1996. Engineering approach of rowing (in case of eight). Journal of the Kansai Society of Naval
Architects, Japan 218: 121–132.
Tanaka, I. & Nagai, M. 1996. Hydrodynamics of Resistance and Propulsion. Ship and Ocean Foundation.
581
chap-76 20/9/2004 16: 40 page 583

Water flow over box filled with porous media
C.J. Lai, J.M. Leu, H.C. Chan & G.T. Chang

Department of Hydraulic and Ocean Engrg., Cheng-Kung Univ., Tainan, Taiwan
ABSTRACT: Flows in composite porous/fluid domains have many applications. We were inter-
ested in the upward flow in a box filled with porous media. The causation of the upwelling flow and
its effect on mass transport within the porous media region are the main concerns. Gravel, coarse
sand and sand were used as the test porous materials; they were filled into a box and installed in
a circulating flow experimental system. Flow visualization technique was used to track the time
variation of dye interface in the porous region. The traced moving front of the dye demonstrated that
the penetrating depth or the disturbed region for water flowing through the boxed porous medium is
depending on the opening of the box as well as the permeability of the porous material. Advection
dominates mass transport at the penetration region while diffusion is the main mechanism of the
mass transport at the non-disturbed region.
1 INTRODUCTION
Understanding the physical processes of flow inside a composite porous/fluid domain, such as the
transport of sediment and flux of dissolved organic molecules, are very important to a number of
environmental sciences, including sedimentary movement, invertebrate migration, the dispersal
of benthic algae, food and oxygen supply to benthic habitant, organic processing, and inorganic
ions and gases exchange. Both academic interests and engineering practices require these detail
information.
The shear stress of the toping fluid flow through a water/sediment system can penetrate to some
region of upper part of the sediment. The depth of flow penetration is only dependent on the
properties of the sediments rather than the Reynolds number and velocities distributions of the
overlaying flow (Choi and Waller, 1997). Diffusion is the major transport mechanism for solutes of
small permeability material, such as the muddy cohesive sediments, while advection and diffusion
processes are both significant in a higher permeability material such as sand (Berner, 1971),
because higher permeable sediments permit porewater flow to transport dissolved or suspended
matter through the pore space. Porewater flows can also produce a biogeochemical reaction zone that
efficiently increase mixing process between the upper water and bottom sediment layers (Huettel et
al., 1998). Porewater flow rate increases as the size of the bed material increases, so the biological
activity, residence time, and dissolved oxygen (DO) sag along the flow line decrease (Rutherford
et al., 1995). Velocity distributions near the sediment/water interface region have also been obtained
by setting proper boundary condition for the Brinkman’s solution (Gupte and Advanl, 1997).
In the present study, the causation of the upward flow and its effect on mass transport within the
porous media region are studied experimentally using a pressurized circulating flow system. Three
different porous medium with their median diameter, d50 , of 0.52, 1.22 and 3.02 mm are used in
the study. It is hoping that this study would provide some fundamental understandings on how the
pollutant migrates within the porous region.
2 EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS AND METHODS
The experiments were conducted in a 2.7 m × 0.15 m × 0.1 m circulating flow system located at
the River Engineering Laboratory in Cheng-Kung University, Taiwan. The flow system is shown in
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chap-76 20/9/2004 16: 40 page 584
Figure 1 which was designed to control and measure the characteristics of flow within the porous
region. It was made of transparent acrylic plates for easy observation. The distance between flow
stabilizer and porous material box (0.25 m × 0.15 m × 0.1 m) was 2.15 m in order to eliminate
whirls and meanderings from the inflow (Schlichting, 1987). Inside the porous material box, there
were a porous material zone and a dye sponge which produced a nearly uniform release of dye into
the porous material. The flow discharge in the system was controlled by a pump (Teco Electric &
Machinery Co., Ltd. Model AEEF-AB) attached with a frequency converter (DELTA Electronics
Inc., Model VFD004523A). The flow discharge Q was determined by flow meter (Shin Yuan
Precision Machinery Co., Ltd. Model BR20-036).
Uniform gravel, course sand and sand having median diameter of d50 = 3.02 mm, 1.22 mm and
0.52 mm were used to fill the porous material zone and their main properties are given in Table 1.
It was expected that dye released from the bottom sponge, which could be observed through both
the acrylic side walls, would reflect the advection and diffusion transports. A tracer technique was
applied to visualize these transport phenomena. Sequential photographs were taken by a digital
video camera and then the dye moving front pattern and velocities were analyzed through an
image processing technique. Experiment ended when the dye moving front was observed to be in
a stationary condition.
(a)
5 6
2
4
1
3
(b) 4
1 2
3
Figure 1. The circulating flow system which was used for experiments (a) and plan of the circulating flow
system seen from top (b). 1. Porous material box. 2. Flow conduit. 3. Porous material. 4. Flow stabilizer.
5. Flow meter. 6. Pump. 7. Frequency converter.
Table 1. Hydraulic properties and results.
Property Gravel Coarse Sand
d50 (mm) 3.02 1.22 0.52

d10 (mm) 1.26 0.62 0.18
Porosity 0.342 0.333 0.319
Permeability k (m2 ) 1.98 × 10−4 4.80 × 10−5 4.00 × 10−6
Mean flow velocity (m/sec) 0.1 0.1 0.1
Diffusive dye moving velocity (cm/hr) 0.191 0.163 0.038
Advective dye moving velocity (cm/hr) 0.493 0.404 0.049
Maximum depths of penetration (cm) 6.5 6.4 5.5
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9 4 hr
8 hr
8 12 hr
7 16 hr
20 hr
6 24 hr
28 hr
H(cm)
5 32 hr
steady
4
3
2
1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
L(cm)
Figure 2. Traced time variation of dye moving front for gravel.
(a) 9 6 hr
12 hr
8 18 hr
7 24 hr
30 hr
6
36 hr
H(cm)
5 42 hr
4 48 hr
54 hr
3
60 hr
2
1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
L(cm)
(b)
64 hr
9
68 hr
8
72 hr
7
76 hr
6
80 hr
H(cm)
5
84 hr
4
3
2
1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
L(cm)
(c)
88 hr
9
96 hr
8
112 hr
7
116 hr
6
120 hr
H(cm)
5
steady
4
3
2
1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
L(cm)
Figure 3. Traced time variation of dye moving front for coarse sand (Flow direction: from left to right).
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(a) 9
TIME
37 hr
8 41 hr
45 hr
7 49 hr
6 53 hr
H(cm) 5
4
3
2
1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
L(cm)
(b) 9 TIME
61 hr
8 65 hr
69 hr
7 73 hr
77 hr
6
H(cm)
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
L(cm)
(c) 9 TIME
84 hr
8 88 hr
92 hr
96 hr
7 100 hr
148 hr
6 245 hr
steady
H(cm)
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
L(cm)
Figure 4. Traced time variation of dye moving front for sand (Flow direction: from left to right).
Along with the basic data of the material, main results of the experiments are given in Table 1. The
traced dye front for gravel, coarse sand and sand at various time are respectively shown in Figs. 2,
3 and 4. Photographs of the stationary dye boundaries for the three materials are shown in Figs. 5
(a), (b) and (c) which are the plates at times of 32, 120 and 245 hrs for gravel, coarse sand and
sand respectively. The grey parts in the photos are thought to be the flow penetration regions. The
maximum depths of these penetrations are 6.5 cm, 6.4 cm and 5.5 cm for gravel, course sand and
sand respectively. Flow directions in these figures are from the left to the right.
All the figures show that the dye fronts of the initial stages move at a rather low speed in the
lower part of the box. There are blurred regions at the top of the dye fronts which are 1.5 cm, 2 cm
and 2.5 cm for gravel, course sand and sand respectively. It is suspected that these blurred regions
are formed by the diffusive actions. Beyond these blurred regions, either the dye has not reached or
where the advection is strong so the dye is diluted quickly and become immiscible. When the dye
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chap-76 20/9/2004 16: 40 page 587
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 5. The dye moving front patterns of stationary condition. (a) Gravel. (b) Coarse sand. (c) Sand (Flow
direction: from left to right).
front reaches certain height of the box the moving speed of it increases and a cone near the middle
of the box forms. Based on this argument the speeds of diffusive and advective movements may be
evaluated. The estimated average diffusive velocities are approximately 0.191 cm/hr, 0.163 cm/hr
and 0.038 cm/hr for gravel, course sand and sand respectively, while these of the advection are
1.53∼2.47 times faster.
The formation of the disturbed regions shown in Figure 5 indicates the damping effect of porous
material. Bigger and symmetrical region is formed in the box of higher permeability material. In
the entrance region of the box, a downward flow is caused by the sudden expansion of section and
forms a counterclockwise vortex-like flow in the upper porous layer. An opposite vortex flow can
be seen in the upper part of exit region. This further implies that the length of the box may affect
the development of disturbed region.
4 CONCLUSIONS
This study demonstrated that the penetrating depth or the disturbed region for water flowing through
a boxed porous medium is depending on the opening of the box. Also, it depends on the permeability
of the boxed porous substrate. In the penetrating region of the box the advection induced by the
upper moving water dominants the flow and mass transport. In the other part of the box where
the penetration does not reach, however, the mass transfer mechanism is mainly the diffusion. At
the penetrating flow region the speed of the dye front is 1.53∼2.47 times faster than that at the
non-disturbed region. It is also expected that the time variations of the dye fronts for the three
materials may also be useful for other numerical studies.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This study was funded by the National Science Council of R.O.C. under the Grand No. NSC
92-2211-E-006-031.
REFERENCES
Berner, R. A. (1971). Principles of chemical sediment logy. McGraw-Hill.

Choi, C. Y. and Waller, P. M. (1997). Momentum transport mechanism for water flow over porous media.
J. Env. Engrg., 123(8), 792–799.
Gupte, S. K. and Advanl, S. G. (1997). Flow near the permeable boundary of a porous medium: An experimental
investigation using LDA. Experiments in Fluids, 22, 408–422.
Guss, S. (1998). Oxygen uptake at the sediment-water interface simultaneously measured using a flux chamber
method and microelectrodes: must a diffusive boundary layer exit? Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science,
46, 143–156.
Huettel, M., Ziebis, W., Forster, S. and Luther?, G. W. (1998). Advective transport affecting metal and nutrient
distributions and interfacial fluxes in permeable sediments. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 62(4),
613–631.
Lerman, A. (1979). Geochemical Processes Water and Sediment Environments, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New
York.
Rutherford, J. C., Boyle, J. D., Elliott, A. H., Hatherell, T. V. J. and Chiu, T. W. (1995). Modeling benthic oxygen
uptake pumping. J. Env. Engrg., 121(1), 84–95.
Schlichting, H. (1987). Boundary-Layer Theory. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Vollmera, S., de los Santos Ramosb, F., Daebelc, H. and Kühnc, G. (2002). Micro scale exchange processes
between surface and subsurface water. J. of Hydrology, 269, 3–10.
588
chap-77 20/9/2004 16: 41 page 589

Numerical study on flow field around hydrofoil of finite span with

shallow submergence
S.J. Lee & J.M. Lee

Chungnam National University, Daejeon, S. Korea
ABSTRACT: A panel method essentially based upon the one for three dimensional lifting bodies
described by Hess (1972) for solving the flow around the hydrofoil is developed. Using the numer-
ical tool so attained, we assess the effects of various related parameters such as the depth ratio,
angle of attack, and the geometrical characteristics upon the flow field around the high speed wing
of finite span with shallow submergence.
1 INTRODUCTION
Wu (1954) obtained an integro-differential equation taking into account the effect of the induced
stream resulting from the presence of the free surface in the opposite direction of the drag as well as
√
the downwash. In practice, for hydrofoils used in high speed ships the Froude number (F = U / gc)
is much greater than one, and the submerged depth ratio (λ = h/b) is much smaller than one. Here,
U is the velocity of the incoming flow far upstream, g the gravitational acceleration, c the midspan
chord, b the half span, respectively. Assuming that F 2 >> 1 and λ << 1, Lee (2002) derived the
lowest order approximation of the induced stream and the downwash from Wu’s, and showed that
for an extreme case the induced stream can be greater than 10% of U, and the magnitude of the
downwash is nearly constant but increases rapidly in the region near the tip.
In the present work, we investigated the flow field in the region near the leading edge of the wing
by using a panel code. Panel method for lifting bodies was originally developed by Hess (1972).
As in the previous theoretical works, the Froude number was assumed large, and accordingly the
free surface boundary condition was simplified, and coding becomes much easier. If we need to
consider the effect of the free surface more accurately, we may have to use the nonlinear free surface
condition and at the same time resort to the higher order panel method. Although many numerical
works on hydrofoil of finite span have been carried out, most of them were concerned with the
shape of the free surface, drag and lift of the wing, but not with the velocity field in the region near
the leading edge.
In the next section, formulation of the three-dimensional hydrofoil problem and the panel method
we used will be briefly explained, and in the third section the numerical results given by our code
will be compared with other numerical data and discussed. In the final section, conclusions and
the future works will be described.
2 FORMULATION OF PROBLEM AND PANEL METHOD
Irrotational flow of an ideal fluid can be expressed by using the velocity potential, which satisfies the
following boundary value problem, and the co-ordinate system and the schematics of the problem
under consideration are shown in Figure 1. Conservation of mass gives the Laplace equation,
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chap-77 20/9/2004 16: 41 page 590
Figure 1. Co-ordinate system.
and impermeability yields the following,
and the assumption of the high Froude number leads to the condition,
and for a lifting body an additional Kutta condition should be imposed. Kutta condition is applied
in various ways, and considering the stability of the computation we adopt the equal-pressure
condition originally proposed by Hess (1972). Solving the above boundary value problem by using
the panel method, we discretize the body surface into a proper number of panels, and on each panel
distribute sources and vortices, which are the fundamental solutions of the Laplace equation, and
determine the strength so as to satisfy the boundary conditions on the body surface and on z = 0,
and the Kutta condition. More details can be found in Hess (1972).
For imposing the Kutta condition we need to consider the fact that the condition of the equal-
pressure gives only one equation for a strip, defined as the chordwise region formed by the two
parallel planes cutting the wing in the direction of x-axis, thus a strip can have only one unknown.
Here, we assume that the strength of the dipole is proportional to the arc length measured from
the trailing edge to the point under consideration passing first through the face and then through
the back, so that the proportional constant Bk is the only unknown for a strip. Finally, in order to
satisfy the free surface boundary condition, from (3) we see that it is necessary to have a mirror
image at the symmetric position with respect to the plane z = 0. For image source panels the sign
of its strength is changed, while for image dipole panels kept.
3 NUMERICAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
First, in order to show the convergence of the computer code developed, numerical results for
the spanwise distribution of Bk for the wing in the uniform stream of an unbounded fluid were
obtained. The wing has a rectangular planform with the aspect ratio 5.9, and its cross-section
is NACA 0012, and its angle of attack 8◦ . Results are shown in Figure 2. Here, M represents
the number of strips, and N the number of panels on each strip. Computational results for cases
(M, N ) = (10, 10) and (M, N ) = (40, 34) do not show much difference, and for most cases we could
regard obtained solutions sufficiently converged for (M , N ) = (30, 30).
For the same wing described above, Figure 3 shows the chordwise distribution of the differ-
ence of the pressure coefficient Cp between that on the back and that on the face along with the
computational results of Lee (1987). Here, (M, N ) = (50, 38), and the values at the positions of
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chap-77 20/9/2004 16: 41 page 591
0.015 M=10 N=10

0.014 M=20 N=20
0.013 M=30 N=30
0.012 M=40 N=34
0.011 NACA0012
0.01 s=5.9, a=8
0.009
0.008
|Bk|
0.007
0.006
0.005
0.004
0.003
0.002
0.001
0
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
y/b
Figure 2. Convergence test.
4 Lee(1987)
+ y/b=0.078
3.5 + y/b=0.647
y/b=0.969
3
+ NACA0012
+ s=5.9, a=8
2.5 M=50, N=38
(-Cp)
2 +
1.5 +
+
1 +
+
0.5 +
+ + + + + + +
0 + ++
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
x/c
Figure 3. Chordwise distribution of the difference of the pressure coefficient.
y/b = 7.8%, 64.7%, and 96.9% are given. Although the local maxima at the leading edge are a
little less predicted, and at the trailing edge near tips our values are again a bit smaller compared to
those of Lee (1987), we could obtain sufficiently accurate results for any spanwise and chordwise
position. In the following we will consider the wing of rectangular planform having the uniform
cross section of NACA 0012.
Figure 4 shows our results with those of Singh et al. (1983), who calculated for the wing in the
uniform stream of an unbounded fluid with the angle of attack 6◦ , (M, N ) = (20, 38).
Chordwise distribution of Cp at the two cross-sections for which y/b = 10%, 90% are given, and
the local maximum near the midspan leading edge are predicted a bit smaller, and the values on
the back near the leading edge around tips are given a little larger than Singh et al.
In the sequel, we will consider the effect of the free surface on the wing of the rectangular
planform located under the free surface. Figure 5 shows the spanwise distribution of the sectional
lift coefficient, Cl , for the wing, whose aspect ratio is 6 and angle of attack 3◦ , and submerged
depth ratio h/c is varied as 100, 50, 10, 5, 2.5, 1.0, 0.5, 0.25, 0.12, and (M, N ) = (30, 40). When
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Singh(1983)
1 Present
NACA0012
10% y/b s=2.4, a=6
0.5 M=20, N=38
90% y/b
CP
-0.5
-1 0.25
0 0.5 0.75 1
x/c
Figure 4. Chordwise distribution of the pressure coefficient.
+ h=0.12
h=0.25
0.25 h=0.50
h=1.00
h=2.50
0.2 h=5.00
h=10.0
h=50.0
0.15 h=100
Cl
NACA0012
s=6.0, a=3
0.1 M=30, N=40
+ + + + +
0.05 + + + + +
++
+
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
y/b
Figure 5. Spanwise distribution of sectional lift coefficient for varying submerged depth.
the wing is in an unbounded fluid or the depth ratio is very large, Cl decreases monotonically as
the depth ratio, and it does so very rapidly when the depth ratio becomes less than 5. This result
is in agreement with the Wu (1954)’s summary of the experimental data obtained at NACA, namely
the effect of free surface is negligibly small if the submerged depth is greater than four chords.
Figure 6 shows the spanwise distribution of Cl for the wing, whose aspect ratio is 6 and submerged
depth ratio is 0.25, and angle of attack is varied as 0◦ , 3◦ , 6◦ , and 9◦ , and (M, N ) = (30, 40). When
the angle of attack is zero, we observe that the negative lift not negligible is generated, and that as
the angle of attack increases Cl midspan increases almost linearly. Of course, this kind of linear
tendency may occur for a specific submerged depth, however, the possibility of this trend being
true for a wide range of submerged depths cannot be excluded.
Figure 7 shows the spanwise distribution of Cl for the wing, whose submerged depth ratio is
0.25, and angle of attack is 3◦ , and aspect ratio is varied as 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16, and 18, and,
(M, N ) = (40, 20). As the aspect ratio gets smaller than 10, compared to the two-dimensional foil for
which the aspect ratio can be regarded as infinity, reduction of Cl becomes much more conspicuous
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9
NACA0012
s=6, h=0.25
0.4
M=30, N=40
0.3 6
0.2
Cl
3
0.1
0
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
y/b
Figure 6. Spanwise distribution of sectional lift coefficient for varying angle of attack.
0.16 18
16
12
0.14 8 NACA0012
6 h=0.25, a=3
0.12 M=40, N=20
4
3
0.1
2
Cl
0.08
0.06 1
0.04
0.02
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
y/b
Figure 7. Spanwise distribution of sectional lift coefficient for varying aspect ratio.
as y/b goes to 1, and trailing vortices enlarges its region of influence towards the midspan. If we
compare the data given above with those obtained for a large submerged depth e.g. h/c = 50, we see
not only that Cl decreases as a whole but also that its rate of reduction gets larger as the submerged
depth becomes smaller.
Figure 8 shows the spanwise distribution of the induced stream and the downwash for the wing,
whose aspect ratio is 6, and angle of attack is 3◦, and submerged depth ratio is varied as 100, 50, 10,
5, 2.5, 1.0, 0.5, 0.25, 0.12, and (M, N ) = (40, 30), and velocities are computed at the points in front
of the leading edge by 2% of the chord. Above all, it can be pointed out that the magnitude of the
induced stream is larger than that of the downwash all over the span for all cases shown. When the
submerged depth is greater than a half chord, the induced stream increases as the submerged depth
decreases, however, it decreases as the submerged depth when the submerged depth is less than
a half chord. On the other hand, the downwash, when the submerged depth is greater than a half
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h=0.12
+ +++
0.4 ++ ++++ + +++ + h=0.12
+++ +
++++ + + + + +++++ + + ++ h=0.25
0.35 + h=0.25
+ h=0.50
h=0.50
0.3 h=1.00
+ + h=1.00
0.25 ++ +++ + + + + +++++ h=2.50
+ ++ + ++ h=2.50
w, u
+
0.2 ++ ++
+
h=5.00
+ + h=5.00
+ +
+ + h=10.0
0.15 + + h=10.0
+ + h=50.0
+ + h=50.0
0.1 + +
+ + h=100
h=100
0.05 w
u
0 NACA0012
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 s=6.0, a=3
y/b M=40, N=30
Figure 8. Spanwise distribution of induced stream and downwash for varying submerged depth.
0.6 w
u
0.5 9 NACA0012
h=0.25, s=6
0 M=40, N=30
3
0.4
6
6
w, u
0.3
9
0.2 3
0.1
0
0
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
y/b
Figure 9. Spanwise distribution of induced stream and downwash for varying angle of attack.
chord, decreases as the submerged depth, while increases when the submerged depth is less than a
half chord. According to the lifting-line theory, increase of the induced stream and the downwash
reduces Cl , thus we assume that the pattern shown in the figure implies that Cl is also affected by
others than those given in the theory.
Figure 9 shows the spanwise distribution of the induced stream and the downwash for the wing,
whose aspect ratio is 6, and submerged depth is 0.25, and angle of attack is varied as 0◦ , 3◦ , 6◦ ,
and 9◦ , and (M, N ) = (40, 30). We observe that the induced stream decreases rapidly, while the
downwash increases as the angle of attack increases. Reduction of the induced stream results in the
growth of Cl , and increase of the downwash is less than that of the angle of attack, thus as the angle
of attack gets larger Cl will increase. And this trend is in agreement with the result of Figure 6.
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4 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORKS
From the discussion above on the rectangular wing, we saw that the developed code can be used to
clarify the various effects of the free surface on the lifting characteristics of the three-dimensional
wing. As to the comparison of the result of Lee (2002), which was obtained for the elliptic distri-
bution of circulation corresponding to the elliptic wing, more computational results are necessary
for direct comparison, and this work is currently undergoing.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was in part sponsored by the Korea Science and Engineering Foundation (KOSEF) under
the contract number R05-2002-000-00695-0, and we would like to express our sincere thanks to
the KOSEF.
REFERENCES
Hess, J. L. 1972. Calculation of potential flow about three-dimensional lifting bodies. Rpt. No. MDC J5679-01,
Douglas Aircraft Co., Inc.
Lee, J. T. 1979. A potential based panel method for the analysis of marine propellers in steady flow. Ph.D.
Dissertation, Dept. of Ocean Engineering, MIT.
Lee, S. J. 2002. A note on the lifting-line theory for hydrofoils. Proc. 5th international conference on
hydrodynamics, Tainan: 111–116.
Singh, N. et al. 1983. Calculation of potential flow about arbitrary three dimensional wings using internal
singularity distributions. Aeronautical Quarterly: 197–211.
Wu, T. Y. 1954. A theory for hydrofoils of finite span. J. Math. & Physics 33–3: 207–248.
595
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Comparison of turbulence models in simulating flow past

