Lecture 3

KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY
Faculty of Engineering
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
HYDRAULICS
Open Channel Flow
Lecturer: Charles Onyutha
conyutha@kyu.ac.ug
C. Onyutha (2019). Hydraulics:
Lecture Slides, KyU, Uganda
Basic concepts
Materials taken from:
Chaudhry MH (2008). Open-Channel Flow, Second Edition. Springer
Science+Business Media, LLC , ISBN 978-0-387-30174-7, 528pp.
2
Basic concepts
Concept:
 Water can be transported from one place to another
 Conveyance structures are used and can be

=> natural
=> artificially constructed
 Structures with closed tops are called closed conduits

e.g. tunnels, and pipes.
 Some structures have their tops open = open channels

e.g. rivers, streams, estuaries, etc.
3
Basic concepts
Channels can be
 artificial or
 natural.
Artificial channels have various names.
• A canal is a long channel having mild slope usually excavated in the ground.
• A flume is a channel supported above ground & built of wood, metal, or concrete.
• A chute is a channel having very steep bottom slope and almost vertical sides.
• A tunnel is a channel excavated through a hill or a mountain.
• A culvert is a short channel which conveys water while flowing partly full.
4
Basic concepts
Prismatic versus non-prismatic channels
A prismatic channel = channel having the same cross section and bottom
slope throughout.
A non-prismatic channel = channel having varying cross section and/or
bottom slope.
A long channel may be comprised of several prismatic channels.
5
Basic concepts
Concept:
When the flow is in an open channel or in a closed conduit and has

a free surface, it is called free-surface flow or open-channel flow.
6
Basic concepts
Concept:
If there is no free surface and the conduit is flowing full, then the
flow is called pipe flow, or pressurized flow.
7
Basic concepts
Concept:
It is possible to have both pressurized flow and free-surface flow

depending on a particular time.
E.g. Storm sewer conduit => due to large inflows produced by a sudden storm, the
sewer may flow full and pressurize the conduit.
 Sometimes, the conduit can be pressurized because the downstream part is
submerged.
8
Basic concepts
Classification of open-surface flows
9
Basic concepts
Uniform flow => is a flow whose water depth, width, flow area or velocity
do not change with distance.
10
Basic concepts
Thus, wrt velocity
=> the convective acceleration V in uniform flow is zero.

t
Mathematically, the partial derivatives of the velocity components with respect
to x, y, and z direction i.e. Vx , Vz , Vy , respectively, are all zero.
t t t
This would be so strict! => Relax and allow for non-uniform

velocity distribution at a channel section
11
Basic concepts
Thus, wrt velocity
=> the convective acceleration V in uniform flow is zero.

t
Mathematically, the partial derivatives of the velocity components with respect
to x, y, and z direction i.e. Vx , Vz , Vy , respectively, are all zero.
t t t
This would be so strict! => Relax and allow for non-uniform

velocity distribution at a channel section
Uniform flow => is a flow whose velocity in the direction of flow at different
locations along a channel remains the same.
12
Basic concepts
Varied or non-uniform flow

is a flow whose water depth, width, flow area or velocity
change with distance.
Based on the rate of variation with respect to distance, flows may be classified as
=> gradually varied flow
=> rapidly varied flow
13
Basic concepts
Gradually varied flow

if the flow depth varies at a slow rate with respect to distance
D1
D2
Rapidly varied flow

if the flow depth varies significantly in a short distance
D1
D2
14
Basic concepts
Steady flow => if the flow characteristics do not change with time at a
given location.
15
Basic concepts
given location.
Unsteady flow => if the flow characteristics change with time at a

given location.
16
Basic concepts
given location.

given location.
Steady uniform flow => the total derivative dV/dt = 0.

v v
meaning that in 1D, 0 and 0
t x
vx vx vy vy vz vz

in 2D or 3D,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,
t x t y t z
17
Basic concepts
given location.

given location.
Steady uniform flow => the total derivative dV/dt = 0.

