MODULE 2 - MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOL

LESSON 1

The Importance of Language

Although ideas may be simple, there is no access to the ideas without a knowledge of the language in which the ideas are
expressed. For example, people frequently have trouble understanding mathematical ideas: not necessarily because the ideas are
difficult, but because they are being presented in a foreign language – the language of mathematics.

What is language in Mathematics

Language in mathematics is a system of communication about objects like numbers, variables, sets, operations, functions and
equations.

➢ Mathematics has its own vocabulary, grammar, syntax, etc.

Characteristics of Mathematical Language

The language of mathematics makes it easy to express the kinds of thoughts that mathematicians like to express. It is:

1. Precise (able to make very fine distinctions)

2. Concise (able to say things briefly)

3. Powerful (able to express complex thoughts with relative ease)

Mathematical Symbols and Notations

Symbols for operations
+, - , x , ÷
Symbols that represent values
a, b, c, x, y, z, etc

N- set of natural numbers

W- set of whole numbers
Z- set of integers
R- set of real numbers
Q- set of rational numbers

Many other symbols

^ - logical “and”

v - logical “or”

∈ - an element

∉ - not an element

⇒ - if then

⇔ - if and only if

∀ - for any, for all

∃ - there exist

∴ - therefore

∑ - summation

∩ - intersection

∪ - union

Ø – empty set, null set

Expression vs. Sentences
Nouns and Sentences in the English Language
In English, nouns are used to name things we want to talk about (like people, places, and things); whereas sentences are used
to state complete thoughts.

Expression versus Sentences in Mathematics

The mathematical analogue of a ‘noun’ will be called an expression. Thus, an expression is a name given to a mathematical
object of interest. The mathematical analogue of a ‘sentence’ will also be called a sentence. A mathematical sentence, just as an
English sentence, must state a complete thought.

Example 1.2

The table below summarizes the analogy between the English and Mathematics

(don’t worry for the moment about the truth of sentences).

Sentences have Verbs

Just as English sentences have verbs, so do mathematical sentences. In the mathematical sentence ‘3 + 4 = 7’, the verb is
‘=’. Indeed, the equal sign is one of the most popular mathematical verbs.

Truth of Sentences
Sentences can be true or false. The notion of truth (i.e. the property of being true or false) is of fundamental importance in
the mathematical language.

Conventions in the Mathematical Language

Mathematical convention- is a fact, name, notation, or usage which is generally agreed upon by mathematicians.
For instance, the fact that one evaluates multiplication before addition in the expression 2+3x4 is merely conventional: It is
conventional to perform first multiplication before addition, this is following the order of operations.

Mathematicians abide by conventions in order to allow other mathematicians to understand what they write without constantly
having to redefine basic terms.
 MODULE 2 - MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOL

LESSON 2

Sets- any group or collection of objects is called a set. The objects that belong in a set are the elements, or members, of the set.

Methods for Designating a Set

1. Describe a set in words.

2. List the elements of the set inside a pair of braces, { }. This method is called the roster method. Commas are used to separate
the elements.

Example 2
Word Description and the Roster Method

Basic Number Sets

1. Natural Numbers 𝑁 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, … }
2. Whole Numbers 𝑊 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, … }
3. Integers 𝐼 = {… , − 4, − 3, − 2, − 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . }
4. Rational Numbers 𝑄 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑠
5. Irrational Numbers 𝐻 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑠
6. Real numbers 𝑅 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠

Well Defined Sets

A set is well defined if it is possible to determine whether any given item is an element of the set.

Empty Set or Null Set

The empty set, or null set, is the set that contains no elements. The symbol ∅ or { } is used to represent the empty set.

Set Builder Notation

Another method of representing a set is set-builder notation. Set-builder notation is specially useful when describing infinite sets.
Cardinality and Finite Sets
A set is finite if the number of elements in the set is a whole number. The cardinal number of a finite set is the number of
elements in the set. The cardinal number of a finite set A is denoted by the notation 𝑛(𝐴).

Equal Sets
Set A is equal to set B, denoted by 𝐴 = 𝐵, if and only if A and B have exactly the same elements.

Equivalent Sets
Set A is equivalent to set B, denoted by 𝐴~𝐵 if and only if A and B have the same number of elements.

Universal Set
The set of all elements being considered is called a universal set.

The Complement of a Set

The complement of a set A, denoted by 𝐴′, is the set of all elements of the universal set U that are not elements of A.

A Subset of a Set
Set A is a subset of set B, denoted by 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 if and only if every element of A is also an element of B.

Subset Relationships
1. 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐴, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝐴

2. ∅ ⊆ 𝐴 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝐴

Venn Diagram
The English logician John Venn (1834-1923) developed diagrams, which we now refer to as Venn diagrams, that can be used
to illustrate sets and relationships between sets. In a Venn diagram, the universal set is represented by a rectangular region and
subsets of the universal set are generally represented by oval or circular regions drawn inside the rectangle.

Venn Diagram Proper Subset of Sets Proper Subset of Sets

Set A is a proper subset of set

B, denoted by 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵, if every
element of A is an element of
B, and 𝐴 ≠ 𝐵.