a circular cylinder above wall
D. Liang & L. Cheng

School of Civil and Resource Engineering, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia
ABSTRACT: Results are presented on a two-dimensional numerical simulation of vortex shedding

behind a circular cylinder above a rigid wall at a Reynolds number of 7000. Standard k-ε, Wilcox
k-ω and Smagorinsky subgrid scale (SGS) turbulence models are compared. Mesh dependency test
is carried out. The governing differential equations are solved using finite difference method in a
non-orthogonal boundary-fitted coordinate system. The calculated mean and fluctuation velocities,
pressure coefficients are compared with the measurements. It is found that k-ε model is relatively
mesh independent and results in the best prediction.
1 INTRODUCTION
The research on the flow around an isolated circular cylinder has a history of several hundred years.
Some insights have been gained on this flow phenomenon, especially on the mechanism of vortex
shedding. When the cylinder is placed close to a solid wall, the shedding of vortices may experience
enormous change. In the last few decades, there have been some experimental and numerical studies
with respect to the influence of wall boundary on the vortex shedding. Most of the flows studied are
in sub-critical regime. On one hand, this flow regime covers a wide range of Reynolds number and
many engineering flows fall into this regime. On the other hand, since the flow characteristics in this
regime are relatively insensitive to Reynolds number, the study can concentrate on the influence of
wall proximity and inflow boundary layer to the vortex shedding. Good agreement is found in previ-
ous experiments that the vortex shedding is suppressed at gap ratio e/D (gap e between the bottom of
the cylinder and the wall to the diameter D of the cylinder) smaller than 0.3 (Bearman & Zdravkovich
1978, Grass et al. 1984). It is also found from flow visualization experiments that the lower sepa-
ration is shifted downward and the upper separation is shifted upward as the cylinder approaches
to the wall (Göktun 1975). So far, numerical investigations on this topic are not very intensive. Lee
et al. (1994) gave a finite difference solution to the two-dimensional Navier-Stokes equations with
a SGS turbulence model at a Reynolds number of 45000. Qualitative comparisons showed good
agreement with the experimental measurement. Li et al. (1997) presented a finite element solution
to both the 2D and 3D Navier-Stokes equations with a large eddy simulation. They found that the
3D simulation was only slightly better than the 2D simulation. Using a direct numerical simulation,
Lei et al. (1999) investigated the wall boundary induced suppression of the vortex shedding by
carrying out the computation at a series of gap ratios with a Reynolds number less than 1000.
In this study, the two-dimensional Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes equations for incompress-
ible flows are solved. The velocity components are obtained from the momentum equations, while
the pressure is calculated from the pressure Poisson equation. For the three turbulence models used
in this paper, readers are referred to Smagorinsky’s (1963), Launder & Spalding (1974) and Wilcox
(1988). The flow around a circular cylinder with a gap ratio of 0.37 and Reynolds number of 7000 is
simulated. Independent laboratory experimental data are used to validate the computational results
quantitatively. Three meshes with different mesh density are used. The purpose of this study is to
find a suitable turbulence model and a mesh configuration for simulating high-Reynolds-number
flow around offshore pipelines.
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2 COMPUTATIONAL DOMAIN AND BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
2.1 Computational domain

Figure 1 shows the flow configuration. The circular cylinder is located e = 0.37D above a plane
wall and is subject to the boundary layer flow with a free-stream velocity of u0 and a thickness
of δ. The flow parameters employed in the numerical simulation are set as close as possible to
those used in the experiment of Jensen (1987). The Reynolds number based on u0 and D is 7000.
The computational domain covers x/D = −10∼20 in horizontal direction and y/D = 0∼4 in vertical
direction. The cylinder is placed with its center at (x, y) =(0, 0.87 D). The thickness of incoming
boundary layer δ is assumed to be the height of the computational domain.

Both the bottom wall and the cylinder surface are set hydraulically smooth and wall-function is
utilized. At the inflow boundary, a fully developed hydraulically smooth turbulent velocity profile
is specified. At the upper boundary, transverse velocity component is set to zero and zero normal
gradient condition is applied for all other quantities. At the outflow boundary, zero normal gradients
are implemented for the velocity and turbulence quantities. Pressure is given the reference value of
p0 at the outflow boundary. On the inlet and wall boundaries, the pressure is obtained by applying
the momentum equations in the direction normal to the boundaries.
2.3 Computational mesh

The details of the three computational meshes are shown in Fig. 2. The grid points are concentrated
towards the cylinder. In mesh generation, care was taken to guarantee good quality of mesh near
the cylinder surface, especially in the region of flow separation.
u0
δ D
α
Figure 1. Definition sketch of the flow.
1.5 1.5 1.5
1 1 1
y/D
y/D
y/D
0.5 0.5 0.5
0 0 0
-1 0 1 2 -1 0 1 2 -1 0 1 2
x/D x/D x/D
Figure 2. Computational meshes near the cylinder: (a) 150 × 60, (b) 190 × 60, (c) 230 × 90.
Table 1. Main mesh properties.
Mesh Nodes on cylinder Grid size near cylinder Grid size near bottom wall
Coarse (150 × 60) 64 0.009 (8) 0.044 (14)

Medium (190 × 60) 64 0.005 (5) 0.044 (14)
Fine (230 × 90) 100 0.003 (3) 0.007 (2)
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The major parameters of the three meshes are listed in Table 1. The numbers quoted in parenthesis
in the third and fourth columns are the estimates of dimensionless grid sizes defined as + = u∗/υ,
where is the near-wall grid size, u∗ is the friction velocity and υ is kinetic viscosity. The
three meshes are referred to as coarse, medium and fine mesh respectively in the following. All
calculations are carried out with the dimensionless time step tu0 /D = 0.002. Numerical tests
indicates that this time step is small enough to ensure the solutions are time-step independent.
3 RESULTS
For the SGS model examined in this study, the major difficulty is the determination of the Smagorin-
sky coefficient Cs . Different researcher used different values for different problems. The values of
Cs examined in the present study are 0.1 and 0.3 in two separate runs. Thus there are 12 combi-
nations of the turbulence models (SGS Cs = 0.1, SGS Cs = 0.3, k-ε and k-ω) and computational
meshes (coarse, medium and fine).
3.1 Flow visualization

It is found that the k-ε model can predict the vortex shedding on all three meshes, although the
shedding does become apparently weaker on the coarse mesh. Wilcox k-ω model can only simulate
the shedding on the fine mesh, while the shedding disappears and even the flow becomes totally
steady on medium and coarse meshes respectively. Using SGS model violent vortex shedding
always appears in the wake region.
3.2 The velocity field

Figure 3 gives the calculated horizontal and vertical velocity components (u, v) at two cross sections
downstream of the cylinder together with the experimental results of Jensen (1987). It can be
seen that k-ε and k-ω models simulate the gross behavior of the flow consistently well at these
cross sections on all computational meshes. The results obtained using the SGS model shows
noticeable difference from the measurement, especially for the vertical velocity. This indicates that
the position and size of the vortex pair behind the cylinder in the mean flow field are not correctly
predicted. In addition, the numerical results obtained using the SGS model vary significantly
with the computational mesh. The k-ε and k-ω models give better prediction on the mean wake
characteristics than the SGS model.
Figure 4 shows the comparison of the calculated distributions of velocity fluctuation components
using the SGS model with the experimental results. The velocity fluctuation is defined as the root
mean square of the deviation of velocity samples to the time-averaged value.
where N is the total number of velocity samples; ui and vi are velocity samples; ūtime and v̄time
are the time-averaged velocities in the x and y directions respectively. It is seen that the calculated
velocity fluctuation components using the SGS model are generally larger than the measurements
at all cross sections, especially for the vertical component whose peak values may be several times
larger than the experimental data in the near wake region. The horizontal velocity fluctuation is
over-predicted in the near-wall region right behind the pipe while the predicted vertical velocity
fluctuation is larger than the measurement in the inside region (a bit far from the bottom wall). It is
clearly seen that the unsteady nature (or instabilities due to the vortex shedding) is overestimated by
the SGS model. However, increasing the value of Cs and employing fine mesh do help to decrease
the velocity fluctuations.
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2 2 2 2 2 2
1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
y/D
y/D
y/D
y/D
y/D
y/D
1 1 1 1 1 1
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
0 0 0 0 0 0
-1 0 1 2 -1 0 1 2 -1 0 1 2 -0.2 0 0.2 -0.2 0 0.2 -0.2 0 0.2
x = 1.0 D: (a) u/u0 (left three), (b) v/u0 (right three).

2 2 2 2 2 2
1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5

y/D
y/D
y/D
y/D
y/D
y/D
1 1 1 1 1 1
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
0 0 0 0 0 0
-1 0 1 2 -1 0 1 2 -1 0 1 2 -0.2 0 0.2 -0.2 0 0.2 -0.2 0 0.2
x = 4.5 D: (a) u/u0 (left three), (b) v/u0 (right three).

Measurement; k-ε; k-ω; SGS, Cs=0.1; SGS, Cs=0.3;
Figure 3. Time-averaged velocity by coarse, medium & fine meshes (from left to right).
2 2 2 2 2 2
1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5

y/D
y/D
y/D
y/D
y/D
y/D
1 1 1 1 1 1
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0 0.2 0.4 0.6
x= 1.0 D: (a) σu /u0 (left three), (b) σv /u0 (right three).

2 2 2 2 2 2
1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5

y/D
y/D
y/D
y/D
y/D
y/D
1 1 1 1 1 1
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0 0.2 0.4 0.6
x= 4.5 D : (a) σu /u0 (left three), (b) σv /u0 (right three).

Measurement; SGS, Cs=0.1; SGS, Cs=0.3
Figure 4. Velocity fluctuations by coarse, medium & fine meshes (from left to right).
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2 2 2 2 2 2
1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
y/D
y/D
y/D
y/D
y/D
y/D
1 1 1 1 1 1
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0.25 0.5 0 0.25 0.5 0 0.25 0.5 0 0.25 0.5 0 0.25 0.5 0 0.25 0.5
(a) x = 1.0 D (left three), (b) x = 4.5 D (right three).

Measurement; k-ε; k-ω
Figure 5. Total velocity fluctuations σuv /u0 by coarse, medium & fine meshes (from left to right).
0.5 0.5
0 0
Cp
Cp
-0.5 -0.5
-1 -1
-5 0 5 10 15 -5 0 5 10 15
x/D x/D
0.5 Measurement;
0
k-ε;
Cp
k-ω;
-0.5
SGS, Cs=0.1;
-1
-5 0 5 10 15 SGS, Cs=0.3;
x/D
Figure 6. Seabed pressure coefficient: (a) Coarse mesh, (b) Medium mesh, (c) Fine mesh.
For k-ε and k-ω models, the velocity samples are Reynolds-averaged rather than instanta-
neous. Therefore the following total velocity fluctuation is used in comparison with experimental
measurement.
Figure 5 shows the comparison of the calculated distributions of velocity fluctuation obtained
using the k-ε and k-ω models with the experimental results. The predicted total velocity fluctua-
tion profiles are in fair agreement with the experimental results. However, the fluctuation values
are generally underestimated slightly. This may be caused by the deficiency of the k-ε and k-ω
turbulence models since the model constants were derived from homogenous turbulence. In the
near wake region, the prediction is improved slightly by using the fine mesh. The fluctuation is
always under-predicted further away from the bottom wall. This can be partially attributed to that
the water depth used in the calculation is smaller than that in the experiment.
3.3 Pressure coefficient

Figure 6 shows the predicted pressure coefficient along the wall. The dimensionless pressure
coefficient is defined as Cp = (p − p0 )/(0.5ρu02 ). The experimental data used in the figure were
obtained by Bearman and Zdravkovich (1978) for a similar flow but with a gap ratio of 0.4. The
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1.5 1.5
1 1
0.5 0.5
Cp
Cp
0 0
-0.5 -0.5
-1 -1
-1.5 -1.5
0 100 200 300 0 100 200 300
1.5
Measurement;
1
0.5 k-ε;
Cp
0 k-ω;
-0.5
-1
SGS, Cs=0.1;
-1.5
0 100 200 300
SGS, Cs=0.3;
Figure 7. Pressure coefficient at the cylinder surface: (a) Coarse mesh, (b) Medium mesh, (c) Fine mesh.
experimental Reynolds number (15000) is different from the present value (7000). The comparison
between the calculated and measured pressure coefficients was made based on the justification
that the flow is less dependent on the Reynolds number in the sub-critical regime. There is only
small difference between the results of k-ε and k-ω models and different meshes produce almost
identical results. The pressure distribution calculated by the SGS model is sensitive to the mesh
and model constant used. The predicted pressure coefficients using the k-ε and k-ω models agree
better with the measurements than those obtained using the SGS model.
Figure 7 shows the predicted pressure coefficient around the cylinder surface. The horizontal
axis is the angle α defined in Fig. 1. It can be seen that the calculated pressure distribution resembles
the measured one, although the predicted stagnation point is shifted slightly downward. Only small
differences can be found among the results of different turbulence models except in the region
behind the cylinder. Therefore, the pressure distribution around the cylinder surface may not be a
good parameter for evaluating turbulence models. But again the behavior of SGS model is shown
to be more dependent on the value of model constant.
4 CONCLUSION
The vortex shedding flow around a circular cylinder above a rigid wall is studied using a
two-dimensional numerical model. Three turbulence models are examined on three different com-
putational meshes. Both standard k-ε and Wilcox k-ω models can predict the mean flow field
quite well regardless of the computational mesh used. Significant difference is found between the
results of SGS model and the experimental data. The results of SGS model are also quite dependent
on the computational mesh and model constant. The SGS model produces much larger velocity
fluctuation than the laboratory measurement. On the contrary, the standard k-ε and Wilcox k-ω
models slightly under-predict the velocity fluctuations. The prediction of fluctuation velocity can
be improved slightly by using a fine mesh. The comparisons of mean pressure distributions along
the bottom wall and cylinder surface also suggest that the SGS model is quite sensitive to the mesh
and the model coefficient used and the standard k-ε and Wilcox k-ω models give better results than
the SGS model.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the support from the Australia Research Council through
ARC Discovery Projects Program Grant No. DP0210660. This work is carried out while the first
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author is an academic visitor at School of Civil and Resource Engineering, The University of
Western Australia.
REFERENCES
Bearman, P.W. & Zdravkovich, M.M. 1978. Flow around a circular cylinder near a plane boundary. Journal of
fluid mechanics, 89, 33–47.
Göktun, S. 1975. The drag and lift characteristics of a cylinder placed near a plane surface, M.Sc. Thesis,
Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, California, USA.
Grass, A.J., Raven, P.W.J., Stuart, R.J. & Bray, J.A. 1984. The influence of boundary layer velocity gradients and
bed proximity on vortex shedding from free spanning pipelines.” Journal of energy resources technology,
106, 70–78.
Jensen, B.L. 1987. Large-scale vortices in the wake of a cylinder placed near a wall. Proc. 2nd international
conference on laser anemometry-advances and applications, Strathclyde, UK, 153–163.
Launder, B.E. & Spalding D.B. 1974. The numerical computation of turbulent flows. Computer methods in
applied mechanics and engineering, 3, 269–289.
Lee, Y.G., Hong, S.W. & Kang, K.J. 1994. A numerical simulation of vortex motion behind a circular cylinder
above a horizontal plane boundary. Proceedings of the fourth international offshore and polar engineering
conference, Osaka, Japan, 3, 427–433.
Lei, C., Cheng, L. & Kavanagh, K. 1999. Numerical flow visualization of vortex shedding flow over a
circular cylinder near a plane boundary. Proceedings of the 9th international offshore and polar engineering
conference, Brest, France, 2, 204–211.
Li, Y., Chen, B. & Lai, G. 1997. The numerical simulation of wave forces on seabed pipeline by three-step
finite element method and large eddy simulation. Proceedings of the seventh international offshore and
polar engineering conference, Honolulu, USA, 2, 273–277.
Smagorinsky, J. 1963. Gereral circulation experiments with the primitive equations, I. The basic experiment.
Monthly Weather Review, 91(3), 99–164.
Wilcox, D.C. 1988. Reassessment of the scale-determining equation for advanced turbulence models. AIAA
Journal, 26(11), 1299–1310.
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Vortex dislocation in wake-type flow caused by

local spanwise nonuniformity
G.C. Ling
LNM, Institute of Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
H.L. Zhao
RCFD, College of Science, PLA University of Science and Technology, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
J.Y. Niu
LHD, Institute of Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
ABSTRACT: DNS of spatiotemporal evolution of a wake-type flow is performed. In the incoming