v v
meaning that in 1D, 0 and 0
t x

in 2D or 3D,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,  0,
t x t y t z
Unsteady non-uniform flow
 k,  k,  k,  k,  k,  k, k = constant
t x t y t z
18
Basic concepts
Laminar versus turbulent flows
Laminar flow => if the liquid particles appear to move in definite smooth
paths and the flow movement takes the form of thin layers
on top of each other
Turbulent flow => the liquid particles move in irregular paths which are not
fixed with respect to either time or space.
19
Basic concepts
Laminar versus turbulent flows
Laminar flow => if the liquid particles appear to move in definite smooth
paths and the flow movement takes the form of thin layers
on top of each other
Turbulent flow => the liquid particles move in irregular paths which are not
fixed with respect to either time or space.
What determines whether a flow is laminar or turbulent?

=> relative magnitude of viscous and inertial forces
 if the viscous forces dominate, we get laminar flow,
 when inertial forces dominate, the flow is said to be turbulent.
20
Basic concepts
Reynold’s number
Reynolds number => defined as the ratio of viscous and inertial forces.
where
Re = Reynold’s number,
VL V = mean flow velocity,
Re 
 L = a characteristic length, and
ν = kinematic viscosity of the liquid.
Re > 600 shows flow is turbulent.
Recall:
For pipe flow, the characteristic length was defined in terms of diameter.
For open channel flow the characteristic length can be defined in terms of
hydraulic depth or hydraulic radius.
21
Basic concepts
Subcritical, Supercritical, and Critical Flows
 A flow is critical if the flow velocity is equal to the velocity of a gravity

wave having small amplitude.
 A flow is subcritical, if the flow velocity is less than the critical velocity.
 A flow is supercritical if the flow velocity is greater than the critical velocity.
NOTE: A gravity wave may be produced by a change in the flow depth.
The ratio of the inertial to gravitational forces acting on the flow is given by a
dimensionless Froude number, Fr defined as
Flow is at
 a critical state if Fr = 1
 a subcritical state if Fr < 1
 a supercritical state if Fr > 1
22
Basic concepts
Geometric properties of channels
Measurable geometric properties of include:
• Depth (y),
• Area (A),
• Wetted perimeter (P), and
• Surface width (B).
23
Basic concepts
• The depth of flow, y, at a section is the vertical distance of the lowest point of
the channel section from the free surface.
• The depth of flow section, d, is the depth of flow normal to the direction of flow.
• The stage, Z, is the elevation or vertical distance of free surface above a specified datum.
• The top width, B, is the width of channel section at the free surface.
• The flow area, A, is the cross-sectional area of flow normal to the direction of flow.
• The wetted perimeter, P, is defined as the length of line of intersection of channel
wetted surface with a cross-sectional plane normal to
the flow direction.
24
Basic concepts
Hydraulic depth = also called hydraulic mean depth
=> the ratio of the cross sectional area to the top water-surface width.
A
D
B
Hydraulic radius
=> the ratio of the cross sectional area to wetted perimeter.
A
R
P
25
Basic concepts
26
Basic concepts
A and P are the sums of those segments.
27
Basic concepts
Calculate the hydraulic radius and hydraulic mean depth of the rectangular
channel.
P = 1+1+3=5 m.
R = A/P= 3/5 = 0.6 m.
D = A/B=3/3 = 1 m.
28
Basic concepts
Calculate the hydraulic radius and hydraulic mean depth of the trapezoidal channel.
P = 5.83 m.
R = A/P= 4/5.83 = 0.686 m.
D = A/B=4/5 = 0.8 m.
29
Basic concepts
Calculate the hydraulic radius and hydraulic mean depth of the circular channel.
30
Basic concepts
Solution
31
Basic concepts
Solution
32
Basic concepts
Derive equations for hydraulic radius and hydraulic mean depth for a parabolic
channel. If B=6 m and h=3 m for the channel, calculate the hydraulic radius and
hydraulic mean depth.
33
Basic concepts
Solution
34
Basic concepts
Solution
35
Basic concepts
Solution
36
Basic concepts
Solution
37
Basic concepts
Solution
38
Basic concepts
Velocity distribution in open channels
The flow velocity in a channel section