The Number of Subsets in a Set

A 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑛 elements has 2𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠.

Intersection of Sets
The intersection of sets A and B, denoted by 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵, is the set of elements common to both A and B.

𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {𝑥|𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}

Disjoint Sets
Intersection of Sets Two sets are disjoint if their intersection is the empty set
Union of Sets
The union of sets A and B, denoted by 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵, is the set that contains all the elements that belong to A or to B or to both

𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {𝑥|𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}

Union of Sets

De Morgan’s Laws
For all sets A and B,

(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)′ = 𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵′ and (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)′ = 𝐴′ ∪ 𝐵′

Properties of Sets
Venn diagrams can be used to verify each of the following
properties.

The Inclusion-Exclusion Principle

For all finite sets A and B,

𝑛(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑛(𝐴) + 𝑛(𝐵) − 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)

MODULE 2 - MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOL

LESSON 3

Relation
set of ordered pairs is called a binary relation or simply a relation. If 𝑆 is a relation, the set of all elements 𝑥 that occur as first
members of pairs (𝑥, 𝑦) in 𝑆 is called the domain of 𝑆, denoted by DS . The set of second members 𝑦 is called the range of 𝑆, denoted
by R S .

Example 1

Let 𝑆 = {(3, 5), (−2, 8), (−3, 8), (0, −6)}. Find the domain and range of set 𝑆.

Mapping Table Graph

Functions
function 𝒇 is a relation which is the set of ordered pairs (𝑥, 𝑦), no two of which have the same first member. That is, if
(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑥, 𝑧) ∈ 𝑓, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑧. The definition of function requires that for every 𝑥 in the domain of 𝑓 there is exactly one 𝑦
such that (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑓. It is customary to call 𝑦 the 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 of 𝑓 at 𝑥 and to write 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) instead of (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑓 to indicate that the pair
(𝑥, 𝑦) is in the set 𝑓.

Vertical Line Test

Graphs can be used to determine if a relation is a function by using the vertical line test. If the vertical line intersects the
graph of an equation at exactly one point, then the equation is a function; otherwise it is not a function.

Function Notations and Operations on Functions

Given two functions 𝑓 and 𝑔:

1. Their sum denoted by 𝑓 + 𝑔 is the function defined by

(𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)

2. Their product, denoted by 𝑓 ∙ 𝑔 is the function defined by

(𝑓 ∙ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥)

3. Their difference denoted by 𝑓 − 𝑔 is the function defined by

(𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)

4. Their quotient, denoted by 𝑓/𝑔 is the function defined by

(𝑓/𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)/𝑔(𝑥)

In each case the domain of the resulting function consists of those values of 𝑥 common to the domain of 𝑓 and 𝑔 , with the additional
requirement in case 4 that the values of 𝑥 for which 𝑔(𝑥) = 0 are excluded.

Even and Odd Functions

1. A function 𝑓 is said to be an even function if for every 𝑥 in the domain of 𝑓, 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥).
2. A function 𝑓 is said to be an odd function if for every 𝑥 in the domain of 𝑓(−𝑥) = − 𝑓(𝑥).

In both 1 and 2 it is understood that – 𝑥 is the domain of 𝑓 whenever 𝑥 is.

 MODULE 2 - MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOL

LESSON 4

Logic
Logic is a systematic way of thinking that allows us to deduce new information from old information and to parse the meaning of
sentences.

We use logic informally in everyday life and certainly also in doing mathematics.

Statements and Quantifies

Definition 1. A statement is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not both true and false.

Definition 2. A simple statement is a statement that conveys a single idea.

A compound statement is a statement that conveys two or more ideas.

Definition 3. The truth value of a simple statement is either true (𝑇) or false (𝐹). On the other hand, the truth value of a compound
statement depends on the truth values of its simple statements and its connectives. Likewise, a truth table is a table that shows the
truth value of a compound statement for all possible truth values of its simple statements.

Note 1. George Boole (a founder of Boolean algebra which have an applications in the areas of computer programming and the
design of electronic circuits) has used lowercase 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟, and 𝑠 to represent simple statements and the symbols ∧, ∨, ∼, ⟶
, and ⟷ to represent connectives. See Table 1 below.

Definition 4. Given a statement 𝑝, we define the statement ~𝑝 (not 𝑝) to be false when 𝑝 is true, and true when 𝑝 is false.

Definition 5. Given two statements 𝑝 and 𝑞, we define the statement 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 (𝑝 and 𝑞) to be true precisely when both 𝑝 and 𝑞 are
true.

Definition 6. Given two statements 𝑝 and 𝑞 we define the statement 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 (𝑝 or 𝑞) to be true precisely when at least one of 𝑝 and 𝑞
is true.
Compound Statements and Grouping Symbols
If a compound statement is written in symbolic form, then parentheses are used to indicate which simple statements are
grouped together. Table 5 illustrates the use of parentheses to indicate groupings for some statements in symbolic form.

Compound Statements and Grouping Symbols

If a compound statement is written as an English sentence, then a comma is used to indicate which simple statements are grouped
together. Statements on the same side of a comma are grouped together.