flow, a local spanwise nonuniformity in momentum defect is initially imposed. Results show that
the spanwise nonuniformity leads to a series of symmetric twist vortex dislocation in downstream
of the flow. Vortex line variations and substantial transition of vorticity from spanwise to the
streamwise and vertical directions clearly feature the generation of a vortex dislocation and the real
vortex linking in the dislocation. Dynamical process and the mechanism responsible for the vortex
dislocation are described.
1 INTRODUCTION
A number of previous works have devoted to study of wake three dimensionalities and shown that
for low Reynolds numbers the vortex dislocation is a fundamental characteristic of bluff body
wakes. Depending on the three-dimensional flow conditions, the vortex dislocation may present
various modes or patterns, for instance, vortex “splitting and reconnection”, vortex “kinks” or
“holes”, or a kind of large-scale spot-like vortex dislocations and so forth. Those phenomena can
be found in cylinder wakes with diameter variation or nonuniform coming flows, or in the wake
of stepped cylinder, as well as in the wake of the cylinder with end effects. Detailed presentations
of them can be found in the experimental studies and reviews of Gerrard (1996), Bearman (1992),
Lewis & Gharib (1992), Eisenlohr & Eckelmann (1989), Williamson (1992, 1996), Papangelou
(1992) and many others. Again, the vortex dislocations may be characterized by “a local break of
continuity appearing on the “spinal column” of a main vortex row”, which occurs randomly in the
natural transition of cylinder wakes (Braza & Persillson 2001). Also, a kind of vortex “branching
interaction” was observed in transition of mixing layer (Dallard & Browand 1993). The occurrence
of vortex dislocations is closely related to the break-up to turbulence and is considered a new
mechanism of the flow transition. Moreover, it is associated with the variation of forces acting on
the cylinders. Therefore, study of the vortex dislocation has received a great deal of attention.
However, due to its highly three-dimensionality and very complex in structure, the detailed
information and features of vortex linkages in vortex dislocations are still not yet known thoroughly.
Dynamics related is not fully understood. Mechanism explanation responsible for the vortex dis-
location in previous studies was basically based on an inviscid vortex dynamics, it is difficult
to offer a complete understanding for the real viscous flows. It is believed that to make further
numerical study to address those issues is significant.
In present study DNS of spatial-temporal evolution of a typical wake-type flow with a local
spanwise nonuniformity is performed. The nonlinear developments of the flow instability and
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nonuniform evolution of the flow are described by numerical results. A clear identification of
scenario of the formation of the vortex dislocation and the basic feature of the complex vortex link-
age in it are reported by analyzing mainly the substantial modification of vorticity field and vortex
lines tracks. Therefore a full understanding of the dislocation dynamics, even the definition of the
technical terms of vortex dislocation is gained. Detailed information on how wake flow behaviors
accommodate the difference in phase, frequency and strength of vortices between shedding cells via
vortex dislocation is given now. The influence of different nonuniformity in the coming flow on vor-
tex dislocation and the feature of the transition behaviors are also investigated in present work. How-
ever, due to the space limitation of the present paper, those results will be reported in another paper.
2 NUMERICAL METHODS
In present calculations, the velocity profile of incoming flow is taken as
which represents the time average streamwise velocity profile in the cylinder near wake where
the flow is most unstable. a(z) = 1.1 + 0.4 exp (−z 2 ) is imposed to simulate a local nonuniformity
in momentum defect, which decays with the increase of spanwise distance. b and c are para-
meters determined by referring DNS solution of Kaniadakis & Triantafyllou (1992), as well as an
experimental measurement in cylinder wake by Nishioka & Sato (1974). So this kind of wake-type
flow has some similar behavior, to certain extent, to the wake behind a cylinder with a local small
disturbance in diameter. It is helpful for understanding the nature of vortex dislocation.
DNS of the wake flow evolution has carried out by solving three-dimensional Nervier-Stokes
equations using the compact finite difference-Fourier Spectral hybrid method. A detailed presenta-
tion of these equations and the numerical method can be found in Xiong & Ling (1996) and Ling &
Xiong (2001). In the method the periodic boundary condition in spanwise direction is assumed.
The m-th Fourier component of Navier-Stokes equations is
For time discretization of the equation a third order mixed explicit–implicit schemes in used.
The solution procedure for these m-th harmonic equations is split into the following three substeps:
where um , um are intermediate velocities; Ji , Je are parameters for the order of the scheme, and
αq , βq , γ0 are appropriately chosen weights. To evaluate the nonlinear terms in the split equations,
the pseudo-spectral method is adopted, and the fifth order upwind compact scheme is used to
approximate the terms. For solving Helmholtz equations for pressure and velocity, a nine-point
compact scheme of forth-order accuracy is derived and sixth-order central compact scheme is used
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for non-homogeneous term calculations. For the details of the parameter values in the equation (3)
and the particular representation of numerical schemes, readers may refer to Ling & Xiong (2001).
For the boundary conditions a semi-discretized pressure boundary conditions and a generalized
nonreflecting-type outflow boundary conditions are used (Xiong & Ling 1996). Reynolds number is
defined as Re = U0 D/ν, here U0 , D represent an infinite potential flow velocity and characteristic
length, respectively. The computation domain is 100, 30, 30(D) in streamwise, transverse and
spanwise directions, respectively. The cutoff of the truncated Fourier series is N = 64, and the grid
points in x-y plane are 202 × 62. The numerical code used in the present work has been verified first.
It shows that evolution of the wake-type flow without the local spanwise non-uniformity results in
a normal Kármán vortex street with a Strouhal number of 0.189, which is well compared with both
numerical simulation of wake-type flow evolution (St = 0.195, see Karniadakis & Triantafyllou,
1992) and DNS results of flow around cylinder (St = 0.179, see Triantafyllou & Karniadakis, 1990).
3 NUMERICAL RESULTS
Numerical results exhibit that a series of symmetric twist vortex dislocations are generated in the
middle downstream as shown figure 1, where we can also see the streamwise and vertical vorticity
branches connected to the large distorted spanwise vortex rolls. Isosurface of vorticity, vorticity
component contours and fluctuating velocity distributions are used to describe the generation and
the configuration of vortex dislocations. However the details of vortex linkages in the vortex
dislocations, especially the connections with opposite sign vortices are still unclear. It can not
be identified from those isosurface patterns. For understanding the real spatial linking and their
dynamic process, some representative vorticity lines emitted from different part of a vortex roll
located at different downstream positions are investigated. Their direction and tracks describe
clearly how the vortex dislocations generate and what the real vortex linkages are in the vortex
dislocations. A sample is shown in figure 2.
Results show that in the upstream region, the vortex lines start to undulate in the spanwise direc-
tion, then undergo a stronger distortion near the central area (fig. 2a). In the middle downstream,
we can see a set of vortex lines pass across the span with a big distortion near the central area, and
the others go into upstream adjacent vortex core, after turning 180 degree to upstream (fig. 2b). It
is interesting to note that the vortex lines starting from the different vertical positions of the same
vortex were shown in figure 2c will go back to downstream and join the next spanwise vortex. That
means some parts of the positive vortex are connected with adjacent negative vortices, as if they
are “split” from that positive vortex. The connection between the positive vortex and its adjacent
negative vortex takes place by a cross-vortex street mode.
Figure 1. Isosurface of ωz = ±0.12, ωx = ±0.1 and ωy = ±0.06 in the middle down stream region at t = 300.0.
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Figure 2. Vortex lines with different beginning or ending positions. The background is the counter of ωz on
the plane z = −15.
Thus the basic features of vortex linking in vortex dislocation can be briefly summarized as
follows: 1) large undulated spanwise vortex roll; 2) some split spanwise vortex lines diverting
their direction and connecting with adjacent vortices by a cross-vortex street mode; 3) the distorted
vortex lines wind round their neighboring spanwise vortices. From above results it is clear that
the generation of vortex dislocation is a continuous process. In the period, the spanwise vortices,
in some places of the flow field, undergo a substantial modification from its original direction
to the streamwise and, meantime, to the vertical direction. The phenomenon of “vortex split”
or “reconnection” does not occur instantly or abruptly. The phenomenon “break of continuity
appearing on vortex spinal column” in a real viscous flow does not exist, it is just the vorticity
transition both in direction and in quantity from original spanwise to others.
Figure 3 is a spanwise vorticity distribution along span. It clearly shows that the vortex street
production along the spanwise direction is nonsynchronous. The initial phase and the strength of
vortices between shedding cells are variation with the span. These spatial nonuniformities lead to
occurrence of the vortex dislocations. From present calculation it is found that the appearance of the
streamwise vorticity component and the vertical one are at some places where the rate of the phase
variation along the span, reaches a maximum value, and the three-dimensional vortex dislocation
structure appears. This feature also gives us some idea on the mechanism for the vortex dislocations.
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Figure 3. Spanwise vorticity distribution at different spanwise locations at t = 260.
In our calculations frequency spectrum characteristics, low frequency modulation, wavelet analy-
sis of velocity fluctuations are obtained. The irregular changes of frequency, vorticity and velocity
at different locations caused by the vortex dislocations are analyzed in detail. The irregularity is
closely related to the break-up to the local turbulence and the spatial chaos of the flow. The transition
features of the wake-type flow are described.
From DNS of the wake-type flow evolution, by carefully tracing the direction variations of the
vorticity lines and their track features, the generation of vortex dislocations and the vortex linkages
in dislocations are clearly described. The basic aspects of a vortex dislocation in the present flow
condition are also reported. These results are helpful to well understanding the phenomena of
dislocation, the dynamics as well as the mechanism for vortex dislocation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work is supported by the Special Funds of Major State Basic Research Projects under Grant
No. G1999032801, National Natural Science Foundation of China under Grant No 10272104, and
partially supported by CAS INOVATION PROJECT.
REFERENCES
Bearman, P.W. 1992 Challenging problems in bluff body wakes. Bluff-Body Wakes, Dynamics and Instabilities,
IUTAM Symposium. Göttingen:Springer-Verlag.
609
chap-79 20/9/2004 16: 41 page 610
Braza, M., Faghani, D. & Persillson, H. 2001 Successive Stages and the Role of Natural Vortex Dislocation in
Three-dimensional Wake Transition. J. Fluid Mech. 439:1–41.
Dallard, T. & Browand, F.K. 1993 The Growth of Large Scales at Defect Sites in the Plane Mixing Layer.
J. Fluid Mech. 247:339–368.
Eisenlohr, H. & Eckelemann, H. 1989 Vortex splitting and its consequences in vortex street wake of cylinders
at low Reynolds number. Phys. Fluid A 1:189–192.
Gerrard, J.H. 1966 The three-dimensional structure of the wake of a circular cylinder. J. Fluid Mech.
25:143–164.
Karniadakis, G.E. & Triantafyllou, G.S. 1992 Three-dimensional Dynamics and Transition to Turbulence in
the Wake of Bluff Objects. J. Fluid Mech. 238:1–30.
Lewis, C.G. & Gharib, M. 1992 An Exploration of Wake Three-Dimensionalities Caused by a Local
Discontinuity in Cylinder Diameter. Phys. Fluids A 4:104–117.
Ling, G.C. & Xiong, Z.M. 2001 Generation of Large-scale Vortex Dislocations in a Three-dimensional Wake-
type Flow. Science in China (series A) 4(12):1585–1595.
Nishioka, M. & Sato, H. 1974 Measurements of Velocity Distributions in the Wake of a Circular Cylinder at
Low Reynolds Numbers. J. Fluid Mech. 65:97–112.
Papangelou, A. 1992 Vortex shedding from slender cones at low Reynolds numbers. Bluff-Body Wakes,
Dynamics and Instabilities, IUTAM Symposium. Göttingen:Springer-Verlag.
Triantafyllou, G.S. & Karniadakis, G.E. 1990 Computational Reducibility of Unsteady Viscous Flow. Phys.
Fluids A 2:653–658.
Williamson, C.H.K. 1992 The Natural and Forced Formation of Spot-like Vortex Dislocations in the Transition
of a Wake. J. Fluid Mech. 243:393–441.
Williamson, C.H.K. 1996 Vortex Dynamics in the Cylinder Wake. Annu. Rev. Mech. 28:477–539.
Xiong, Z.M. & Ling, G.C. 1996 Compact Finite Difference-Fourier Spectral Method for Three-dimensional
Incompressible Navier-Stokes Equation. ACTA. Mechanica Sinica 12(4):296–306.
610
chap-80 20/9/2004 16: 45 page 611

Free-surface waves due to a Stokeslet in a viscous fluid of

infinite depth
Dong-Qiang Lu
Shanghai Institute of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China
Allen T. Chwang
Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
ABSTRACT: The interaction of low-Reynolds-number flows with free-surface waves is investi-

gated analytically. The disturbed flow is generated by a three-dimensional submerged body moving
perpendicularly downwards away from the surface of the fluid. The analysis is based on the assump-
tion that the motion satisfies the Stokes equations, the fluid is infinitely deep, and the free-surface
conditions are linearized. The submerged body is modeled as a fundamental singularity in Stokes
flow (Stokeslet). The analytical asymptotic solutions are obtained for the transient free-surface
waves due to an instantaneous Stokeslet with a vertical component. As is well known, the corres-
ponding inviscid waves predicted by the potential theory do not decay to zero as time goes to infinity.
In the present investigation, the transient waves predicted by the viscous theory vanish eventually
due to the presence of viscosity, which is consistent with the reality from the physical point of view.
1 INTRODUCTION
Using the potential theory, Stoker (1957, §6.4) briefly discussed the two- and three-dimensional
Cauchy-Poisson problems related to the unsteady waves generated by an impulsive local disturbance
acting on the free surface of an initially quiescent fluid. The solutions obtained for inviscid waves
tend to infinity at any fixed position as time goes to infinity, and tend to infinity at any instant as
the position approaches the singular point. These are really singular behaviors from the physical
point of view. Chen & Duan (2003) showed that the inclusion of surface tension in the formulation
for the classical Cauchy-Poisson problem can eliminate the singular behavior caused by the use of
potential theory. Lu’s (2002) preliminary study demonstrated that the viscosity plays a vital role in
the generation and evolution of free-surface waves due to fundamental singularities. In this paper,
the interaction of three-dimensional low-Reynolds-number flow with a free surface is investigated
analytically. The dynamic response due to an instantaneous Stokeslet is of fundamental interest.
2 GENERAL FORMULATION
The governing equations are the continuity equation and the singularly forced Stokes equations:
where u = (u, v, w) is the disturbed velocity field, P is the hydrodynamic pressure, ρ and µ are
the density and viscosity of the fluid, respectively. F = (0, 0, Fz ) is the singular force located at
position x0 = (0, 0, −h0 ), where δ(·) is the Dirac delta function, x = (x, y, z) is the field point, and
h0 (h0 ≥ 0) is the submergence depth.
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chap-80 20/9/2004 16: 45 page 612
For small-amplitude waves, we impose the linearized boundary conditions on the undisturbed
free surface (z = 0),
where p = P − ρgη is the total pressure on the undisturbed free surface and η is the elevation of
the free surface. In addition, the initial values of the velocity, the hydrodynamic pressure and the
free-surface elevation are taken to be those of the quiescent fluid, that is
Governing equations (1) and (2) together with conditions (3) through (9) form a general initial-
boundary-value problem associated with a fundamental singularity. We may regard the disturbed
flow (u, P) as the sum of an unbounded singular Stokes flow (uS , PS ), which represents the effect
of the singular force, and a bounded regular Stokes flow (uR , PR ), which represents the influence
of the free surface. Thus, we have
Furthermore, the continuous vector uR is taken as the sum of an irrotational and a solenoidal
vector, uR = VL + VT , such that VL = ∇, ∇ · VT = 0, where (x, t), a scalar potential function,
represents an irrotational flow while VT (x, t) represents a rotational flow. Thus,
where ν = µ/ρ is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid. Therefore, the boundary conditions can be
expressed in terms of uS , PS , and VT on the undisturbed free-surface (z = 0),
where (uS , vS , wS ) and (uT , vT , wT ) are the components of uS (x, t; x0 ) and VT (x, t), respectively.
3 EXACT SOLUTIONS IN INTEGRAL FORMS
Taking the divergence of Eq. (2) yields the hydrodynamic pressure field for the unbounded
singular flow,
where r = "x − x0 ". Thus, the governing equation for the disturbed velocity in the unbounded
singular flow can be re-written as
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chap-80 20/9/2004 16: 45 page 613
By taking the Laplace transform with respect to the temporal variable and the Fourier transform
with respect to the spatial variables over Eqs. (19) and (20) and using the Jordan lemma and the
Cauchy residue theorem, the solution in integral form for the velocity of the unbounded singular
flow is
where
and c is the Laplace convergence abscissa of the Bromwich contour for the inversion of the Laplace
transform.
In order to obtain the formal solution for the free-surface flow, a joint integral transform is
introduced as
These expressions automatically satisfy Eqs. (12) and (13). By taking the transform (24) over
∇ · VT = 0 and Eqs. (15) through (18), we obtain a system of linear equations for the five unknown
¯ ūT , v̄T , w̄T ), which can readily be solved. Upon some mathematical manipulation,
functions (η̄, ,
the exact integral expression for the wave profile can be written as
where
With a change of variables
we may re-write Eq. (25) as
where
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and J0 (KR) is the Bessel function of the first kind of order zero. For simplicity, it is convenient to
introduce a set of non-dimensional variables by
where l = g −1/3 ν2/3 is the viscous length for the Cauchy-Poisson problem of a viscous fluid (Miles
1968). The wave profile is now given by
where
4 ASYMPTOTIC EXPANSION
The integral in Eq. (32) represents the exact solution for the wave elevation due to the impulsive
motion of a submerged singularity in Stokes flow, but the physical characteristics of the wave
motion are not explicitly seen in this integral representation. It will be more instructive to find an
asymptotic expansion of Eq. (32) for large t̂ with R̂/t̂ being fixed.
First, the inverse Laplace transform in Eq. (32) is evaluated by the Cauchy residue theorem. The
dominant contributions to the integral at large t̂ must come from the neighborhood of K̂ = 0 since
the integrand is exponentially small at intermediate values of K̂. The asymptotic solutions for the
zeros of D̂ take the form of (Miles 1968)
The inverse Laplace transform in Eq. (32) can be determined by the sum of the residues of the
integrand at these poles. By taking a contour integration in the complex s plane, Eq. (32) can be
represented by
where
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We may replace J0 (K̂ R̂) by its asymptotic formula for large K̂ R̂,
Thus, Eq. (36) gives
where
For the K̂ integration in Eq. (41), the method of stationary phase is used. It is easily seen that
for R̂ > 0, ,̂12 and ,̂21 have a stationary point at
which satisfies the equations
A straightforward application of the stationary phase approximation yields the formal expression
for the viscous wave profile for large t̂ with R̂/t̂ being fixed,
where
Returning now to the original variables, we may transform Eqs. (46) through (51) to
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chap-80 20/9/2004 16: 45 page 616
5 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
By means of the classical potential theory, the asymptotic solution for the inviscid free-surface
waves generated by a point impulse at R = 0 at instant t = 0 is given by (Stoker 1957, p. 166)
It should be noted that approximate formula (58) is valid for any R = 0 and sufficiently large
gt 2 /R. It is easily seen that inviscid solution (58) is a special case of viscous solution (45) with
ν = 0 and h0 = 0. The characteristics of the wave motion described by Eq. (58) have been discussed
by Stoker (1957, pp. 168–174). The remarkable difference between the present result (45) and the
inviscid solution (58) is the presence of a viscous decay factor d V and a submergence decay factor
d S . Since the amplitudes of ηT1 and ηT2 are associated with the viscosity of the fluid, as shown
in Eqs. (53) and (54), ηT1 and ηT2 can be regarded as the higher-order viscous correction for the
free-surface elevation due to a submerged body. Furthermore, the contribution from ηT2 toward
0.02 η(cm)
0.01
-0.01
t(s)
0 5 10 15 20
Figure 1. The evolution of waves due to an instantaneous Stokeslet with h0 = 0.5, ν = 10−6 m2/s,
ρ = 998.2 kg/m3 , and Fz = −4π kg/s (– .– R = 10 m, —– R = 15 m).
0.08
η(cm)
0.04
-0.04
R(m)
5 10 15 20 25
Figure 2. The two-dimensional profile of waves due to an instantaneous Stokeslet with Fz = −4π kg/s,
ρ = 998.2 kg/m3 , h0 = 0.5 m, v = 10−6 m2/s and t = 10 s.
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√
the wave generation becomes significant only when h0 = O( ν), that is, the Stokeslet is located
near the boundary layer of the free surface. Figure 1 shows the evolution of viscous waves at fixed
positions, from which it can be seen that the interval between two crests decreases with increasing
t. Figure 2 shows the profile of viscous waves at a fixed instant, from which it can be seen that the
distance between two crests increases with increasing R.
In the limits of t → ∞ and R → 0, the viscous wave solution tends to zero for a fixed R/t because
of the presence of a viscous decay factor. Hence, it can be stated that the viscosity plays a vital
role in the mathematical formulation for the generation and evolution of free-surface waves by a
moving body.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research was jointly sponsored by the Hong Kong Research Grants Council under Grant
Number HKU 7076/02E and the Shanghai Key Subject Program.
REFERENCES
Chen, X.B. & Duan, W.Y. 2003. Capillary-gravity waves due to an impulsive disturbance. In Proc. of 18th
International Workshop on Water Waves and Floating Bodies. 4pp.
Lu, D.Q. 2002. Unsteady Free-surface Waves Generated by Bodies in a Viscous Fluid. Thesis for the degree
of Doctor of Philosophy, The University of Hong Kong.
Miles, J.W. 1968. The Cauchy-Poisson problem for a viscous liquid. J. Fluid Mech. 34: 359–370.
Stoker, J.J. 1957. Water Waves: the Mathematical Theory with Applications. New York: Interscience Publishers.
617
chap-81 20/9/2004 16: 45 page 619

The interaction of gravity current with a submerged circular

cylinder
K.M. Mok & K.K. Ieong

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Macau, Macau, China
Harry Yeh
Department of Civil, Construction & Environmental Engineering, Oregon State University,
Corvallis, OR, USA
ABSTRACT: The interaction of saline current with a circular cylinder is observed experimentally
in a laboratory environment with the laser induced fluorescent technique. The results indicate that
the run up process on the upstream cylinder wall has two phases and it can reach as high as 93%
of the total depth. The reduction in flow area due to the presence of the cylinder chocks the saline
current first, and later through a collapsing front forces the current to stream around the cylinder in
a faster rate to conserve mass. The split currents reemerge in the lee side of the cylinder and form
a new gravity current front with more complex and intense mixing features than the one before
impact. It is clear that the presence of a cylinder would increase the saline intrusion into the fresh
water body substantially at and behind the cylinder due to significant increase in flow actions in
both the cross-stream and along-stream directions.
1 INTRODUCTION
Gravity currents are stratified flows driven by the density difference of two fluid bodies intruding
each other. Sketch of a typical gravity current advancing on a horizontal plane is shown in figure 1.
According to Simpson (1997), the head of the current H is approximately two times as deep as the
following flow depth h and the nose, i.e. the foremost leading edge, of the current is about 1/8 of the
current head; and the current induced mixing can be caused by instabilities in the forms of billows
and lobes and clefts. When gravity currents, especially those in nature, propagate, they would
meet obstacles which could alter their propagation routes as well as create addition disturbances
Lobes & Clefts