varies from one point to another.
This is due to shear stress at the bottom

and at the sides of the channel and due to
the presence of free surface.
The components of velocity in the vertical and transverse directions are

usually small and may be neglected
Therefore, only the flow velocity in the direction of flow needs to be considered.
This velocity component varies with depth from the free surface.
39
Basic concepts
Velocity distribution in open channels
Typical velocity distributions in different channel cross sections.

40
Basic concepts
Energy coefficient
The flow velocity in a channel section usually varies from one point to another.
V2 
Therefore, the mean velocity head in a channel section,   is not the same
 2 g m
 Vm2 
as the velocity head 
 2 g 
computed by using the mean flow velocity, Vm,
 
in which the subscript m refers to the mean values
This difference may be taken into consideration by introducing
an energy coefficient, α, which is also referred to as the velocity head, or
Coriolis coefficient.
41
Basic concepts
Derivation of energy coefficient
Let ρ = mass density of the liquid.
Mass of liquid flowing through area ΔA per unit time = ρVΔA

1
The kinetic energy of mass m traveling at velocity V = mV 2
2
42
Basic concepts
(x.1)
The kinetic energy transfer through area ΔA per unit time may also (from
Eq. x.1) be written as  V AV 2

2g
Which equals to the weight of liquid passing through area ΔA per unit
time × velocity head, in which γ = specific weight of the liquid.
43
Basic concepts
If Vm is the mean flow velocity for the channel section, then

the weight of liquid passing through total area per unit time =  Vm dA
 Vm2
and the velocity head for the channel section =
2g
where α = the velocity head coefficient
Therefore, we can write,
(x.2)
Thus, from Eqs. (x.1) and (x.2) (x.3)
44
Basic concepts
Energy coefficient for a typical natural river section
Typical river cross section
Sections 1 and 3 = flood plains

Section 2 = main river channel
 flow velocities in sections 1 and 3 are lower than that in section 2.
 variation in the flow velocity in each sub-section is small. In other words,
each subsection may be assumed to have the same flow velocity throughout.
45
Basic concepts
Therefore, the integration in the Eq.(x.3)

can be replaced by summation.
(x.4)
where
(x.5)
46
Basic concepts
Substituting Eq. (x.5) in (x.4),
(x.6)
Generally, if A is divided in N sub-areas,
(x.7)
47
Basic concepts
Momentum coefficient
Like the energy coefficient,

 a coefficient for the momentum transfer through a channel section is
required to account for non-uniform velocity distribution.
This coefficient, also called Boussinesq coefficient, and is denoted by β.
Derivation of β
Mass of liquid passing through area ΔA per unit time = ρV ΔA

Thus, the momentum passing through area ΔA per unit time = (ρVΔA)V =ρV2ΔA
By integrating this expression over the total area,
(x.8)
48
Basic concepts
Momentum coefficient
By introducing the momentum coefficient, β,

we can write the momentum transfer through area A in terms of the mean
flow velocity, Vm, for the channel section,
(x.9)
Combining Eq. (x.8) and (x.9),
(x.10)
49
Basic concepts
Values of α and β for typical sections
Source: Chow (1959)
Chow, V. T. (1959). Open-Channel Hydraulics , McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, NY.
50
Basic concepts
Example
51
Basic concepts
Example
α from Eq.(x.3)
52
Basic concepts
Example
β from Eq.(x.10)
53
Conservation Laws
Conservation of Mass
Let v = the instantaneous flow velocity at a point,

y = flow depth,
ρ = mass density,
A = flow area,
B = top water surface width,
subscripts 1 and 2 = quantities for sections 1 and 2, respectively.
54
Conservation Laws
By law of conservation of mass,
=> the rate of mass inflow at section 1 must equal the rate of mass outflow at section 2,
=> the volume of liquid stored in the channel between sections 1 and 2 remains unchanged.
Therefore,
=> =>
Continuity equation
55
Conservation Laws
By law of conservation of mass,
=> the rate of mass inflow at section 1 must equal the rate of mass outflow at section 2,
=> the volume of liquid stored in the channel between sections 1 and 2 remains unchanged.
Therefore,
=> =>
Continuity equation
56
Conservation Laws
Conservation of Momentum
Assume => the steady flow of an incompressible liquid in a channel,

=> the channel is prismatic, and
=> there is no lateral inflow or outflow.
If V1 is the mean flow velocity at section 1, then
57
Conservation Laws
If V1 is the mean flow velocity at section 1, then
and β1 = momentum coefficient introduced to account for the non-uniform velocity distribution
Similarly, for section 2,
For the liquid volume between sections 1 and 2
(x.11)
Forces are acting on the volume of liquid between sections 1 and 2
58
Conservation Laws
Component of the weight of liquid between sections 1 and 2 = W sin θ
and W = weight of the volume of liquid between sections 1 and 2

θ = slope of the channel bottom
Let Fe = force due to shearing force between the liquid and the channel sides.
Fr = resultant force acting on the volume of liquid in the downstream direction
(x.12)
By Newton’s second law of motion,

the time rate of change of momentum of the liquid volume is equal to the resultant of
the external forces acting on the liquid volume,and realizing that γ = ρg,
From Eqs. (x.11) and (x.12),
59
Conservation Laws
A general application of the momentum principle becomes
(x.13)
Eq. (x.13) can be simplified,
 For a prismatic channel with horizontal bottom, the component of the weight of liquid in
the downstream direction is zero.
 If we assume that the channel bottom and sides are smooth, then the shearing force is zero.
 If the flow velocity is uniform at sections 1 and 2, then β1 = β2 = 1.
 Fe is the external shearing force acting on the volume of liquid and does not depend upon the
energy losses occurring inside the liquid segment.
Thus, Eq. (x.13) becomes

(x.14)
60
Conservation Laws
Equation of motion
Let us consider a rectangular fluid element such that;

 the fluid particles flow along a streamline,
 the fluid is non-viscous, (thus, there are no frictional forces acting on the element)
 the length of the fluid element along the streamline is Δs,

 the length of the fluid element normal to the streamline is Δn,
 the thickness of the fluid element perpendicular to the plane of paper is unity.
Forces acting on fluid element
61
Conservation Laws
Equation of motion
If p = pressure intensity at section 1, then
the pressure at section 2 is
Therefore,
(x.15)
(x.16)
(x.17)
(x.18)
and z = height above the datum, measured positive in the upward direction.
62
Conservation Laws
Equation of motion
Thus, the resultant force Fr acting on the element in the downstream direction,
(x.19)
(x.20)
According to the Newton’s second law of motion, the resultant force is equal to the mass of the
fluid element times the acceleration of the fluid element, as i.e.,
(x.21)
(x.22)
63
Conservation Laws
Equation of motion
Since the flow velocity, V = V (s, t), acceleration, as, in the s-direction may be written as ,
(x.23)
This is local acceleration This is convective acceleration
Substituting Eq. (x.23) in (x.22),
(x.24)
This is the Euler’s equation of motion.
NOTE: => Eq. (x.24) is valid for non-viscous fluid.

=> Eq. (x.24) is general and can be simplified for a number of cases.
64
Conservation Laws
Steady flow equation
Thus, Eq. (x.24) becomes,

(x.25)
Note that we have the total derivatives in Eq. (x.25) instead of the partial
derivatives since both p and Vs for steady flow are now functions of s only.
Multiply through by ds and integrate,
(x.26)
(x.27)
also called the Bernoullis’ Equation.