H
Mixing Region
Billows U
1 Nose
Denser Fluid h= H Entrapped Less
2 Less Dense
Dense Fluid 1 Fluid
H
8
Figure 1. Schematic of a gravity current front advancing along a horizontal plane.
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affecting the ambient conditions. Hence the interactions of gravity currents with obstacles are of
great interest. Rottman et al. (1985) studied a two dimensional saline current meeting a solid vertical
wall in a fresh water body of infinite depth. They found that the splash of the saline water could
run up the wall to about twice of the original height of the released saline water, it then collapsed
and formed a raised disturbance moving away from the wall. Lane-Serff et al. (1995) studied
theoretically the problem of gravity current flowing over a bottom obstacle with three different
upper layer conditions. The one with an active upper layer capped by a rigid lid was analyzed
in details with the shallow water wave theory. Their model predictions on the flow proportion
over topping the obstacle, the speed and flow depth of the reflected bore were compared with
laboratory experiments with reasonable agreements. Simpson (1997) showed some preliminary
results on gravity current flowing through a porous obstacle consisting of four rows of ten rods. He
observed that the gravity current firstly increased in depth to almost twice of its original height as it
encountered the barrier. Then the heavy fluid streamed through the bottom of the barrier and began
to form a gravity current front while a weak internal jump propagated upstream from the obstacle.
Eventually, a re-established gravity current front propagated at a lower speed downstream from the
barrier when a sharp drop in the interface level through the obstacle formed. In the present study,
experimental investigations on gravity current flowing around a circular cylinder standing through
the entire water depth were carried out aiming to probe its features for insights.
2 EXPERIMENT
Experiments were performed in a hydraulic tank of 16.62 m long, 0.61 m wide and 0.45 m deep
located at the Harris Hydraulics Laboratory of University of Washington. The tank floor, except
at the observation section, was made of steel channel while the sidewalls were constructed with
13 mm thick temper glass plates. Gravity currents were generated by the lock exchange scheme
through lifting a 6.4 mm thick stainless steel gate, which separated the tank into a 5.9 m long saline
water chamber and a 10.72 m long fresh water chamber. A pneumatic cylinder (Cunningham MFG.
Co. Model AB) was used to lift the gate. This setting allowed the gate to be fully lifted (clearing
0.45 m) within 0.2 second. The generated current developed as it propagated downstream and it was
set up to impact a submerged circular cylinder of 14 cm in diameter centered at 5.05 m downstream
from the partition. The tank floor at the cylinder was a 1.5 m long by 0.61 m wide temper glass
plate, which allowed shining of a laser light sheet from below the tank for flow visualization with
the laser induced fluorescence (LIF) technique. Schematics of the experimental set-up are shown
in figure 2. A high-resolution hydrometer (ELE, No.943578) was used to measure the densities of
the fluids in both chambers before experiments.
The instrument used for LIF visualization includes an Argon-ion laser (Coherent Innova 70-4)
equipped with a fiber link operated at about 0.9 Watt. The emitted laser light beam of 1.5 mm in
diameter was shot from the fiber link to a resonant scanner (General Scanning 6124) underneath
the tank to convert it into a thin laser light sheet for illumination of the fluid dyed with fluorescein.
The motion of the resonant scanner was driven by a scanner drive (General Scanning AX-200)
with a saw teeth function of 485 Hz frequency fed from a function generator. In experiment, the
saline current was traced by adding 0.8 g of fluorescein dye to the salt water reservoir prior to an
experimental run. The brighten flow field was recorded by a 3CCD digital video camera (Sony
DCR-VX2000E) for later analyses and measurements.
Interaction of gravity current with a submerged circular cylinder was observed by repeating experi-
ments. The depths of both the fresh and saline water in the front and back chambers were set at
0.30 m throughout all runs. The densities of the saline and fresh water were ρs = 1001 kg/m3 and
ρa = 997 kg/m3 respectively, hence giving a specific gravity of 1.004 to the saline water. Gravity
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5.9 m 10.72 m
Pneumatic
Cylinder
Dyed Salt Stainless Steel 5.05 m Circular

Water Partition Gate Cylinder Fresh Water
30 cm 30 cm
Glass Bottom
Floor
Laser
Light Sheet
Resonant
Scanner
Drain
Argon-Ion Laser Function Generator

(a)
0.61 m
Glass Bottom Circular Glass Side
Floor Cylinder Walls
13 mm
14 cm
0.45 m
Circular
0.61 m
1 2 Glass Side Cylinder

Walls
13 mm
3
13 mm
Glass Bottom
1.5 m Floor
1&2 3
Shinning Laser Light Shinning Laser Light
Sheet from below the Sheet from below the
Tank (Dotted Line) Tank (Dotted Line)
(b) (c)
Figure 2. Schematics of the experimental set-up; (a) elevation view, (b) plan view of the observation section,
(c) cross-section view of the observation section showing the circular cylinder and the locations of the laser
induced observation planes.
current was generated by lifting the gate instantaneously to a full open position. Flow observations
were done near the cylinder sitting at about 17 times the total water depth downstream of the gate.
This distance was considered sufficient for the transient disturbances caused by the gate opening
motion to subside upon measurement at the cylinder. At the same time, the 5.9 m long back chamber
was also long enough so that the “inverted bore” reflected from the end-wall would not disturb
the observed flows during experiments. The repeated experiments were synchronized in time by
letting t = 0 sec. at gate opening. The Reynolds number and the densimetric Froude number of
the generated
√ current before impacting the cylinder are estimated to be Re = Uh/v = 3680 and
Fr = U/ (g h) = 0.958 respectively, where U is the average advancing speed of the current head, v
is kinematic viscosity of the fluid and g = (ρs − ρa )g/ρa is the buoyant acceleration with g being
the gravitational acceleration. Recorded flows in vertical longitudinal planes at three locations are
presented here; they are at upstream and downstream of the cylinder along the centerline of the
tank, and at 5 mm from one side of the cylinder (figure 2b, c).
The sequential fluid motions of a gravity-current head approaching and impacting on the circular
cylinder in a longitudinal vertical plane along the center of the tank are shown in figure 3. The
area size covered by the pictures is approximately 35 cm longitudinal by 30 cm vertical. The time
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t = 105.60 sec. t = 106.80 sec. t = 107.40 sec. t = 107.96 sec.
Figure 3. Sequential views of a saline current front impacting on the front of a circular cylinder along the
longitudinal vertical plane in the center of the tank; the viewing area covers about 35 cm × 30 cm with the right
edge matching with the cylinder wall, the top edge coinciding with the fresh water surface and the dotted line
is at 15 cm from the tank bottom, i.e. at half of the total depth.
in seconds represents the elapsed time after gate opening. The saline current is made visible by the
laser illuminated fluorescence shown in gray shades while the fresh water is shown in white. The
first picture in figure 3 shows the leading front of the approaching current. It can be seen that it
poses a rather pointy nose and strong mixing is present due to intense fluid entrainment in both
the along-stream and cross-stream directions. Large-scale eddies or billows develop on the upper
surface behind the leading front and grow in the upstream direction making the flow structures of
the incoming saline current very complex. Similar features in gravity current propagating along a
flat surface were reported by Mok et al. (2003) and Yeh & Wada (2001) with explanations, readers
are suggested to refer to their works for details. Nonetheless, the interaction of the current with a
cylinder is of more interest here and is described in details.
The current front is steepened while it approaches the cylinder by showing a blunt nose
(t = 106.80 sec.). Then it becomes almost vertical (t = 107.40 sec.) right before impacting with the
cylinder. The steepened front is simply due to the slow down of the saline current as it approaches
the stagnation point at the foremost part of the cylinder when the following fluid catches up with it.
As the current front first makes contact with the cylinder at a point above the cylinder base, it splits
into an upper part and a lower part (t = 107.96 sec.). The upper part moves up the cylinder wall and
starts the subsequent run-up process, but the bottom part swirls down to the bottom and engulfs the
trapped fresh water forming a small reverse circulation (see lower right corners in pictures taken at
t = 107.96 sec. and 109.20 sec.). This feature agrees with the model presented by Simpson & Britter
(1979) who suggested that the flows have opposite reversing directions in the regions above and
below the nose of gravity current. However this entrapped circulation close to the ground would not
last long. As the following heavier fluid near the bottom arrives, it would be washed downstream
around the cylinder. For the run up on the cylinder after the impact, it can be seen that it is relatively
fast at the beginning until it reaches the height of the following flow (t = 109.20 sec.). Then further
run-up action is comparatively slower. The reason could be the finite total water depth. Due to
continuity, the upper fresh water layer is active and it flows in the opposite direction of the saline
current hence forming a shear flow between the two fluids. When the run up reaches this interface,
it must have enough vertical momentum, which is converted from the following heavier fluid, to
shoot through the shear flow. It can be seen that the current run up in this phase reaches a height
of about 57% of the water depth (t = 113.56 sec.). It then stays at this location for a while before
the front starts to surge up again. But the leading front in this phase is no longer as defined as in
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Figure 4. Sequential views of the saline current flowing around the circular cylinder in a longitudinal vertical
plane tangent (5 mm from edge) to the cylinder; the viewing area covers about 47 cm × 23 cm; the three
vertical dotted lines from left to right mark the upstream cylinder edge along the tank centerline, the side edge
of cylinder tangent to viewing area, and the downstream cylinder edge along the tank centerline; the horizontal
dotted line is at 15 cm from the tank bottom.
the earlier stage. It is suspected that this second run-up process is dictated by the opposite fresh
water flow at the upper part of the cylinder. As the saline current flows around the cylinder, its
fresh water counterpart at the top also develops. Eventually it reaches some critical value which
is strong enough to shear the run-up interface (t = 115.88 sec.) and cause further mixing between
the two. When this happens, a counter-clockwise rotation at the top develops and its subsequent
motion would help to pull the run up further but at a much slower motion. At the same time, the
wake developed in the fresh water part in the front side (in view of the saline current) of the cylinder
would make the flow structures at the saline current run-up front extremely complex so the splash
like front appears (t = 122.60 sec.). The maximum height of the run up including the splash in this
phase could reach almost 93% of the total water depth.
Next, the fluid motions of the gravity current passing the circular cylinder in a longitudinal
vertical plane tangent to the cylinder are shown in figure 4. The area size covered by the pictures is
approximately 47 cm longitudinal by 23 cm vertical. When the saline current reaches the cylinder,
it can be seen that there is a lower leading front followed by a deeper saline flow behind indicating
the effect of the cylinder is already felt by the flow (t = 105.28 sec.). Then the current passes the
narrowest section of the channel (t = 106.32 sec.) where the viewing plane is tangent to the cylinder
edge, the leading front depth increases to about the same height of the following flow showing
the choking effect of the reduced flow area due to the presence of the cylinder (t = 106.32 sec.).
The chocking effect continues with deepening the depth of the current as it squeezes through the
section and around the cylinder (t = 106.88 sec.). With the depth increasing, potential energy of
the current builds up and eventually it has to collapse and shoots out at the bottom, then a gravity
current downstream from the cylinder is re-established (t = 107.76 sec.). It is expected that this
re-established current would have a smaller density value than the original current due to heavy
mixing caused by the cylinder and therefore it would propagate at a slower speed (more later). At
the same time, it is interesting to see the effect of the cylinder wall, which is actually a significant
source of vorticity. When the current front passes the cylinder, the large shear stresses at the cylinder
wall could tear off the current front and let fresh water intrude. The long white streak parallel to
the current front near the interface shown in the picture taken at t = 106.88 sec. is an evidence of
the wall shear stress. This entrained fresh water streak is then broken off by the complex ambient
flow and becomes parts of the disturbances behind the newly formed front.
After the saline current impacted on the submerged cylinder, it splits in two and flows around the
cylinder. It is expected that these two split saline currents would meet again in at the downstream
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Figure 5. Sequential views of the saline current after flowing around the circular cylinder along the
longitudinal vertical plane in the center of the tank; the viewing area covers about 33 cm × 15 cm with the
left edge matching with the cylinder wall; the dotted line is at 15 cm from the tank bottom.
side of the cylinder and form a new current front. The images in figure 5 show this development
sequence of the saline current along the centerline of the tank. The area size covered by the pictures
is approximately 33 cm longitudinal by 15 cm vertical. The first picture in figure 5 shows that there
are two saline water blobs pop up immediately downstream of the cylinder but they are not attached
to the bottom. This could be due to the slightly raised nose of the gravity current so that when
the split currents meet, their noses meet first. As time goes by, increasing amount of saline water
comes into the viewing plane and a gravity current front slowly develops. It can be seen that even
the depth of the developed head, H , appears to be similar to that of the current before impact, it has
a higher portion of fresh water entrainment which can be viewed by the amount of light gray scale
area and white streaks in the current head. Meanwhile, a comparison between the later images in
figure 4 with those in figure 5 shows that there are significant variations in the current shapes and
mixing characteristics at different cross-stream locations. These suggest that the flow downstream
of the cylinder is highly three dimensional with intense actions in the cross-stream direction so that
the mixing conditions are extremely complex.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Experimental observations of the interaction of a saline current with a circular cylinder were done
with the LIF technique and reported for the first time in details. It is found that the twophase run up
on the upstream cylinder wall is first controlled by the relative strength of the upward momentum
to the shear developed between the saline and fresh water interface. Then it is dictated by the
upper opposing fresh water flow due to continuity resulting from a finite total water depth. This is
consistent with the theoretical results of Lane-Serff et al. (1995) who indicated that the presence
of an upper boundary at a few times the height of the gravity current has significant effect on
the flow. Meanwhile the identified complex flow structures in both the along-stream and cross-
stream directions before, during and after the gravity current passing the cylinder, request further
qualitative and quantitative studies.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The work of this paper is supported by the Research Committee of University of Macau (RG052/00-
01S/MKM/FST, RG014/01-02S/MKM/FST and RG026/02-03S/MKM/FST) and the Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering at the University of Washington under the cooperation
project “Dynamics of Gravity Currents”.
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REFERENCES
Lane-Serff, G. F., Beal, L. M. & Hadfield, T. D. 1995. Gravity current flow over obstacles, J. Fluid Mech.
292: 39–53.
Mok, K. M., Ieong, K. K. & Yeh, H. 2003. Experimental observations of the flow structures at gravity current
fronts, Proceedings of the International Conference on Estuaries and Coasts (ICEC-2003), Nov. 9–11,
2003, Hangzhou, China, Vol. II: 984–990.
Rottman, J. W., Simpson, J. E., Hunt, J. C. R. & Britter, R. E. 1985. Unsteady gravity current flows over
obstacles, J. Hazardous Matter 11: 325–340.
Simpson, J. E., 1997. Gravity Currents: In the Environment and the Laboratory, 2nd Edn. Cambridge
University Press.
Simpson, J. E. & Britter, R. E. 1979. The dynamics of the head of a gravity current advancing over a
horizontal surface, J. Fluid Mech. 94: 477–495.
Yeh, H. & Wada, K. 2001. Descriptive hydrodynamics of lock-exchange flows. In P. L.-F. Liu (ed)
Advances in Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Vol.7: 203–240. Singapore: World Scientific.
625
chap-82 20/9/2004 16: 46 page 627

On characteristics of tandem hydrofoils
K. Nakatake, J. Ando & A. Yoshitake

Graduate School of Engineering, Kyushu Univ. Fukuoka, Japan
K. Kataoka
Amuza Japan Co.
ABSTRACT: This paper describes the results of experiments on mono and tandem hydrofoils and
the corresponding calculations using a surface panel method “SQCM” and two kinds of Rankine
source methods, LSA (Low Speed Approximation) and HAS (High Speed Approximation). At first,
we explain about calculation methods for tandem hydrofoils under the free surface and show some
results of 2-D tandem hydrofoils. Then we describe our experiments and show some experimental
results of 3-D mono and tandem hydrofoils and compare them with calculated results and confirm
usefulness of our calculation method.
1 INTRODUCTION
Rankine source method presented by Dawson (Dawson, 1977) has been applied widely as a practical
method for calculating wave resistance of ships and many improvements have been made. Most of
Rankine source method uses double model flow (normal image) as the basic flow in the limiting case
of zero Froude number (Low Speed Approximation, LSA). It is considered that LSA is successful
in case of ship wave calculation because Froude number based on the ship length is relatively
small in general. In case of hydrofoils, Froude number based on the chord length is much higher
than Froude number of ship. So, if we use the conventional Rankine source method for the free
surface problem in high speed range, a question will arise whether we can use LSA or not. To clear
this question, we present a new Rankine source method which uses inverse image above the still
water surface to represent the basic flow in high speed range (High Speed Approximation, HSA)
(Nakatake et al., 1993). We apply these two methods to tandem hydrofoil problems.
In this paper, we show the calculated results of the lift and drag of 3-D tandem foil system by using
a numerical method which combines a surface panel method “SQCM” (Ando et al., 1998) and the
new Rankine source method “HAS”. In addition, we compare these results with the experimental
ones of 3-D tandem foil system, where these experiments were performed at Kyushu University.
We show that the lift and drag of the fore foil are similar to the mono foil but those of the aft foil
fluctuate violently according to Froude number and stagger. These results are confirmed by our
new calculation method.
2 CALCULATION METHOD
Here, we explain mainly the calculation methods HSA and LSA for a 2-D tandem hydrofoil system
problem. We call the fore foil the first foil ( j = 1) and do the aft foil the second foil ( j = 2). Let
us consider a tandem hydrofoil-system with chord length c, span length b and the leading edge of
the first foil located at y = − f in the inviscid, incompressible and irrotational uniform flow (see
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Figure 1. Coordinate system for tandem hydrofoil system
Figure 1). Distance s is stagger and α is angle of attack. The velocity potential φ around the tandem
hydrofoils is expressed by the sum of the potential φ0 expressing the basic flow and the potential
φ1 expressing free surface effects as
where φ0 is expressed by HSA in case of high speed or by LSA in case of low speed. In case of LSA
(normal image), φ0y = 0 at y = 0 and in case of HSA (inverse image), φ0x = 0 at y = 0. Involving
both cases, the linearized free surface condition and the corresponding wave profile η are given as
follows.
where g is acceleration of gravity and k0 (= g/V 2 ) is wave number.

In order to represent the flow field, we use source distributions m1 , m2 on the surface panels of
both foils Sw1 , Sw2 together with the vortices γ1 , γ2 distributing discretely on the camber surfaces
C1 , C2 according to Lan’s QCM (Lan, 1974) which expresses a thin wing approximately. In 3-D
problem, free vortices flow along the camber surface and to the rear infinity parallel to the nose-
tail line through the trailing edges. In addition to the sources m(m1 , m2 ) and vortices γ(γ1 , γ2 ), the
source σF is distributed on the still water surface SF , which expresses the wave flow.
The source and vortex strength m, γ are divided into m, γ used for the basic flow and m, γ
used for the free surface effect as
Then the velocity vector q around the hydrofoil-system can be also expressed by the sum of the
basic flow velocity vector q0 and the wave flow velocity vector q1 as
where q0 is expressed by HSA in case of high speed and by LSA in case of low speed.
Making use of HSA or LSA, the linearized free surface condition (2) is solved to obtain σF . And
then γ1 , γ2 and m1 , m2 affected by σF are calculated from boundary conditions and σF is obtained
by solving the linearized free surface condition again.
Wave profiles which the hydrofoil system creates are calculated using these singularities γ1 , γ2 ,
m1 , m2 and σF by Eq. (3), which satisfy the linearized free surface condition and the radiation
condition. As to the radiation condition, we satisfy it by the phase shifting method. Lift and drag
are obtained by summing up of vertical and horizontal components of the pressure around hydrofoil
surfaces. They are expressed for j = 1, 2 as follows
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Figure 2. Source distribution and wave profiles.
where nx , ny show the x, y components of the external unit normal vectors on the foil surface,
respectively.
Lift coefficient CL and drag coefficient CD are defined as
3 2-D TANDEM HYDROFOIL-SYSTEM
In the following calculations, the wing parameters are the same for the fore and aft foils, that is,
NACA0012 symmetric wing section is used, chord length c = 1.0 m and angle of attack α = 5◦ .
First we show the source distribution σF on the still water surface comparing HSA with LSA at
√
the low speed Fn (= V / gc) = 0.88, and at the high speed Fn = 5.0 in Figure 2, where the two
arrows mean the positions of the fore and aft foils. In this case s/c = 10.0 and it is same in the
following figures. We used the same number of panels on the still water. There is little difference
of σF between HAS (thick line) and LSA (thin line) at the low speed (Fn = 0.88), but at the high
speed (Fn = 5.0) there is a big difference. These σF create the wave profiles as Figure 2. HSA and
LSA make similar wave profiles to each other at the low speed (Fn = 0.88), but very different wave
profiles at the high speed (Fn = 5.0). It is seen that the wave profile by HAS rises up and one by
LSA shows the unnatural depressions just above each hydrofoil in the high speed range.
4 EXPERIMENTS AND COMPARISONS
In order to investigate the hydrodynamic interaction between the fore and the aft foils of the tandem
hydrofoils, model tests of 3-D hydrofoils (aspect ratio 5.0) with NACA0012 wing section are carried
out. We measure the lift and drag of a mono and the tandem hydrofoils using the combined plate
springs with strain gauges. We wish to make clear the effects of Froude number, stagger, gap and
immersion on the lift and drag of the tandem hydrofoils. The mono hydrofoil has a rectangular
plan form with a chord length c(= 0.06 m), span length b(= 0.30 m) and a wetted surface area
AF (= 0.0373 m2 ).
We show a measuring apparatus in Figure 3, which can measure the lift and drag of a hydrofoil
by the two sets of plate springs with strain gauges. The lift and drag contain the effect of two struts,
and the angle of attack of the hydrofoil decreases a little due to deflection of the strut into rearwards,
but we do not correct the measured values by these effects. The drag is obtained by subtracting the
laminar frictional drag (Blasius) from the measured drag. Lift and drag are nondimensionalized by
the plan form area.
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Figure 3. Measuring apparatus.
Figure 4. Lift and Drag coefficent of mono-foil.
Figure 4 shows the lift and drag coefficients (CL , CD ) of the mono foil at different immersion in
the range of Fn = 0.2∼4.8. In this figure, numerical results (Nishiyama, 1966) are also shown by
broken lines. With decrease of f /c, CL fluctuates and decreases due to the free surface effect which
seems large in the lower Fn (<1.5). On the contrary, CD , shows an inverse behavior in the lower Fn .
We show in Figure 5, CL and CD values of the fore and aft foils in case of s/c = 4.0 at various
immersions in Fn = 0.2∼4.8. Though CL and CD of the fore foil does not change due to variation
of s/c, those of the aft foil change violently in Fn = 0.2∼2.0. These tendencies are caused by the
wave flow created by the fore foil. The value of s/c is very important for Fn < 2.0. We show in
Figure 6 the behaviors of CL and CD of the fore and the aft foils at s/c = 4.0 when the aft foil is set
at shallower submergence (gap h/c = −1.0) at f/c = 2.0 and 4.0. We notice that CL and CD of the
fore foil have little wave effect, but those of the aft foil are strongly affected by wave effect.
At last we show the variation of CL and CD for the fore and the aft foils in the cases of s/c = 2.5,
6.0, 10.0 comparing the results of HSA and LSA with the experiments.
Figure 7 shows CL of the fore and the aft foils, respectively. The results of the fore foil are very
similar to ones of the mono hydrofoil and there is little difference due to s/c. But the difference
due to s/c is clear for the aft foil in high speed range (Fn > 2.0). However, in relatively low speed
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Figure 5. Variation of CL and CD due to immersion.
Figure 6. Variation of CL and CD due to gap (h/c = −1.0).
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Figure 7. Comparison of measured CL and CD with calculation.
range, it varies violently according to the wave profiles created by the fore foil. And the numerical
results qualitatively agree well with the experiments.
Figure 7 also shows CD of the fore and the aft foils, respectively. Both results of HSA and LSA
agree well with each other, but are different from the experiments. However, since the experimental
results involve the effects of struts, it is difficult to compare them directly with the numerical ones.
5 CONCLUSION
By using a surface panel method “SQCM” and two kinds of Rankine source methods, HSA and
LSA, we obtained the characteristics of the tandem hydrofoils and compared with experimental
results. Then we confirmed the usefulness of our calculation method.
REFERENCES
Ando, J., Maita, S. & Nakatake, K. 1998. A New Surface Panel Method to Predict Steady and Unsteady
Characteristics of Marine Propeller. Proc. 22nd Symp. On Naval Hydrodynamics. 126–138
Dawson, C.W. 1977. A Practical Computer Method for Solving Ship Wave Problems. Proc. 6th Symp. on
Numerical Ship Hydrodynamics. 30–38
Nakatake, K., Kataoka, K., Ando, J. & Oda. K. 1993. Rankine Source Method in High Speed Range. Proc.
6th Symp. on Numerical Ship Hydrodynamics. 21–42
Nakatake, K., Oda, K., Kataoka, K., Okada, S. & Mizuno, S. 1996. Experimental Study on Performances of
Tandem Hydrofoils in High Speed Range. Trans. West-Japan Society of Naval Architects. No. 93. 1–13
Nishiyama, T. 1966. Linearized Theory of Fully Wetted Hydrofoils. Advances in Hydroscience. Vol. 3. 237–342
632
chap-83 20/9/2004 16: 46 page 633