65
Conservation Laws
Steady flow equation
(x.27)
This equation is valid along a streamline. However, if the flow is irrotational,

then it can be shown that this equation is valid throughout the flow field
 Recall that the Euler equation was valid for non-viscous fluid and
we assumed in the derivation that ρ is constant.
Therefore, we may say that
 the Bernoulli equation is valid for steady, irrotational, incompressible,
and non-viscous flow.
66
Conservation Laws
Steady uniform flow equation
Both the local and convective accelerations in steady-uniform flow are zero.
Thus, Eq. (x.24) becomes,
(x.28)
Note:
This equation represents hydrostatic pressure distribution.
67
Conservation Laws
Unsteady non-uniform flow equation
In unsteady, non-uniform flow, neither the local nor convective acceleration is zero.
From (x.24)
By multiplying Eq. (x.24) throughout by ds and integrating the resulting expression,
(x.29)
(x.30)
68
Conservation Laws
Unsteady non-uniform flow equation
Comparison of Eqs. (x.27) and (x.30),
(x.27)
(x.30)
=> an additional term is introduced due to unsteadiness.
To evaluate the integral of this term, an expression for the variation of Vs

with respect to time is required. Such an expression is not usually known.
Therefore,
=> Eq. (30) is not useful for a general analysis.
=> Bernoulli equation is valid only for steady flows
69

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KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

Open Channel Flow

Lecturer: Charles Onyutha

 Conveyance structures are used and can be

 Structures with closed tops are called closed conduits

 Some structures have their tops open = open channels

Artificial channels have various names.

• A tunnel is a channel excavated through a hill or a mountain.

A non-prismatic channel = channel having varying cross section and/or

A long channel may be comprised of several prismatic channels.

When the flow is in an open channel or in a closed conduit and has

It is possible to have both pressurized flow and free-surface flow

Thus, wrt velocity

=> the convective acceleration V in uniform flow is zero.

This would be so strict! => Relax and allow for non-uniform

Thus, wrt velocity

=> the convective acceleration V in uniform flow is zero.

This would be so strict! => Relax and allow for non-uniform

Varied or non-uniform flow

Gradually varied flow

Rapidly varied flow

Unsteady flow => if the flow characteristics change with time at a

Unsteady flow => if the flow characteristics change with time at a

Steady uniform flow => the total derivative dV/dt = 0.

vx vx vy vy vz vz

Unsteady flow => if the flow characteristics change with time at a

Steady uniform flow => the total derivative dV/dt = 0.

vx vx vy vy vz vz

What determines whether a flow is laminar or turbulent?

 A flow is critical if the flow velocity is equal to the velocity of a gravity

NOTE: A gravity wave may be produced by a change in the flow depth.

Measurable geometric properties of include:

• Wetted perimeter (P), and

• Surface width (B).

the channel section from the free surface.

• The wetted perimeter, P, is defined as the length of line of intersection of channel

wetted surface with a cross-sectional plane normal to

the flow direction.

A and P are the sums of those segments.

R = A/P= 3/5 = 0.6 m.

R = A/P= 4/5.83 = 0.686 m.

The flow velocity in a channel section

This is due to shear stress at the bottom

The components of velocity in the vertical and transverse directions are

Typical velocity distributions in different channel cross sections.

This difference may be taken into consideration by introducing

an energy coefficient, α, which is also referred to as the velocity head, or

Let ρ = mass density of the liquid.

Mass of liquid flowing through area ΔA per unit time = ρVΔA

If Vm is the mean flow velocity for the channel section, then

Thus, from Eqs. (x.1) and (x.2) (x.3)

Typical river cross section

Sections 1 and 3 = flood plains

Typical river cross section

Therefore, the integration in the Eq.(x.3)

Typical river cross section

Substituting Eq. (x.5) in (x.4),

Generally, if A is divided in N sub-areas,

Like the energy coefficient,

This coefficient, also called Boussinesq coefficient, and is denoted by β.

Mass of liquid passing through area ΔA per unit time = ρV ΔA

By integrating this expression over the total area,

By introducing the momentum coefficient, β,