Effects of terrain on the slow spreading of fluid mud
T. Nakaya
Ishikawa Prefecture, Ishikawa, Japan
M. Yuhi & H. Ishida

Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
ABSTRACT: We investigate the influence of terrain on the slow spreading of fluid-mud by

numerically solving initial-value problems for a Bingham fluid. Under the lubrication approxi-
mation, systematic computation is carried out for two types of terrains: an inclined channel of
finite width and a hill on a sloping base. The transient evolution and the final extent of mud are
calculated for a dry bed. In the open channel the effects of bank steepness, Bingham parameter,
and the total mud volume on the final extent of spreading are examined in detail. A simple formula
is found by synthesis to relate the final elongation ratio of the deposit to these factors. For a hill
on an inclined base, both symmetrical and asymmetrical spreading from a hillside are studied.
The transient motion of the fluid-mud is found to follow essentially the direction of local path of
steepest descent.
1 INTRODUCTION
Mudflow floods are typical natural hazards in many regions of the world. They can be triggered by
torrential rains, mountain slides or volcanic eruptions, and can lead to serious damages on human
lives and social infrastructures. Fluid-mud is typically a mixture of fine cohesive clay particles and
water, and shows plastic-like behavior. The shear stress must exceed the yield stress before flow
begins. There are abundant experimental evidences that when the clay concentration exceeds a few
percent by volume, the constitutive relation can be closely approximated by the Bingham law.
Because of the non-linear constitutive behavior, early analytical or numerical studies of Bingham-
like fluids are limited mainly to a simple terrain, i.e., an inclined plane (see e.g. Coussot 1997,
Griffiths 2000, Mei, Liu & Yuhi 2001). In nature, however, mudflows occur over a complicated
terrain such as mountaintop, mountainside, channels or alluvial fans, all of which are expected to
have strong influence on the transient evolution and the final spreading extent. Previous studies on
non-Newtonian flows over varying terrain are relatively scarce. Recently, Mei & Yuhi (2001) pre-
sented an approximate theory of three-dimensional, transient spreading of a thin layer of Bingham
fluid flowing down an open channel of finite width. Assuming slow flows, they used the lubrication
approximation and examined a variety of transient phenomena including stationary waves and the
transient release and final deposition of mud piles.
In this paper, we shall extend our earlier work (Mei & Yuhi 2001) in order to predict the effect
of terrain on the mudflow evolution. A finite volume scheme of numerical simulation is carried
out for the three-dimensional slow spreading and stoppage of a Bingham-plastic fluid over two
types of slowly varying terrain. First, the transient evolution and the final extent of mud discharged
from a point source in an inclined channel of power-law cross-section is studied. The effects of
bank steepness, Bingham parameter, and total mud volume on the final extent of spreading are
examined. Next, we study the spreading of mud over a hill placed on a planar base. Both symmetric
and asymmetric spreading from a hillside are investigated.
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2 MATHEMATICAL AND NUMERICAL MODEL
Consider a three-dimensional laminar flow of a thin layer of mud. The x-axis is in the down slope
direction and is inclined downward at the angle θ with respect to the horizon. The y-axis is in
the lateral direction and the z-axis is perpendicular to both the x and y axes. The free surface and
the channel bottom are described by z = h(x, y, t) and z = H (x, y), respectively. By invoking the
lubrication approximation and the constitutive relation of a Bingham fluid, the depth-integrated
mass conservation can be derived in dimensionless form as (Mei and Yuhi 2001, Balmforth et al.
2000)
where
where h0 is the height of the yield surface above which there is no shear, and S(x, y, t) denotes the
mass flux from a source. The (x, y) variables are normalized by D*cotθ, where D* is the characteris-
tic length scale in the z-direction such as the maximum fluid depth. The asterisks denote dimensional
quantities. The variables (z, h, h0 , H ) are normalized by D*, and t by (ρ∗ g ∗ D∗ sin2 θ)/(µ∗ cosθ),
where ρ, g, µ denote the density, gravitational acceleration, and the fluid viscosity, respectively. In
view of the long-wave assumption, the normalization defined here is meaningful only for a small
bed slope.
Equations (1) and (2) hold wherever there is flow, i.e. when the following constraint is satisfied:
where
The Bingham parameter α is a measure of the non-Newtonian property. The Newtonian limit
corresponds to α = 0. The yield surface, z = h0 (x, y, t), is related to h through:
Beneath the yield surface, there is velocity shear. Above the yield surface, on the other hand, there
is no velocity shear and so-called ‘pseudo-plug flow’ exists.
The governing equation has been solved numerically with a finite volume method (Mei andYuhi,
2001). Computations were carried out on a fixed grid, while the free boundary of the flow region
was tracked in the course of computations. On the centerplane (y = 0), symmetry was assumed
unless otherwise mentioned. The typical grid size used in the calculations were x = y = 0.025
and t = 0.001.
In the present study the fluid was slowly discharged from a rectangular source. The center of the
source was at (x, y) = (xs , ys ). The length and width of the source area were taken to be very small
(3x = 3y) so as to approximate a point source. It has been confirmed that the size of source
area has little influence on numerical results.
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To validate the numerical scheme, we compared our computational results with the laboratory
measurements by Coussot et al. (1996) for three different cases. The final shapes of the rim of the
pile were compared to the experimental observation. The overall agreement was quite satisfactory.
The cross-sectional shapes have also been compared, and the agreement was equally good.
3 SPREADING OF MUD IN AN INCLINED CHANNEL
As the first example of the slowly varying terrain, we consider an inclined channel with a parabolic
cross-section: H (y) = my2 . Naturally, the fluid-mud tends to concentrate laterally towards the
central line. Calculations have been made for four parabolic channels with different bank steepness
m = 0.5, 1, 1.5 and 2. The non-dimensional total volume is varied from V0 = 0.5 to 20. The Bingham
parameter is chosen to be in the range from α = 0.3 to 1. The center of the source is located at
(xs , ys ) = (0, 0), and the non-dimensional discharge rate is kept constant at 0.1. After the discharge
is stopped, the computation is continued for a very long time (O(103 ) to O(104 )) to reach the final
static stage.
We only present the flow characteristics in an initially dry channel. A typical example of the
free surface evolution is described in Figure 1 for m = 1, V0 = 10, and α = 1. At the beginning, the
mud spreads out from the source almost uniformly in all directions. Shortly afterwards, the upward
movement of mud decelerates rapidly, and the flow is mainly in the downward direction. The rim line
becomes oval, in which the maximum width is attained in the rear. A steep slope is formed near the
back edge. In this stage, the pile has a single apex around the source, and the vertical cross-section
of the free surface is convex upward everywhere. The fluid moves away from the central region
near the source. After the discharge is terminated from the source, the fluid around the rear moves
toward the centerline. As a result, the vertical cross-section becomes concave upward. The front is
elongated gradually and forms a tongue. For sufficiently large time, the fluid comes to rest. The
final shape of the front is similar to that of the dam-break flow described by Mei and Yuhi (2001).
On the basis of extensive numerical computations, the relation between final length (Lx ) and
width (Ly ) of the deposit against V0 and m can be synthesized. First, the variation of the final
length and width against the total volume and bank steepness are examined. As expected, the final
spreading in both longitudinal and lateral directions is larger for a larger total volume. In particular,
the final length and the front location are strongly influenced by the total volume. As the bank
steepness increases, the final length increases while the width decreases. Both the length and width
increase with the mud volume, but the rate of length increase is greater for a steeper bank. The
rate of decrease of width with mud volume diminishes with increasing bank slope; For sufficiently
steep banks the final width ceases to be sensitive to the mud volume.
(a) t=10 (b) t=50 (c) t=10000
0 0 0
2 2 2
4 4 4
X
X
X
Z Z Z
2 6 2 2 6
6
1 1 1
0 8 0 8 0 8
-1 0 -1 -1 0
1 0 1 1
Y Y Y
Figure 1. Time evolution of the free surface profile in a initially dry channel (m = 1, V0 = 10, α = 1).
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30 m=0 m=0.5
m=1.0 m=1.5
m=2.0 Eq. (6)
20
LX / LY
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
0.52V0(m+0.19)[(1/α)-0.45]
Figure 2. Final elongation ratio of the deposit as a function of total volume, bank steepness and the Bingham
parameter (m = 0 to 2, V0 = 1 to 20, α = 0.3 to 1).
20
m=0 (plane) m=0.5
m=1 m=1.5
15
Fitted Line (7) m=2
V0
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
LxLyhmax
Figure 3. Relation between the total volume and the final length, width and height of the deposit (m = 0 to
2, V0 = 1 to 20, α = 1).
It turns out that the final elongation ratio of the deposit, Lx /Ly can be fitted by the following
formula:
as shown in Figure 2. This simple relation can be of practical value.

In Figure 3, the relation between the total volume and the product of Lx , Ly and hmax (maximal
depth on the centerline) is shown for α = 1. It is interesting that, regardless of the value of m, all the
results fall on a single straight line. A formula based on a least-square fitting is therefore obtained:
When V0 is sufficiently large, the above equation can be approximated by
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Figure 4. Time evolution of the free surface (α = 0.3).
Although the relation was originally obtained for α = 1, we have found it to hold for the range
α = 0.3 to 1 with reasonable accuracy.
4 SPREADING OF MUD FROM A HILLSIDE ON AN INCLINED PLANE
Next, we investigate the spreading of mud from a hillside on an inclined plane. The hill is modeled
by the following topography,
The bottom height H has the maximum value A at (x, y) = (0, 0) and approaches zero as x or y
becomes large. The results for A = 10, B = 0.1 are shown here. The non-dimensional total volume
of new mud is set to be V0 = 10. The non-dimensional discharge rate is kept constant at 0.1. The
Bingham parameter α is varied from 0.3 to 1.
When the source is located on the x-axis, mud spreading is symmetric with respect to the y-axis.
From the beginning, mud advances primarily in the downward direction. The lateral spreading
induced by the lateral bottom slope is gradually amplified, as the mud proceeds. The maximum
width is attained near the front. As time proceeds, the mud layer becomes elongated and thin. The
depth of the pile in the central flat region is almost equal to α. To see the effects of the Bingham
parameter, the variation of the final length and width of the deposit against α is examined. Both
lengths increase as the Bingham parameter decreases, namely as the fluid becomes more Newtonian.
When the source is off the x-axis, mud spreading is asymmetric. In Figure 4 we show the results
for (xs , ys ) = (0,1) and α = 0.3. Qualitatively similar results are obtained for other source locations.
The evolution of the spreading extent (rim line) is also shown in Figure 5. In the beginning stage,
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Figure 5. Time evolution of the spreading extent and the direction of the local steepest slope (α = 0.3).
Figure 6. Comparison of the final rim of the deposits for different value of α.
the mud advances primarily in the lateral. As time progresses, the advance is slowed down and
the direction of spreading changes toward the downward x-direction. For larger value of α, the
spreading extent is more limited, but the qualitative features are similar.
The direction of the steepest descent with respect to horizon is given by the vector:
which is also described in Figure 5. As seen in the figure, the movement of fluid-mud essentially
follows the direction of the path of steepest descent. This is mainly because inertia is unimportant
in the conditions considered here.
The final rims of deposits are compared in Figure 6 for several values of α. Although the spreading
extent is quite sensitive to the value of α, the direction of the spreading is not.
5 SUMMARY REMARKS
In this article we have investigated the three-dimensional slow spreading of a Bingham fluid over a
slowly varying terrain by solving an initial-boundary-value problem numerically. Transient spread-
ing of a finite fluid mass released from a point source has been studied under the lubrication
approximation. For an inclined channel of finite width, the mud pile approaches the shape of a
tongue with relatively sharp front. A simple relation is found between the final elongation ratio and
the bank steepness, total volume and the Bingham parameter. For mud released from a hillside,
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the transient motion of the fluid-mud is found to follow essentially the direction of local path of
steepest descent.
The present work is partially supported by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (No. 15560442)
by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan, for which we are
grateful.
REFERENCES
Balmforth N.J., Burbidge, A.S., Craster, R.V., Salzig, J. & Shen, A., 2000. Visco-plastic models of isothermal
lava domes. J. Fluid Mech., 403: 37–65.
Coussot, P, Proust, S. & Ancey, C., 1996, Rheological interpretation of deposits of yield stress fluids. J.
Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech., 66: 55–70.
Coussot, P., 1997. Mudflow Rheology and Dynamics. IAHR/AIRH Monograph, Balkema, Rotterdam.
Griffiths, R.W., 2000. The dynamics of lava flows, Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 32: 477–518.
Mei, C.C. & Yuhi, M., 2001. Slow flow of a Bingham fluid in a shallow channel of finite width. J. Fluid Mech.,
431: 135–159.
Mei, C.C., K.F. Liu, & M. Yuhi, 2001, “Mud Flows – Slow and Fast.” In, Balmforth, N. and Provencale, A.
(eds), Geomorphological Fluid Mechanics: 548–577. Springer-Verlag.
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Response characteristics and suppression of flow-induced vibrations

of rectangular prisms with cross-flow vibrations
H. Sakamoto
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Kitami Institute of Technology, Kitami, Hokkaido, Japan
Md. Mahbub Alam

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Rajshahi University of Eng. & Tech., Rajshahi, Bangladesh
K. Takai
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Kitami Institute of Technology, Kitami, Hokkaido, Japan
ABSTRACT: This study was to experimentally investigate response characteristics and suppres-
sion of flow-induced vibrations of rectangular prisms with various width-to-height ratios. The
main findings were that (i) The response characteristics of flow-induced vibrations can be clas-
sified into five patterns depending on the width-to-height ratio. (ii) There are three types of
flow-induced vibrations of prism in the normal direction to the flow and these are low-speed
galloping, vortex excitation and high-speed galloping. (iii) Low-speed galloping and vortex exci-
tation can be suppressed by increasing the value of mass-damping parameter Cn and highspeed
galloping can be suppressed by the semicircle fairings attached on front and rear surface of the
prism.
1 INTRODUCTION
Flow-induced vibrations of elastically constrained rectangular prisms have become a canonical

problem in the efforts to understand more general situations of fluid-structure interactions. The
situation in which vibration is permitted only transverse to the free-stream has received parti-
cular attention as a fundamental case. There have been limited studies on flow-induced vibrations
of rectangular prisms [1∼4], focusing the flow-induced vibrations as a complex phenomenon,
and there are still many unresolved issues in flow-induced vibrations. The flow around the rect-
angular prisms can be classified into three patterns by the width-to-height ratio B/H (B: width
of the prism in the stream-wise direction, H: height of the prism in the direction normal to
the flow), i.e. separated shear layer flow pattern (B/H < 3), unsteady shear layer reattachment
flow pattern (3 < B/H < 6), and steady reattachment flow pattern (B/H > 6). In the present study,
the rectangular prisms having various width-to-height ratios of B/H = 0.3∼8.0 in which three
patterns occur are adopted. The objective of this study was to investigate flow-induced vibra-
tions in the normal direction to the flow and to establish a method for suppressing flow-induced
vibrations. At first, the response characteristics obtained by free-vibration tests of the elastically
supported prisms are examined in detail. Then flow-induced vibrations phenomenon obtained
by the free-vibration tests are reproduced by the forced-vibration tests, and the behavior of shear
layer separating from leading-edge, characteristics of impinging leading-edge vortices and the
wake vortices are examined on the basis of the visualized flow patterns. In addition, in order to
suppress flow-induced vibrations, the response characteristics are examined for the case in which
semicircular fairings with and without tripping rods are attached on the front and rear surface of
the prism.
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y Hot wire probe

7H
Flow a
flow 1.1H
H
Leaf spring x
B
(a) Plain prism
Coil spring Semicircle fairing Semicircle fairing
40°
H H
Shaft
Test prism
B Tripping road B
Magnetic damper Reflection board
(b) Semicircle fairing (c) Semicircle fairing with
equipment tripping rods
Laser displacement
meter
Figure 2. Coordinate system and control method
Figure 1. View of free-vibration equipment. of flow-induced vibrations.
2 EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
The free-vibration tests in order to investigate the response characteristics of flow-induced vibra-
tions of the rectangular prisms were carried out in a low-speed, closed-circuit wind tunnel. The
test section of the wind tunnel was rectangular in shape with a width of 0.3 m, a height of 1.2 m,
and a length of 2.5 m. The width-to-height ratio B/H of the tested prisms was changed from 0.30
to 8.0. The height of the prism used in each test was 100 mm. The prism was supported by two coil
springs and two flat plate springs attached to each outside of the wind tunnel, as shown in Figure 1,
enabling cross-flow vibration of the prism. Also, the reduced mass-damping factor Cn (=2mδ/ρB2 ,
where m is the mass per unit length of prism, δ is the logarithmic decrement of damping, and ρ is
the density of fluid) was changed by using two magnetic dampers. The response characteristics of
cross-flow vibration of the prism were investigated by varying the reduced velocity Ur (=U/(fc B),
where U is the approach velocity, fc is the natural frequency of the prism) from 1 to 30. The flow-
induced vibrations were suppressed by the use of semicircle fairings and by the use of semicircle
fairing with tripping rods, as shown in Figure 2. Diameter of each of the tripping rods was about
one-tenth of the diameter of semicircle fairing. The displacement and vibration frequency of the
prism were measured by using a laser-displacement meter. The corresponding Reynolds number
in the free-vibration tests was from 6600 to 78,000. Also, flow patterns in a recirculating water
channel with a test section of 30 cm in width, 40 cm in depth and 2 m in length were observed by
uranine dye, which was injected from two holes, each with a diameter of 1 mm, located at upper
and lower sides in the neighborhood of the leading-edge of the prism. In the observation of the flow
pattern, flow-induced vibrations phenomenon obtained by the free-vibration tests was reproduced
by using the forced-vibration experimental equipment. The flow patterns generated at a constant
free-stream velocity of U = 0.8 m/s. The corresponding Reynolds number was about 350.
3.1 Response characteristics

The response characteristics of elastically mounted prisms in a cross-flow differ with change in
the after body length, width-to-height ratio B/H, as vortex formation over and behind the prisms,
indeed, depends on B/H. With the variation of B/H we found four kinds of response characteristics
for the range of B/H = 0.3∼8.0. Each kind of response characteristics pattern appears for a certain
range of B/H. The response characteristic of each pattern and the range of B/H in which it appears
are shown in Figures 3a-d. The left and right ordinate axes of each figure show the ratio of the
amplitude of vibration “a” to the height of prism H and frequency ratio fv /fc , fv : vortex-shedding
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0.3 3 0.25 4 0.05

B/H=0.5 VE B/H=2.0 LSG B/H=4.0 LSG 4
Urc=6.26 WB 0.20 Urc=7.24 HSG
3 0.04 Urc=5.97 VE
0.2 a/H 2 a/H a/H 3
0.15 0.03
a/H
fv/ fc
fv/ fc
fv/ fc
a/H
a/H
fv /fc fv /fc fv /fc
2 2
0.10 0.02
0.1 1
0.05 1 1
0.01
0.00 5 0
0 0 0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 1 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Ur Ur Ur
(a) Pattern 1 (0.3<B/H<0.9) (b) Pattern 2 (0.9<B/H<2.6) (c) Pattern 3 (2.6<B/H<4.7)
0.02 6 0.02 10
B/H=6.0 LSG B/H=7.0 VE
Urc=5.44 5 Urc=4.97 8
a/H 4 a/H
6
f v/ f c
a/H
fv/ fc
a/H
fv /fc fv /fc
0.01 3 0.01
4
2
2
1
0 0 0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Ur Ur
(d) Pattern 4 (4.7<B/H<7.0) (e)Pattern 5 (B/H>7.0)
Figure 3. Response characteristics of prisms.
frequency, fc : natural frequency of prism, respectively, and the abscissa shows the reduced velocity
Ur . Pattern 1 is one in which only vortex excitation (VE) is found to be occurred at the vicinity
of the critical reduced velocity for a prism with small after body of length 0.3 ≤ B/H < 0.9 in
which wake characteristics and fluid forces acting on a stationary prism are very sensitive to a
change of B/H. In this range of B/H, high-speed galloping does not occur, however, vibration of
prism occurs with an unsteady amplitude for Ur > Urc due to wake breathing (WB), one kind of
instability. So the data for Ur > Urc are quite scattered. Pattern 2 in the range of 0.9 ≤ B/H < 2.6,
there exist two types of flow-induced vibrations; one is converging low-speed galloping (LSG) in
which prism vibrates with small amplitude and the other is diverging high-speed galloping (HSG)
in which the amplitude of vibration increases with increase in Ur . For the high-speed galloping,
lock-in of vortex-shedding frequency occurs to the natural frequency; however, for low-speed
galloping, vortex-shedding frequency detected by a hotwire was a subharmonic of 1/4, 1/3, 1/2 and
1/1 of natural frequency for B/H = 0.9∼1.0, 1.1, 1.2∼2.0, and 2.5, respectively, though frequency
of body oscillation was found to be synchronized with natural frequency. Pattern 3 in the range of
2.7 ≤ B/H < 4.7, is one in which low-speed galloping and vortex excitation occur. Furthermore,
the only low-speed galloping occurs when B/H exceeds 4.7 (Pattern 4), but the vortex excitation
is not observed in the present experiments. It seemed the vortex excitation is not induced in the
case of Pattern 4 because of weak rolling-up of the wake vortices. However, it is possible that
the vortex excitation will be induced if a value of Cn smaller than those used in the present
experiments in adopted. Therefore, Pattern 4 includes only low-speed galloping which occurs for
4.7 ≤ B/H < 7.0. However, when B/H exceeds 7.0 the low-speed galloping is not observed, the only
vortex excitation occurs (Pattern 5). As above mentioned, the response characteristics of cross-flow
vibration generated in the rectangular prism could be classified into five patterns depending on the
width-to-depth ratio. In order to elucidate the flow patterns for which the above-mentioned 5 types
of flow-induced vibrations occur, forced vibrations of prisms were performed in water channel
and the obtained visualized patterns are shown in Figure 4. The flow patterns shown in the figure
are instantaneous when the prism moving upward and passing the centerline of its motion. The
wake breathing occurred in wind-tunnel test was also observed in flow visualization test in which
both stronger and weaker Karman vortices were found to be shed depending on the time. The
flow pattern (a), in which stronger rolling of shear layers occurs closer to the body, causes higher
amplitude of vibration of the body. On the other hand, the flow pattern (b), in which weaker rolling
of shear layers occurs, causes lower amplitude of vibration. When low-speed galloping occurs for
B/H = 2.0, in which vortex-shedding frequency was detected 1/4th of natural frequency (Fig. 3(b)),
an impinging leading-edge vortex is generated from an edge in a complete cycle of body motion
and consecutive four impinging vortices are reorganized themselves into a large vortex in the far
wake. Therefore vortex-shedding frequency was 1/4th of the natural frequency for the low-speed
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Flow-Induced B/H = 0.5 B/H = 2.0 B/H = 4.0 B/H = 6.0 B/H = 7.0
vibration (Pattern 1) (Pattern 2) (Pattern 3) (Pattern 4) (Pattern 5)
No vibration
Vortex
No occurrence No occurrence
excitation
Low-speed
galloping No occurrence No occurrence
High-speed
galloping No occurrence No occurrence No occurrence No occurrence
Wake breathing No occurrence No occurrence No occurrence No occurrence

(a) (b)
Figure 4. Visualized flow patterns during the occurrence of flow-induced vibration of rectangular prism.
galloping. Similarly, for low-speed galloping of B/H = 4.0, in which vortex shedding frequency
was half of the natural frequency (Fig. 3(c)), one impinging vortices are generated from an edge in
a complete cycle and two vortices are reorganized to form a large vortex in the far wake. Thus it can
be conferred that frequency of impinging leading-edge vortex synchronizes with that of the body
motion as well as natural frequency and 4 or 3 or 2 impinging vortices are amalgamated to from a
large vortex in the far wake for the case when low-speed galloping occurs with a subharmonic of
1/4, 1/3 and 1/2 of natural frequency. In case of B/H = 6.0, appearance of three impinging leading-
edge vortices on the top surface causes more negative pressure than that of the bottom surface
under which two vortices are seen, resulting a net lift force to the upward direction [5] that induces
a vortex excitation. Furthermore, in case of B/H = 7.0 one impinging vortices are generated from
an edge in a complete cycle and two vortices are alternately shed to form a large vortex in the wake.
The flow visualization patterns of low-speed galloping, vortex excitation and high-speed galloping
agree with the respective flow-induced vibrations.
3.2 Suppression of flow-induced vibrations

Flow-induced vibration response characteristics, when semicircle fairings were used, are shown in
Figure 5. As seen in the figure, low-speed galloping (in patterns 2 and 3) and high-speed galloping
(in pattern 2) are completely suppressed when semicircular fairings are used. However, for each
of the patterns, vortex excitation generates at a new critical reduced velocity. Here also, it is
clear that wake breathing, low-speed galloping and high-speed galloping are suppressed by the
use of the semicircle fairings, but still vortex excitation exists at a different reduced velocity. We
were interested to examine what happens if tripping rods are used on the semicircle fairings. The
tripping rods were placed at ±40◦ measured from stagnation point. Figure 5 includes the data when
tripping rods are used in the semicircular fairings. Here the effect of tripping rods to the response
characteristics of the prisms is that amplitude of vibration of the prisms at the vortex excitation
region is quite smaller than that the case without the tripping rods. These vortex excitations can
easily be suppressed if the value of Cn is somewhat increased. The visualized flow patterns shown
in Figure 6 clearly demonstrate the effect of tripping rods on the flow characteristics of the prism
with fairings. Also, Figures 7a–d shows respectively the power spectrum of fluctuating velocity of
the wake behind the prism when the semicircle fairings with tripping rods were attached on the
front and rear surface. Although the energy level is very small, there is a clear peak in the spectrum.
It can be seemed that each spectral peak with small value is generated base on the winding of
the wake.
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0.1 0.08
Plain prism Plain prism
SF (Cn=0.28) SF (Cn=0.63)
SF (Cn=29.89) SF (Cn=6.39)
SFTR (Cn=1.10) SFTR (Cn=0.77)
0.2 0.2
0 0
0.2 0.2
0 0
a/H
a/H
0 0
0 10 20 0 2 4 6 8 10
Ur Ur
(a) B/H = 0.5 (Pattern 1) (b) B/H = 1.0 (Pattern 2)
0.02 Plain prism 0.02 Plain prism

SF (Cn=1.09) SF (Cn=2.45)
SF (Cn=36.80) SF (Cn=30.52)
0.2 SFTR (Cn=14.97) 0.08 SFTR (Cn=5.33)
0 0
0.06 0.03
a/H
0
a/H
0.03
0 0
0 10 20 0 10 20 30
Ur Ur
(c) B/H = 3.0 (Pattern 3) (d) B/H = 5.0 (Pattern 4)
Figure 5. Response characteristics of the prism with semicircle fairings (SF) and the prism with semicircle
fairings and tripping rods (SFTR).
Semicircle fairings and

Semicircle fairings
tripping rods
B/H = 0.5
(Pattern 1)
B/H = 1.0
(Pattern 2)
B/H = 3.0
(Pattern 3)
B/H = 5.0
(Pattern 4)
Figure 6. Visualized flow patterns of rectangular prism with semicircle fairings and semicircle fairings with
tripping rods.
Figure 8 shows the relation between the threshold Cn, over which vortex excitation is suppressed,
and B/H for the prisms with semicircle fairings and semicircle fairings with tripping rods. The
occurrence of the VE can be completely suppressed by increasing Cn to a level greater than the
value calculated by using the following equations.
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E(f) E(f)
0.0008 0.0005
0.0004
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
fv/fc fv/fc
(a) B/H = 0.5 (Pattern 1) (b) B/H = 1.0 (Pattern 2)
E(f) E(f)
0.0005 0.0005
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
fv/fc fv/fc
(c) B/H = 3.0 (Pattern 3) (d) B/H = 5.0 (Pattern 4)
Figure 7. Power spectrum of fluctuating velocity in wake behind prism attached semicircle fairings with
tripping rods on front and rear surface.
100 100
Cn=6.06B/H (-1.17) (B/H1.0)
Cn=5.937B/H (0.88) (1.0B/H3.0)
Cn=67.53B/H (-1.46) (B/H3.0)
Cn
Cn
10 10
Cn=6.70B/H (-1.76) (B/H1.0)

Cn=6.91B/H (1.59) (1.0B/H3.0)
Cn=50.60B/H (-0.30) (B/H 3.0)
1 1
0.2 11 0 0.2 11 0
B/H B/H
(a) Prism with semicircle fairings. (b) Prism with semicircle fairings with
tripping rods.
Figure 8. Threshold Cn versus B/H.
For prisms with semicircle fairings:
For prisms with semicircle fairings and tripping rods:
It is seen that the value of the threshold Cn decreases significantly when tripping rods are used on
the semicircular fairings.
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4 CONCLUSIONS
The main results of the present study are summarized as follows:

(i) The results of free-vibration tests on rectangular prisms show that there are three types of
flow-induced vibrations, i.e. low-speed galloping, vortex excitation and high-speed galloping.
(ii) The response characteristics of flow-induced vibrations can be classified into five patterns
depending on the width-to-height ratio B/H.
(iii) The generation of low-speed galloping and vortex excitation is completely suppressed by
increasing from the threshold value of the reduced mass-damping factor Cn. However, high-
speed galloping occurs regardless of Cn.
(iv) Observation of the behavior of the shear layer separating from the leading-edge of the prism
indicates that the generation of three types of flow-induced vibrations occurs due to the
difference of rolling-up of the shear layer.
(v) The use of semicircular fairings is also an effective means to suppress flow-induced vibrations
(low-speed galloping, wake breathing, high-speed galloping) generated in rectangular prisms.
The use of tripping rods on semicircular fairings significantly reduces the threshold value
of Cn.
REFERENCES
Bearman, P.W. & Trueman, D.M. 1972. An investigation of flow around rectangular cylinders. Aernaut. Q 23:
229–237.
Naudascher, E. & Wang, Y. 1993. Flow-induced vibrations of prismatic bodies and grid of prisms. J. of Fluids
& Structures 7: 341–373.
Scruton, C. 1963. Con the wind-excited oscillations of stacks, towers and masts. In: wind effects on buildings
and structures, London: Her Majesty’s stationary office: 798–832.
Shiraishi, N. & Matsumoto, M. 1983. On classification of vortex-induced oscillation and its application for
bridge structures. J. of Wind Eng. & Ind. Aero. 14: 419–430.
Takai, K. et al. 2000. Suppression and generation mechanism of flow-induced vibrations of a rectangular prism
with impinging leading-edge vortices. Proc. of 4th int. conf. on hydrodynamics, Yokohama, 7–9 September
2000: 471–476.
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chap-85 20/9/2004 16: 47 page 649

Vortex-induced vibration of cylinders with non-linear compliance
B. Stappenbelt & K. Thiagarajan

School of Oil and Gas Engineering, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia
ABSTRACT: The introduction of non-linear structural compliance is a typical feature of moored

floating systems. Of interest is the influence of these on the dynamic response of the structure to a
variety of environmental loading conditions. One such area under examination is the effect of non-
linear structural compliance on the onset and severity of Vortex-Induced Vibration (VIV). It has
been demonstrated that for catenary moored cylindrical structures, significant uncertainties in VIV
prediction arise due to the introduction of non-linearities (Bjarke et al. 2003). Scale model testing
of Spar platforms in particular have demonstrated the significant influence of non-linear stiffness
on VIV structural response (Dijk et al. 2003). Compliance ratios typically encountered however,
only partly explain this influence when only a single degree of freedom is considered (Stappenbelt
et al. 2004). The present study numerically investigated the effect of catenary mooring induced, two
degree of freedom, structural compliance non-linearity on VIV. The numerical approach utilised
was a hybrid vortex-in-cell discrete vortex method.
1 INTRODUCTION
Vortex-Induced Vibration is a fluid-structure interaction phenomenon in which the structure is

excited by forces induced by vortices shed alternately from the edges of a bluff object in the flow.
The time varying non-uniform pressure distribution around the object resulting from the vortex
shedding (causing a time varying lift force to be experienced by the object) creates the structural
vibration. Near the natural frequency of the restrained structure, the vortex shedding frequency
will synchronise with the natural frequency. The range of reduced velocity over which this occurs is
known as the lock-in range. Mostly, these vibrations are undesirable, resulting in increased fatigue
loading and component design complexity to accommodate these motions.
The shedding of vortices from cylindrical bluff objects is well documented for linear compli-
ance cases. This idealised situation however, often serves only as an approximation of the real
system. For example, when dealing with physical restraint of floating structures significant non-
linear compliance may be encountered. Bjarke et al. (2003) demonstrated the uncertainties that
arise from the application of linear compliance VIV design rules to the specific non-linear load-
excursion case of a catenary moored cylindrical FPSO riser/anchor buoy. The study concluded
that further investigation was required to determine non-linear compliance levels at which the
linear system approximation remains valid. Spar platform model testing with soft linear springs
has also been shown to produce significant deviation from catenary restraint results (Dijk et al.
2003).
Decrease in transverse VIV amplitude of a non-linearly elastically mounted rigid cylinder with
increasing compliance ratio has been demonstrated experimentally for a single degree of freedom
system (Stappenbelt et al. 2004, Hover 1998). Much greater non-linear system response deviation
from the linear case was observed with the multiple degree of freedom study conducted by Dijk
et al. (2003). The purpose of this study then, was to examine the influence of compliance non-
linearity on the vortex-induced vibration response of an elastically mounted rigid cylinder with two
degrees of freedom in steady, uniform current.
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2 NUMERICAL SIMULATION
2.1 Equations of motion

The single degree of freedom system may be modeled as a simple mass-spring-damper with arbitrary
non-linear stiffness characteristics. When the non-linear stiffness of the system can be described
by a continuous function with continuous derivatives over the operational displacement, the Taylor
expansion of the system may be determined. With suitable choice of the y co-ordinate (transverse
motion) origin (i.e. such that the spring is unstretched in the zero static load condition) and the
assumption that the restoring force properties are symmetric, the single degree of freedom system
may then be described by Equation 1, when the series is truncated at the fourth term. The parameters
ωn and ζ are respectively the natural frequency and damping ratio of the corresponding linear system
and β is the ratio of cubic to linear stiffness components.
Similarly, the two degree of freedom system may be described by the nonlinear, coupled equations
of motion, Equations 2 and 3.
Equation 1 is the well-known Duffing equation. When β > 0, the model represents a hard-
ening spring. Many restrained floating structure non-linear compliance cases encountered may be
modelled without significant error by a third order polynomial stiffness with zero even index terms.
2.2 Numerical method

The software package VisFlo (version 2) by Det Norske Veritas was employed for numerical sim-
ulation of non-linear compliance VIV. VisFlo was developed as part of the Joint Industry Project
DEEPER. The method utilised is a vortex-in-cell hybrid technique. It involves both field and
vortex-sheet methods. Modifications to the source code were implemented to allow for the inclu-
sion of varying degrees of structural non-linearity (essentially, the application of Equations 2 and
3). Detailed description of the numerical technique may be found in Skomedal & Vada (1985).
This code has been shown to produce very reasonable results for linear compliance cases (e.g.
Skomedal & Vada (1987)). A major limitation of the code however, is the assumption of two-
dimensional flow.
The finite rigid cylinder segment was defined in terms of two circular sections, with spac-
ing equal to the length of the segment. Only smooth cylinder simulations were conducted. The
Reynolds number range over which simulations were performed was in the sub-critical region,
where Reynolds and Strouhal number dependencies are small. The structural mass and damping
ratios were set at 2.78 and 0.08 respectively, for all cases. Four non-linear compliance ratios tar-
geted for the simulation were nominally CR = 0 (linear case), 0.15, 0.2 and 0.3. These values
were selected to conform to prior single degree of freedom experimental work by the authors.
Transverse motion only and both coupled and uncoupled (application of Equation 1 to both inline
(x) and transverse (y) motion) two degree of freedom cases were considered in the present study.
System and simulation parameters are presented in Table 1. Solution convergence was tested for
both time-step and vortex generation rate with respect to transverse vibration amplitude only.
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Table 1. Numerical simulation parameter values.
Parameter Symbol Value Units
Cylinder diameter D 0.06 m

Cylinder length L 0.6 m
Cylinder mass (incl. enclosed fluid) m 4.65 kg
Linear stiffness component k1 100 N/m
Damping ratio1 ζ 0.08 –
Natural frequency in air1 ωn 4.64 rad/s
Natural frequency in still water1 ωnw 3.97 rad/s
Mass ratio (4m/(LρπD2 )) m∗ 2.78 –
Stability parameter (4(m + ma )πζ/(ρD2 L)) KS 2.98 –
Flow velocity U 0.08–0.46 m/s
Fluid density ρ 998 kg/m3
Fluid kinematic viscosity v 1 × 10−6 m2 /s
Vorticity decay factor2 0.05
Vortex generation rate 150 /time-step
D
Time-step t 0.95 20U s
Run duration 120 s
1 Corresponding Linear System

2 Recommended value for Re >1000
Maximum transverse amplitude response (defined as the mean of the top 10% of half peak-to-peak
values) for all cases are presented in Figure 1. Throughout the current study, the reduced velocity
(Ur = 2πU/(ωnw D)) is defined utilising the still water natural frequency. No significant vibration
was observable before a reduced velocity of around five. Peak response occurred in the region
Ur = 8 − 10. Previous studies at various mass ratios generally place the peak response lower at
around Ur = 6. The Strouhal numbers observed (Table 2) compare favourably with previous work.
Simulations displayed less than 2% Strouhal number variation across the compliance ratio range
for each case.
As expected for a cylinder with low mass ratio, approaching the critical value, the amplitude
response range is wide. Due to the level of damping present however, the system possesses an
order of magnitude higher m∗ ζ than typically categorised as low mass-damping (as in for exam-
ple Carberry et al. (2002)). This is consistent with the observance of initial and lower response
branches only.
It must be noted again, that the VisFlo code assumes two-dimensional flow (i.e. infinite cor-
relation length). For the Reynolds number range of the simulations (the sub-critical region), the
correlation length has been determined to be between (2–3)D (Sumer & Fredsoe 1997). The absence
of out-of-phase span-wise vortex shedding cells clearly appears to contribute to the over-estimation
of response amplitude by the numerical simulation.
Maximum transverse amplitude response for each compliance ratio are summarised in Figure 2.
To minimise impact of outliers in the individual response plots, the maximum response was defined
as the mean of the top 5% over the amplitude response region. The decrease in response observed
with increasing non-linearity was of the same order of magnitude for all numerical simulation
cases. This decrease was clearly much more pronounced experimentally.
As expected, the two degree of freedom cases (i.e. coupled and uncoupled equations of motion)
coincide for the linear compliance ratio (CR = 0). The transverse response predicted for the two
degree of freedom cases are greater than that of the corresponding single degree of freedom
case. This agrees with the computational fluid dynamics results of Hansen et al. (2002) and the
experiments of Jauvtis et al. (2002) (the magnitude of the latter observations however, led the authors
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Transverse Response Amplitude CR=0

0.6
Experimental data
0.5 Transverse motion only simulation
Uncoupled 2dof simulation
0.4 Coupled 2dof simulation
a/D
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Ur
Transverse Response Amplitude CR=0.149

0.6
Experimental data
a/D
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Ur
Transverse Response Amplitude CR=0.199

0.6
Experimental data
a/D
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Ur
0.6 Transverse Response Amplitude CR=0.294

Experimental data
a/D
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Ur
Figure 1. Transverse response amplitudes for (a) CR = 0, (b) CR = 0.149, (c) CR = 0.199 and (d) CR = 0.294
(experimental data taken from the study of Stappenbelt et al. (2004)).
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Table 2. Vortex shedding frequency during

lock-in.
Case St
Transverse motion only experiment 0.174

Transverse motion only simulation 0.171
Uncoupled 2d of simulation 0.160
Coupled 2d of simulation 0.162
Figure 2. Maximum transverse response amplitude with varying compliance non-linearity.
Figure 3. Trajectory plots at selected reduced velocities for CR = 0.
to label the effect as non-significant). Conversely, the experimental study by Huse et al. (2002)
demonstrated a decrease in transverse vibration amplitude with the inclusion of inline motion.
Evident from the trajectory plots (Fig. 3) of the numerical simulations was the tendency of the
x and y motion phase difference to be such to produce maximal excursion from the origin (i.e.
the phase of the x motion relative to the y motion was negative). At higher reduced velocity, the
vibration profile became more symmetric (i.e. the phase tended to zero). This was observed for all
compliance ratios.
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4 CONCLUSIONS
The decrease in transverse response seen in the experimental data is not evident to the same degree in
the numerical simulations. There is little decrease in transverse response amplitude with increasing
compliance ratio for either the one or two degree of freedom cases over the range of non-linearities
covered.
An increase in the transverse VIV response is predicted with the introduction of a second degree
of freedom. The structural non-linear coupling terms do not appear to influence the cylinder VIV
response and hence this effect was likely to be fluid dynamic in nature. There appears to be no
general consensus regarding the effect of inline motion inclusion upon transverse VIV response.
Trajectory plots for all cases were crescent shape such as to maximise distance of the cylinder
from the origin at the peaks of transverse vibrations. Practical implication of this observation is that
restrained floating structure design using the mean inline offset would underestimate the maximum
line tensions experienced. The conditions under which this occurs require further investigation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors acknowledge the support of the Australian Research Council, DETYA and JP Kenny
Engineering Ltd.
REFERENCES
Bjarke, T., Collie, B. & Thiagarajan, K. 2003, “Vortex-Induced Vibration of a Catenary Moored Sub-merged
Buoy”, BBVIV3, Conference on Bluff Body Wakes and Vortex-Induced Vibrations, Port Douglas, Australia.
Carberry, J., Govardhan, R., Sheridan, J., Rockwell, D. & Williamson, C. 2003, “Wake States and Response
Branches of Forced and Freely Oscillating Cylinders”, BBVIV3, Conference on Bluff Body Wakes and
Vortex-Induced Vibrations, Port Douglas, Australia.
Dijk, R. van, Voogt, A., Fourchy, P. & Mirza, S. 2003, “The Effect of Mooring System and Sheared Currents on
Vortex-Induced Motions of Truss Spars”, OMAE2003-37151, 22nd International Conference on Offshore
Mechanics and Arctic Engineering, Cancun, Mexico.
Hansen, E., Bryndum, M. & Mayer, S. 2002, “Intercaction of in-line and cross-flow vortex induced vibrations in
risers”, OMAE2002-28303, 21st International Conference on Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering,
Oslo, Norway.
Hover, F.S. 1998, “The Lock-in Phenomena for Cylinders with Nonlinear Compliance”, Conference on Bluff
Body Wakes and Vortex-Induced Vibrations, Washington D.C., USA.
Huse, E., Nielsen, F. & Soreide, T. 2002, “Coupling between in-line and transverseVIV response”, OMAE2002-
28618, 21st International Conference on Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering, Oslo, Norway.
Jauvtis, N. & Williamson, C. 2003, “Vortex-induced vibration of a cylinder in two degrees of freedom”,
BBVIV3, Conference on Bluff Body Wakes and Vortex-Induced Vibrations, Port Douglas, Australia.
Skomedal, N. & Vada, T. 1985, “The Vortex-in-cell Method”, Det Norske Veritas Research Report No. 85-2043.
Skomedal, N. & Vada, T. 1987, “Vortex shedding induced oscillations of a circular cylinder”, Det Norske
Veritas Research Report No. 87-2005.
Stappenbelt, B. & Thiagarajan, K. 2004, “Vortex-Induced Vibration of Catenary Moored Cylindrical Struc-
tures”, OMAE2004-51164, 23rd International Conference on Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering,
Vancouver, Canada.
Sumer, B.M. & Fredsoe, J. 1997, “Hydrodynamics Around Cylindrical Structures”, World Scientific Publishing
Co. Pte. Ltd., London.
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chap-86 20/9/2004 16: 47 page 655

Numerical study of the three-dimensional flow around a vertical

submerged cylinder
S. Umeda, M. Yuhi & H. Ishida

Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
L. Cheng
Western Australia University, Perth, Australia
ABSTRACT: This paper presents the results of a numerical investigation on the flow fields around
a vertical submerged cylinder in unidirectional flow. The flow fields were simulated using the
Navier-Stokes equations expressed in a generalized curvilinear coordinate system. Examinations
are made on the effect of the cylinder height on the flow structure and the bed shear stress. It is
found that a spiral vortex is formed around the crown of the cylinder. The horseshoe vortex formed
in front of the cylinder base increases in size and decreases in intensity with increasing cylinder
height. The bed shear stress is also influenced by the cylinder height, especially for short cylinders.
The bed shear stress concentrates in front of short cylinders, whereas the stress concentrates at the
shoulders of tall cylinders. The maximum amplification factor of the bed shear stress can be as
high as 10–15, depending on the cylinder height.
1 INTRODUCTION
Local scour around foundations of marine structures is one of the major causes for failures of the
structures. It undermines the foundation of a structure. When scour protection is considered, it
is important to understand the flow fields around the structure. So far a large number of inves-
tigations have been conducted on the flows past structures such as piles, pipelines, breakwaters
and seawall (e.g. Sumer & Fredsoe 2002). The present study concerns the flow fields around a
vertical submerged cylinder. The cylinder is a model of a suction caisson which is frequently used
for the anchorage or foundation of offshore structure. Although the use of suction caisson has been
increasingly widespread in the last decade, there is little knowledge about the flow features around
the foundation.
For non-submerged cylinders (vertical piles) which are long enough to reach water surface, many
studies are available that investigate the flow field around the base of the cylinder (e.g. Hjorth 1975,
Dargahi 1989). The near-bottom flow is characterized by the so-called horseshoe vortex and the
lee-wake vortex, the development of which is a dominant factor in local scour processes. However,
a few studies can be found which discuss how the three-dimensional flow structure around the
submerged cylinder is affected by changes in the height of the cylinder. Baker (1985) has conducted
experimental study on the horseshoe vortex in the steady current. Descriptions have been given of
the effect of the cylinder height on the separation distance for the horseshoe. On the numerical side,
little study has treated the three-dimensional flow fields around the submerged cylinder. Therefore,
little is known about the unsteady three-dimensional structure of the flow around the cylinder, the
lee-wake vortex and the local flow around the crown of the cylinder.
The purpose of the present study is to investigate the effect of the cylinder height on the flow
fields around a submerged cylinder. The characteristics of the vortex-flows around the base and
the crown of the cylinder are described in detail. We also examine the variations of the shear stress
acting on the seabed.
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2 NUMERICAL MODEL AND CONDITIONS
2.1 Numerical model

Let us consider the motion of the large-scale, organized vortices of the laminar flow field around
a circular cylinder. The governing equations are the unsteady three-dimensional Navier-Stokes
equations and the equation of continuity. No turbulence models are incorporated in the solution
procedure. The precise expression of the cylinder and the bed geometry is essentially important
to calculate the vortex-flow processes associated with the separation of the wall boundary layer.
Therefore, the governing equations expressed in a generalized curvilinear coordinate are used to fit
the numerical domain to the cylinder and bed boundary. The governing equations are solved by the
finite difference method. The details of the numerical scheme can be found in Yuhi et al. (1999).
The boundary conditions are prescribed as follows: On the wall (cylinder and bed), no-slip
condition is applied. The velocity profile is given at the inlet boundary. At the outlet boundary, the
velocity and the pressure are extrapolated with zero normal gradients. The symmetry conditions
are applied for the upper boundary; No free surface exists in the present calculations.
2.2 Test conditions

The non-dimensional quantities describing the flows around a cylinder in a steady current depend
mainly on the following parameters (Baker 1979):
in which Re is Reynolds number based on the cylinder diameter, δ/D is the ratio of the bed
boundary-layer thickness to the cylinder diameter and h/D is the ratio of the cylinder height to the
cylinder diameter (Fig. 1). U0 is the maximum velocity of the undisturbed flow. The present study
focuses on the variation with h/D. Calculations were carried out for h/D = 0.5 to 10, when the
water depth W was fixed at W /D = 10, Re = 2000 and δ/D = 10.
The physical coordinate system was set such that the x-axis was in the direction of the main
flow, the z-axis in the span-wise direction, and the y-axis perpendicular to both axes. The grid
system employed in the calculations has 92 × 84 × 74 (=571,872) points. The inlet and the outlet
boundary locate at x/D = ±25. In the following, the non-dimensional physical coordinate (x, y, z)
and non-dimensional velocity (u, v, w) were defined as factors of the cylinder diameter D and the
maximum velocity U0 , respectively.
U0
D W
d
z
h
o x
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3.1 General flow structure around a submerged cylinder

Figure 2 shows the stream lines at t = 100 when the three-dimensional flow has fully developed.
The corresponding iso-surfaces of vorticity are given in Fig. 3. The flow structure is mainly char-
acterized by three kinds of vortices. One is the horseshoe vortex which is formed around the base
of the cylinder in U-shape in plan view. Another is the wake vortex formed at the downstream
side of the cylinder. The third is the spiral vortex which is particular to flow around a submerged
(truncated) cylinder. The spiral vortex is caused by three dimensional separation of the approaching
flow at the upstream rim of the cylinder crown. The topography of the third vortex is similar to the
horseshoe vortex because both separation lines have the form of circular arc.
(a) General view (b) Close view to the crown
Figure 2. Stream lines around the submerged cylinder (h/D = 2).
(a) Iso-surface of |v| = 3 (b) Iso-surface of |vx| = 3
(c) Iso-surface of |vy| = 3 (d) Iso-surface of |vz| = 3
Figure 3. Vorticity distributions around the cylinder (h/D = 2).
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The horseshoe vortex is recognized by the |ωy | = 3-surfaces near the bed. The horseshoe vortex
system is in almost steady state. The streamline pattern corresponds to that of “2-vortex system”
observed by Baker (1979, Fig. 5). The vortex system consists of two vortices; one is primary vortex,
the other is secondary vortex just around the upstream edge of the cylinder.
The |ωz | = 3-surfaces in Fig. 3(d) indicate the boundary-layer and the shear-layers. The shear-
layers roll up into wake vortices. The |ωy | = 3-surfaces around the crown in Fig. 3(c) correspond to
the third vortex. The vorticity trails off from the side edges of the cylinder crown to downstream. The
y-directional vorticity is in contact with the z-directional one in the wake (Fig. 3(a)). The interaction
between the third vortex and the wake vortex causes the complicated flows in the downstream of
the cylinder crown, as seen in Fig. 2(b).
3.2 Horseshoe vortex and wake vortex

Figure 4 shows the three-dimensional structures of the vortices around the cylinders of various
heights. The represented vortices were identified by using the λ2 method. The λ2 definition corre-
sponds to the pressure minimum in a plane, when contributions of unsteady irrotational straining
and viscous terms in Navier-Stokes equations are discarded (Jeong & Hussain 1995).
The steady horseshoe vortex exists for the present conditions, h/D σ 0.5. As the cylinder become
taller, the vortex expands in outward radial direction. The separation distance, xs for the horseshoe
vortex is given in Fig. 5. As h/D increases, the distance increases rapidly, and then it approaches a
constant value, xs > 2.4. The separation distance is almost constant when h/D is larger than about 3.
These results reproduce the trend of Baker’s experimental results (1985). However, the calculated
results take quite higher values comparing with his experimental ones. The most important differ-
ence between the experiment and the present calculation is that Baker’s experiment was conducted
under thin thickness of the bed boundary-layer, δ∗ /D = 0.066, comparing with the present condi-
tion, δ∗ /D > 3. The reason why the calculated separation distances are larger than the experimental
(a) h/D = 0.5 (b) h/D = 1
(c) h/D = 2 (d) h/D = 5
Figure 4. Vortex cores around the cylinders (λ2 = −1 surfaces at t = 100.0).
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ones is considered that the thicker the bed boundary-layer, the larger the horseshoe vortex. This
agrees with the experimental results (Sumer & Fredsoe 2002, Fig. 3.4).
Figure 6 shows the vorticity norm |ω| at the center of the horseshoe vortex in y = 0 vertical
section. The vorticity component ωy is dominant at this point (Fig. 3). The vorticity decreases with
increasing cylinder height and it is gradually approaching the fixed value when h/D > 3. For short
cylinders, there are small horseshoe vortices with strong vorticity; for tall cylinders, there are large
ones with weak vorticity.
Figure 4(d) shows that several vortex-cores in the wake are developed in cylinder axial direction.
There is an obvious vortex shedding around the upper span of the cylinder. However, the vortex-
shedding is suppressed as the cylinder is shortened (Fig. 4(a)). This is partly because the velocity
of the near-bottom flow is too small. The reattachment of the separated flow at the crown edge also
affects the vortex shedding. It is found that the regular vortex shedding occurs around the cylinder
for h/D > 3.
3.3 Bed shear stress

Figure 7 shows the distributions of the mean bed shear stress over t = 50–100 for several cylinders.
The shear stress is normalized with the bed shear stress under the undisturbed flow. In the case
of tall cylinders, h/D > 1, maximum shear stress is attained at the left shoulder of the cylinder.
This is consistent with previous experimental observations (e.g. Hjorth, 1975). The stress in the
wake region is usually small. However, as the cylinder become taller, the stress increases to a
3.5
Present results (d∗/D = 3)
3.0 Experimental results by Baker (1985) (d∗/D = 0.066)
2.5
xs 2.0
1.5
h
s
1.0
xs
0.5
0 2 4 6 8 10
h/D
Figure 5. Separation distance for the horseshoe vortex.
10
6
|vc|
4
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
h/D
Figure 6. Vorticity at the center of the horseshoe vortex.
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15 15
14 14
2 13 2 13
12 12
11 11
1.5 10 1.5 10
9 9
y
y
8 8
7 7
1 6
1 6
5 5
4 4
0.5 3 0.5 3
2 2
0 0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
x x
(a) h/D = 0.5 (b) h/D = 1
15 15
14 14
2 13 2 13
12 12
11 11
10 10
1.5 9 1.5 9
8 8
y
y
7 7
1 6 1 6
5 5
4 4
0.5 3
2 0.5 3
2
0 0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
x x
(c) h/D = 2 (d) h/D = 5
Figure 7. Bed shear stress around the cylinder.
20
15
amax
10
5
0 2 4 6 8 10
h/D
Figure 8. Maximum amplification of the bed shear stress.
certain degree due to the development of the vortex shedding. In the case of an intermediate height,
h/D = 1, large shear stress is observed below the horseshoe vortex ahead of the cylinder. When the
cylinder becomes shorter, h/D = 0.5, the maximum stress takes place under the small horseshoe
vortex with strong vorticity. The relationship between the maximum bed shear stress, τmax and
the cylinder height is shown in Fig. 8. The figure also includes the results of the non-submerged
cylinder (h/D = 10). The maximum stress increases gradually when h/D increases from 0.5 to 4,
and then the maximum stress asymptotes to a constant value, αmax > 15.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Three-dimensional flow fields around a vertical submerged cylinder were investigated numerically
to clarify the effect of the cylinder height on the flow structures and the bed shear stress. The main
results obtained in this study can be summarized as follows:
(1) The flows are mainly characterized by the horseshoe vortices, the wake vortices and the spiral
vortices due to the flow separation at the free edge of the cylinder. The spiral vortices extend
from the side edges of the cylinder crown to downstream.
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(2) The effect of the cylinder height on the horseshoe vortex is significant. The horseshoe vortex
expands in outward radial direction as the cylinder height is increased. The vorticity of the
vortex decreases with increasing height. The size and the intensity of the vortex become
constant when h/D > 3.
(3) The bed shear stress beneath the horseshoe vortex in front of the cylinder is influenced by the
cylinder height. For short cylinders, maximum stress locates near the upstream edge of the
cylinder. For tall cylinders, the location of the maximum stress moves into the shoulder edges
of the cylinder. The maximum stress increases with h/D, and then it asymptotes to a constant
value when h/D > 4. The maximum stress with respect to its undisturbed value reaches about
10–15.
REFERENCES
Baker, C. J. 1979. The laminar horseshoe vortex. J. Fluid Mech., 95(2): 347–367.
Baker, C. J. 1985. The position of points of maximum and minimum shear stress upstream of cylinders
mounted normal to flat plates. J. Wind Eng. and Industrial Aerodyn., 18: 263–274.
Dargahi, B. 1989. The turbulent flow field around a circular cylinder. Exps. Fluids. 8: 1–12.
Hjorth, P. 1975. Studies on the nature of local scour. Bull. Department of Water Resources Engineering,
Lund Institute of Technology/University of Lund, Sweden. Series A, 46: viii+ 191.
Jeong, J. & Hussain, F. 1995. On the identification of a vortex. J. Fluid Mech., 285: 69–94.
Sumer, B. M. & Fredsoe, J. 2002. The mechanics of scour in the marine environment. World Scientific
Publishing.
Yuhi, M., Ishida, H. & Umeda, S. 1999. A numerical study of sinusoidal oscillatory flows around a vertical
wall-mounted circular cylinder. Coastal Engineering Journal, 41(3 & 4): 225–246.
661
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Numerical simulation of water-entry and water-exit of

a horizontal circular cylinder
Y. Xing-Kaeding, G. Jensen
Fluid Dynamics and Ship Theory Section, TU Hamburg-Harburg, Germany
M. Peric
CD adapco Group-Nuremberg office, Germany
ABSTRACT: The strongly non-linear free-surface deformations which occur during the water-
entry and -exit of a horizontal circular cylinder are calculated by a viscous flow solver with the
volume of fluid (VOF) method. A neutrally buoyant cylinder is dropped into calm water with a
certain vertical velocity in the water-entry case and pulled out of the water with constant speed in
the water-exit case. In the water-entry case, the flow-induced motion of the cylinder is calculated by
coupling the rigid body dynamic equations with the Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes Equations
(RANSE) of fluid flow. In the water-exit case, constant velocity is applied to the cylinder. Interesting
effects such as jet formation, cavity formation, air-cushion effect, breaking water surface of the
falling jets and the combination of these are captured by the present numerical scheme with no
extra effort. Favorable agreement is obtained between computational results and the photographs
of experiments. The cylinder motion is also predicted accurately by the computation.
1 INTRODUCTION
In ship and offshore structure design, prediction of free surface profiles and water impact loads
is of great importance. The hydrodynamic impact (slamming) on ships can lead to hull vibration,
damage of the ship structure and thus force a reduction of ship speed. In offshore operations, special
care has to be taken in designing cross members in the splash zone of the incident waves, which
suffer from wave impact loading frequently when continually entering (exiting) the water. Owing
to the importance of the water impact problem in ocean engineering, it has attracted a large number
of investigations, see Korobkin (1996) for a recent review.
Most previous studies on the water impact problem are based on the potential-flow assumption,
see von Karman (1929), Wagner (1932) and Zhao & Faltinsen (1993). Numerical analyses with
free surface modeled by a VOF method have been recently conducted by Arai et al. (1995) and
Schumann (1998). Arai et al. have simulated the water impact problem of two-dimensional sections
such as wedge, circular cylinder and bow sections using a body surface-fitted coordinate system
assuming the flow to be inviscid and incompressible. Schumann has computed the water impact
of different bow sections using a similar method. In this paper the incompressible Navier-Stokes
equations are solved. Some important issues such as modeling of spray generation, flow separation
from the body and wave breaking caused by falling jets and moving body are tackled. The accuracy
of the free surface profile is enhanced. The corresponding hydrodynamic load is calculated taking
into account viscous effects. The interaction between the fluid flow and the instant motion of the
rigid body is considered.
Experimental results for validation of analytical and numerical approaches have been provided
by Faltinsen et al. (1977) and Greenhow & Lin (1983). In this paper the experiments conducted by
Greenhow & Lin (1983) are taken for comparison with the computational results.
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2 NUMERICAL METHOD
The finite volume method incorporated in the “Comet” code (CD adapco Group) is used here to
simulate incompressible viscous flows with free surface. The conservation equations for mass,
momentum, and scalar quantities (e.g. energy or chemical species) are solved in their integral
form. When the grid is moving, the so-called space conservation law (SCL) is employed. SIMPLE-
algorithm (Patankar & Spalding (1972)) has been taken to couple the velocity and pressure field.
Interface-capturing method and High-Resolution Interface Capturing (HRIC) scheme have been
used to simulate the free-surface effect, see Muzaferija & Peric (1999). Due to space restriction,
these basic equations will not be introduced here; for more detail, see Demirdzic et al. (2000).
The computation of the floating-body motion is integrated into the flow solver (Comet) via its
user-coding interface. The forces and moments acting on the floating body are obtained from the
fluid flow around the body. For the prediction of the body motion, a predictor-corrector procedure
has been used. This procedure is readily coupled with the iterative procedure for flow prediction.
For more details about body dynamics, integration scheme and body-flow coupling, see Xing et al.
(2001) and Hadzic et al. (2002).
In the following sections, classical problems of water-entry and -exit of a horizontal circular cylinder
are solved using the present method. The computational results are examined against published
experimental data, see Greenhow & Lin (1983). Flow separation and jet formation are obtained and
agree well with the experimental photos. The motion of the cylinder is also well predicted during
the water-entry.
3.1 Water-entry of a circular cylinder

The neutrally buoyant circular cylinder used in the experiment and the calculation has a radius of
5.5 cm. It is released from a certain position above the still water level. The instant velocity at which
the cylinder intersects the water surface is 4.0 m/s. After the cylinder contacts the water surface,
the velocity of cylinder is decreased significantly due to the effects of hydrodynamic resistance
forces. Two jets are thrown up at each side of the cylinder and travel straight upward until they
become unstable. Due to gravity effect, the water fronts collapse against each other to throw up
another jet. The cylinder moves further down into the water until it reaches the bottom of the tank
and bounces up, where the depth is 30 cm. A detailed sequence of photographs has been taken for
the whole procedure, as shown at the right column in Fig. 1.
The numerical tank has been set up as a rectangle with 60 cm height and 60 cm width. Symmetric
conditions are applied to the longitudinal direction since the problem is treated as two-dimensional.
At the left- and right-hand boundaries, hydrostatic pressure is applied assuming the fluid domain
to be infinite. The upper boundary is assumed high enough above the water level so that the static
air pressure condition can be applied. The lower boundary is the inlet boundary to allow the
water flowing in/out. Non-slip solid wall condition has been applied at the cylinder surface. The
numerical grid is fully made of square-shaped Cartesian cells. For the sake of numerical efficiency
and accuracy, the local cell-wise grid refinement has been used in the vicinity of the cylinder. Other
grid topologies like different types of surface-fitted grids have been studied by the authors. But
due to the limitation of space, the most significant results using a Cartesian grid will be presented
here.
For the convenience of comparing the pictures between simulation and experiment, Fig. 1 shows
the plots of the numerical results together with the experimental photos at certain time instants.
As can be seen, jet forming, traveling and collapsing are predicted by the numerical scheme
successfully. Air flow has been computed in the present method; therefore air effects such as
air-cushion effect and cavity formation have been automatically taken into account in the present
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(a) time = 0.33 s
(b) time = 0.50 s
(c) time = 0.75 s
Figure 1. Free surface deformation of a neutrally buoyant cylinder water-entry: simulation (left) and
experiment (right).
method. Some air bubbles can be seen along the cylinder due to high-speed water-entry of the
cylinder, and they travel up to the free surface due to the buoyancy effect. The free surface has been
broken in a complex manner due to the combination of forming/falling jets, uprising air bubbles
and the cylinder motion itself. At time = 0.50 s the cylinder reaches the bottom of the experimental
tank and bounces up. Although the bottom of the tank is not modeled in the computation, the
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(a) time = 0.325 s (b) time = 0.505 s
Figure 2. Velocity vectors and pressure fields of the fluid around the circular cylinder.
Figure 3. Time histories of vertical motion of the cylinder (left) and the dimensionless impact force on the
cylinder (right).
velocity of the cylinder is simply reversed at this instant of time to simulate a loss-free re-bounce.
A great similarity can be easily observed between the numerical prediction and the experimental
record.
Figure 2 shows the velocity vectors of the fluid around the circular cylinder together with the
pressure field at two selected time instants. One can see, the flow has been significantly accelerated
by the cylinder and in reaction the cylinder suffers a high impact load from the fluid and its vertical
velocity decreases significantly at the moment when it enters the water. The impact load and vertical
motion of the cylinder in time domain are computed by the program considering the hydrodynamic,
turbulent, air and gravity effects. Figure 3 shows a detailed time history of vertical motion and
impact load of the cylinder and the instantaneous vertical positions of the cylinder are compared
with the experimental data with rather good agreement.
3.2 Water-exit of a circular cylinder

The results on water-exit of a circular cylinder are presented here also using the above numerical
method. The same cylinder with 5.5 cm radius has been used as in the water-entry case. It is pulled
out of the water with a constant speed 0.87 m/s (Fn = 1.18) in both experiment and calculation. The
square-shaped Cartesian grid stated in the previous section has been taken and the corresponding
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(a) time = 0.195 s
(b) time = 0.220 s
Figure 4. Free surface deformation of a circular cylinder water-exit with constant velocity.
(a) time = 0.190 s (b) time = 0.220 s
Figure 5. Velocity vectors and pressure fields of the fluid at the cylinder water-exit.
boundary conditions are also applied in this case. An instant velocity has been applied to the
cylinder at the beginning of the computation and kept constant all the time. Results are compared
to the experiments conducted by Greenhow & Lin (1983).
The numerical simulation has successfully predicted the dominating phenomena during the
cylinder water-exit: The water above the cylinder is lifted by the cylinder and thin layers are formed
subsequently around the cylinder. With the cylinder further rising up, the water layers are drawn
down to the water surface and cause the rush-up and breaking of the free surface.
Figure 4 compares the results at two selected time instants between experiment and computation.
As one can observe, favorable agreement has been obtained between the simulation and the exper-
iment. The velocity vectors of the fluid around the cylinder together with the pressure field are
shown in Fig. 5 at two instants of time. The pressure distributions along the cylinder circumference
are given in Fig. 6 for several time instants.
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Figure 6. Dynamic pressure distribution on the cylinder at different time instants.
4 CONCLUSIONS
This paper presents numerical computations of the water-entry and -exit of a circular cylinder.
The finite-volume method used to solve the Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes equations can use
arbitrary polyhedral cells which may move in any manner; therefore it is applicable to arbitrary
shaped bodies with any given motion. The interface-capturing method for treating free surfaces
allows arbitrary free surface deformation, including wave breaking due to the falling jets onto
the free surface and the buoyancy effects on the air bubbles in liquid. In the cylinder water-entry
case, motions of floating-bodies are computed iteratively in a way compatible with the solution
of the fluid flow equations. Comparison of the body motion with experimental data shows rather
good agreement. The complicated free surface deformation in both cylinder water-entry and -exit
problems are simulated successfully with excellent agreement to the photographs taken from the
experiments. Impact forces on the body are calculated by collecting the pressure and shear forces
from the fluid around. It is demonstrated that the water-entry/exit problems can be handled well by
the present method, especially it is remarkably accurate for the simulation of the strong nonlinear
free surface deformation.
REFERENCES
Arai, M., Cheng, L.Y. & Inoue, Y. 1995. Hydrodynamics impact loads on horizontal members of offshore
structures. In Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering, Volume 1-A, Offshore Technology, pp. 199–206.
Demirdzic I., Muzaferija, S. & Peric, M. 2000. Computation of turbulent flows in complex geometries, chap. 7
in G. Tzabiras et al. (eds.), Calculation of Complex Turbulent Flows, pp. 249–299, WIT press, Southampton.
Faltinsen, O., Kjaend, O., Noettveit, A. & Vijie, T. 1977. Water impact loads and dynamics response of
horizontal circular cylinders in offshore structures, In Offshore Technology Conference, pp. 119–126.
Greenhow, M. & Lin, W. 1983. Nonlinear free surface effects: experiments and theory. Massachusetts Institute
of Technology, Report No. 83–19.
Hadzic, I., Muzaferija, S., Peric, M. & Xing, Y. 2002. Numerical Simulation of Interaction of a Floating Body
and a Free-Surface Flow with Waves. Fifth World Congress on Computational Mechanics, Vienna/Austria.
Korobkin, A. 1996. Water impact problems in ship hydrodynamics. Advances in Marine Hydrodynamics 7:
323–371.
Muzaferija, S. & Peric, M. 1999. Computation of Free Surface Flow Using Interface-Tracking and Interface-
Capturing Methods, chap. 2 in O. Mahrenholtz and M. Markiewicz (eds.), Nonlinear Water Wave Interaction,
pp. 59–100, WIT Press, Southampton.
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Patankar, S. V. & Spalding, D. B. 1972. A calculation procedure for heat, mass and momentum transfer in
three-dimensional parabolic flows. Int. J. Heat and Mass Transfer, 15: 1787–1806.
Schumann, C. 1998. Volume-of-fluid computations of water entry of bow sections. Proceedings of EURO-
MECH 374. Poitiers.
von Karman T. 1929. The impact on seaplane floats during landing. NACA Technical Note 321, Washington.
Wagner, H. 1932. Ueber Stoss- und Gleitvorgaenge an der Oberflaeche von Fluessigkeiten. Zeitschrift fuer
Angewandte Mathematik 12: 193–215.
Xing, Y., Hadzic, I. & Peric, M. 2001. Predictions of Floating-Body motions in Viscous Flow. Proc. 4th
Numerical Towing Tank Symp., Hamburg/Germany.
Zhao, R. & Faltinsen, O. 1993. Water-entry of two-dimensional bodies. J. Fluid Mech. 246: 593–612.
669
chap-88 20/9/2004 16: 47 page 671

Velocity distributions in rectangular-section and trapezoid-section

open channel flows with a new Reynolds-stress expression
Ma Zheng
China Ship Scientific Research Center, Shanghai, China
Chen Hongxun
Shanghai Institute of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China
ABSTRACT: By considering that the coherent structure is the main cause of Reynolds-stress,
a new Reynolds-stress expression was given. The velocity distributions in the rectangular-rection
and trapezoid-section open channel flow were worked out with the pseudo-spectral method. The
results were compared with experimental data and the influence of the ratio of length to width of
the cross-section and the lateral inclination on the velocity distribution was analyzed. This model
can be used to calculate the large flux in rivers and open channels.
1 INTRODUCTION
Turbulence extensively exists in nature and in engineering. In the early research, turbulence was
regarded as a kind of totally stochastic phenomenon, so its statistical theory was established. In
1895, Reynolds firstly derived the Reynolds equations concerning the average physical quantities.
This has led to a series of turbulence models since the beginning of last century.
In the middle of last century, the discovery of the coherent structure is discovered. People
had already generally acknowledged that the coherent structure is the key factor to the gener-
ation and maintenance of the turbulence[1,2,5] . But some former turbulence patterns were based
on the statistical theory and did not set out from explaining the mechanism of the generation of
Reynolds-stress[3,4] . So it is necessary to construct a new turbulence model which can agree with
the mechanism of the generation of Reynolds-stress.
In this paper, a new expression of Reynolds stress is put forward according to the mechanism of
the generation and development of the coherent structure and its contribution to Reynolds stress.
This model is applied to the velocity calculation of the open channel flow and the influence of the
velocity distribution caused by the section shape is analyzed. The results are compared with the
experimental result.
2 THE THEORETICAL FOUNDATION OF THE WALL TURBULENCE MODELING

AND THE SET-UP OF REYNOLDS-STRESS EXPRESSION
Through the analysis to the coherent structure experiment phenomenon of the wall flow, several
hypotheses are supposed as following:
(1) The near wall flow region (viscous sub-layer and transition layer, y+ < 30), which is inner
layer, namely, the generation region of the coherent structure. Where, it is considered there are
similar straight-line dependence between pulse intensity and average speed.
(2) The logarithmic region of the wall flow inner layer (30ν/u∗ < y < 0.2δ), which is outer layer,
namely, the diffusion and dissipation region of the coherent structure. Considering the energy
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chap-88 20/9/2004 16: 47 page 672

Figure 1. Turbulence intensities of u2 /u∗ (), v2 /u∗ (•) and w2 /u∗ ().
conservation, the diffusion and dissipation of the turbulence energy abides by a kind of steady
energy transfer formula: ∂ρu/∂x = ∂/∂x (∂/∂x), so kinetic energy and pulse intensity are
supposed to conform to exponent distribution in this region.
(3) Close to the near wall region boundary nearby y+ = 30, is the transition region. In this region,
the processes of increase, diffusion and dissipation of coherent structure are concurrent, so the
pulse intensity increases to the maximum and then reduces gradually.
According to the above assumption, the expression of the pulse intensity is constructed as:
From Eq. (1), it can be found that the fluctuation intensity has different characteristics in the
inner and outer layers. In the inner layer, the fluctuation intensity is related to the average velocity
U mainly, and the term 1 − exp(−Mi U /u∗ ) in Eq. (1) reflects these characteristics, which is nearly
1 in the outer layer. In the outer layer, from a viewpoint of energy diffusion, the fluctuation intensity
distribution conforms to exponential distribution exp(−Di y/H ), which is nearly 1 in the inner layer.
There is a middle region between the outer layer and the inner layer, where these two kinds of distri-
bution laws work at the same time. In Eq. (1), the parameters Ki , Mi , Di (i = 1, 2, 3) represent the tur-
bulence intensity,
theinner scale and
the outer scale respectively. The distributions of the fluctuation
intensities u2 /u∗ , v2 /u∗ and w2 /u∗ in the inner layer and the outer layer are shown in Fig. 1.
In the boundary layer of turbulence, especially in the near-wall region, there is a strong correlation
among the disturbance velocities because of the large-scale coherent structure, which wears off
with the increase of distance away from the wall and then nearly equals zero in the boundary
layer. On the basis of above characteristics, the expression of correlation coefficient is supposed
as Rij = Aij cos (π/2H y). So the Reynolds-stress expression is given by
U U
In the Eq. (2), the term (1 − e−Mi u∗ )(1 − e−Mj u∗ ) can reflect the influence of the bottom boundary
and the lateral walls. Therefore Eq. (2) can be applied to three-dimensional cases. Here, parameters
Kij , Mi and Dij can be determined by experiment.
Figure 2 shows a comparison between the Reynolds stresses obtained from Eq. (2) and
experimental results. Form Fig. 2, we find that the calculation agree with the experiment.
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chap-88 20/9/2004 16: 47 page 673
Figure 2. Comparison of calculated and experimental results for the Reynolds-stress.
3 APPLICATION OF THE NEW REYNOLDS-STRESS EXPRESSION IN THE

CALCULATION OF VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION IN OPEN CHANNEL FLOW
Under the condition of homogeneity and without considering secondary flow, the equation of
motion can be simplified as:
where u is the average velocity of flow in the x direction, ui is the fluctuating velocity and J is the
hydraulic gradient. Substituting the expression of Reynolds stress into Eq. (3), we have
Because pseudo-spectral method has the characters of fast convergence, high accuracy, heavy
gridding density near boundary, it can be used to calculate the velocity distribution.
The Chebyshev Polynomial can be chosen as the pseudo-spectral function. As to the trapezoid
section, it must be mapped in a square computational area with the coordinate transformation, as
shown in Fig. 3.
The transformation from (a) to (b), and then to (c) is given by:
We can rewrite equation (4) under the computational coordinates:
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chap-88 20/9/2004 16: 47 page 674
Figure 3. Coordinate transformation from trapezoid section into a square one.
And the velocity can be expanded in the form:
Considering the symmetry in the direction of z, we only should take even term of Tn (ξ). Con-
sidering the characters of the Chebyshev multinomial and substituting Eq. (7) into Eq. (6), we get
the equations group as follow. Here, we replace ξ and η with y and z for convenience.
In addition, when the rigid boundary conditions of two lateral and bottom surfaces and free
surface boundary condition are given, the value of velocity can be obtained in the whole area.
There are four boundary conditions.
When calculating the velocity in rectangular-section open channel flow, we find some principles
of the parameters’influences to the flow. The parameter K stands for the intensity of Reynolds-stress.
With the increasing of K, the influence of velocity distribution of Reynolds-stress is apparently
amplified, and the velocity and its gradient are increased in inner region, however, they are reduced
in outer region. The parameter D represents the distribution of Reynolds stress in the outer region.
As D increases, velocity reduces in the outer region, but changes little in the inner region. The
distribution of Reynolds stress in the inner region can be characterized by the parameter M , with
the increase of M , the velocity and its gradient are amplified in the inner region, but change little
in the outer region. We find that these results are the same as those of trapezoid-section case in
open channel flow with the change of parameters.
In calculation, we let Ny = Nz = 40 for sufficient accuracy, b = 0.3 m, H = 0.1 m and Dij = 2.6,
Mi = 1.3, Kij = 0, 1.5 in laminar and turbulence flows respectively.
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chap-88 20/9/2004 16: 47 page 675
Figure 4. Comparison of velocity for laminar Figure 5. Velocity comparisons among trapezoid
flow, turbulence, experience formula and experiment. transect flow, rectangle transect flow and laminar flow.
Figure 6. Velocity distributions when θ equals π/4 Figure 7. The influence on velocity profile by aspect
and π/3. ratio.
First, we calculate the velocity profiles of the laminar and turbulent rectangle-section flow, and
compare them with the logarithmic empirical formula and experimental data[6] , as shown in Fig. 4.
In Fig. 4, we find that the velocity profile of turbulence is more plentiful than that of laminar
flow, and the velocity and its gradient are larger in the inner region and the velocity and its gradient
become smaller in the outer region. In Fig. 4, the velocity profile of turbulence agrees with the
experimental data and the empirical formula.
Under the condition of the same bottom width, some comparisons are made among the flow
velocities of trapezoid-section flow, rectangle-section flow and laminar flow, as shown in Fig. 5.
We find that the velocity for the trapezoid-section is greater than the rectangle case, which illustrate
that the influence of sides can be reduced with the increase of sides distance.
In this paper, some calculations and analyses are carried out by considering the influences of
included angle θ and aspect ratio between sides and bottom boundary, which are shown in Fig. 6
and Fig. 7.
In Fig. 6, we find that when the angle decreases, the flow velocity increases. In Fig. 7, under
the condition of the same height, the open channel becomes wider; the velocity becomes greater,
which tells us that when the width of open channel is increased, the velocity restriction of coherent
structure which is generated by sides is weakened. In addition, this also shows the rationality of
this model in the application to the three-dimensional situation.
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chap-88 20/9/2004 16: 47 page 676
4 CONCLUSION
The velocity distributions in trapezoid-section and rectangular section open channel flow have been
computed with a new Reynolds-stress expression in this paper. The Reynolds-stress is compared
with the experimental results and the velocity profiles are compared with the empirical formula and
both conform well. The influence of the section shape is also analyzed qualitatively according to
the computational results. It is proved that this new Reynolds-stress expression, which is obtained
from the mechanism of coherent structure and its contribution to the Reynolds stress, can agree
with the practical situation to some extend. Though the influences of the degree of roughness and
the secondary flow have not been considered, the questions are simplified greatly. On the basis
of confirmed suitable parameters according to the experiment, the model can be applied to the
calculations of flows in open channels or rivers.
REFERENCES
[1] BLACKWELDER R. F. Analogies between transitional and turbulence boundary layer [J]. Phys. Fluids, 1983,
26(10): 2807–2815.
[2] BLACKWELDER R. F., KAPLAN R. E. On the wall structure of the turbulence boundary layer [J]. J. Fluid
Mech., 1978, 76: 89–108.
[3] ROBERT R. Hwang, JAW Sheng-Yun. Second-order closure turbulence models: their achievements and
limitations [A]. Proc. Natl. Sci. Counc [C]. Taibei, 1998, 22(6): 703–722.
[4] SAFFMAN P. G. A model for inhomogeneous turbulent flow [A]. Proc. Royal Soc. [C]. London 1970, A317:
417–433.
[5] ZHOU Heng, XIONG Zhongmin. On the mechanism for the generation of the coherent structure in the wall
region of a turbulence layer[J]. Science in China, A, 1994, 24(9): 941–948.
[6] NEZU I., RODI W. Open channel flow measurement with a laser Doppler anemometer [J]. J. Hydraulic
Engineering, 1986, 112(5):335–355.
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cover_dicker_final 07-10-2004 13:58 Pagina 1 (PANTONE 307 C Plaat)
Hydrodynamics, as a branch of physics that deals

Cheng
with the forces exerted by fluids, finds its applications
in almost every aspect of human life. This ranges from Yeow
traditional areas such as civil mechanical, marine, off-
shore, coastal, naval architectural and environmental
engineering to relatively new areas such as bio-fluid
mechanics. there is no doubt that Hydromechanics will
maintain its strong role in human life as a branch of
science in future.
HYDRODYNAMICS VI
The International Conference on Hydrodynamic
(ICHD) conference series was initiated in China in
1994 and has been held biennially ever since in Asia. It

has become an important event at which academics,
researchers and practitioners exchange new ideas and
their research findings. The proceedings of the 2004
ICHD conference held in Perth contains a selection of
invited keynote lectures and refereed papers. The
papers cover a wide range of topics such as naval archi-
tectural and ocean engineering, coastal and offshore
engineering, industrial fluid mechanics, heat and mass
transfer, environmental fluid mechanics and hydrau-
lics, water resources, fundamental fluid hydrodyna- HYDRODYNAMICS VI
mics and computational fluid mechanics.
The proceeding is meant to serve as a source of referen-

ce for all those interested in the state-of-the-art in
hydrodynamics and fluid mechanics: academics,
researchers and engineers in civil, mechanical, naval
architectural, ocean, coastal and offshore engineering.
Liang Cheng & Ker vin Yeow, editors
Balkema

Hydrodynamics Theory and Applications

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cover_dicker_final 07-10-2004 13:58 Pagina 1 (PANTONE 307 C Plaat)

Hydrodynamics, as a branch of physics that deals

Theory and Applications

The proceeding is meant to serve as a source of referen-

Liang Cheng & Ker vin Yeow, editors

PROCEEDINGS OF THE 6TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HYDRODYNAMICS,

A.A. BALKEMA PUBLISHERS LEIDEN / LONDON / NEW YORK / PHILADELPHIA / SINGAPORE

No claim to original U.S. Government works

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4822-6287-2 (eBook - PDF)

Hydrodynamics VI – Theory and Applications – Cheng & Yeow (eds)

Naval architecture and ocean engineering

Speed effects on the motions of high-speed crafts 101

Bragg reflection of water waves with currents 239

Velocity measurements of modulated waves in deep water 375

Environmental fluid mechanics and hydraulics

Dispersion in a plane-Poiseuille flow of Casson fluid 501

Environmental fluid mechanics and hydrodynamics

Response characteristics and suppression of flow-induced vibrations of rectangular

Author index 677

Hydrodynamics VI – Theory and Applications – Cheng & Yeow (eds)

Liang Cheng, Chairman of Local Committee

Hydrodynamics VI – Theory and Applications – Cheng & Yeow (eds)

Hydrodynamics VI – Theory and Applications – Cheng & Yeow (eds)

Hydrodynamics of high speed marine vehicles

ABSTRACT: Hydrodynamics of high-speed vessels supported by submerged hulls, hydrofoils,

2 GENERAL HYDRODYNAMIC BACKGROUND

It is generally sufficient in maneuvering analysis of displacement vessels at moderate speed to

Hydrofoil-supported monohulls have either fully-submerged or free-surface-piercing foils. The

6 AIR-CUSHION SUPPORTED VESSELS

Figure 8. Physical effects influencing cobblestone oscillations of an SES (Ulstein, 1995).

Hydrodynamics VI – Theory and Applications – Cheng & Yeow (eds)

Liquefaction around Marine Structures, LIMAS, an EU research

1 THE RESEARCH PROGRAM AND ITS OBJECTIVE

LIquefaction around Marine Structures (LIMAS) LIMAS is a three-year (2001–2004) research

Task 1 consists of five workpackages (WP):

• Seismic-induced liquefaction around marine structures by B.M. Sumer

6 LIMAS END PRODUCTS

7 EXPECTED IMPACTS OF THE RESEARCH PROGRAM

Naval architecture and ocean engineering

Hydrodynamics VI – Theory and Applications – Cheng & Yeow (eds)

Pentamaran hull for medium size fast ferries

E. Begovic, C. Bertorello, S. Caldarella & P. Cassella

2 PENTAMARAN AND EQUIVALENT SHIP HULL FORMS

Table 1. Principal characteristics of the considered hulls in full scale.

LOA (m) 107.311 21.475 21.475 107.311 89.300

3 EXPERIMENTAL SET UP AND MODEL TESTS

4 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

3.0 3.0 St. 0.40; Cl. B, C

6 INTACT STABILITY PERFORMANCES

Hydrodynamics VI – Theory and Applications – Cheng & Yeow (eds)

Motions and added resistance of multihull marine vehicles at high

D. Bruzzone & P. Gualeni

Figure 1. Monohull body plan. Figure 2. Catamaran body plan.

Table 2. Main data for the catamaran configuration.

Table 1. Main characteristics for the monohull. Demihull

6,36 4.85 7.037 8.153 7.014 9.98 0.225 10.86 2.09

2 HULL CHARACTERISTICS AND EXPERIMENTAL TESTS

Figure 3. Body plan of the trimaran configuration.

Table 3. Trimaran main characteristics.

Table 4. Details for the experimental tests.

Model λ/L Hw/λ

Monohull 0.75–1–1.25–1.5–1.75–2–2.25 1/75 Table 5. Volumetric Froude numbers.

3 THE NUMERICAL METHODOLOGY

4 CALCULATIONS AND COMPARISONS