Emotional Sensitivity, Emotional Expressivity and

Dance expertise: A comparative study

Author: Anna Izountouemoi

Mid Sweden University, 2020

Faculty of Social and Humanities Sciences

Supervised by Francisco Esteves

Mid Sweden University
Master’s Programme in Psychology of Emotion
Two year Advanced level 120ECTS
Autumn 2020
PS071A/Registration number
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Abstract

The purpose of the current study was to assess if dance expertise could enhance
sensitivity. Specifically, Sze, Gyurak, Yuan and Levenson (2010) tested their main
hypothesis and concluded that dance expertise can increase the extent to which arousal
influences the subjective experience of feelings, which could also enhance sensitivity
to the emotions expressed in the movements of others. The overall aim of this thesis
was to study emotional expressivity and emotional sensitivity, specifically comparing
dance experts and non-experts.

The results are based on an online survey that was answered by 113 individuals. The
online survey consists of the Berkeley Emotional Expressivity Questionnaire,
Emotional Sensitivity Questionnaire and demographic questions. Dance experts in
comparison to non-experts scored higher on both Positive interpersonal sensitivity
(PIPS) and Negative Egocentric Sensitivity (NES) scales. No differences between
groups were obtained regarding emotional expressivity. However, there was found a
number of correlations within the Berkeley Emotional Expressivity Questionnaire.
According to our findings dance experts are more sensitive as they self-reported a
higher emotional sensitivity that is being expressed through empathic concern and
egocentric concern, in comparison to non-experts. Our results support previous
argument as they indicate that dance expertise could enhance emotional sensitivity.

Keywords: Emotional sensitivity; emotional expressivity; emotion; dance expertise

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Emotional Sensitivity, Emotional Expressivity and Dance expertise

A widely accepted view in psychology is that the body and the mind work together as
one system. Scientists from various disciplines and in different time periods, have made
references about the interdependence of the body-mind system. One of the robust
findings in emotion psychology is the large amount of empirical evidence that highlight
the role of the body in expressing emotions, but also about humans ability to perceive
emotions through bodily expressions. An increasing number of behavioural studies
have found, that people are able to decode emotional states through bodily expressions
and that bodily movements can activate emotional experiences (Strack, Martin, &
Stepper, 1988; Niedenthal, Barsalou, Winkielman, Krauth-Gruber, & Ric, 2005;
Christensen, Gomila, Gaigg, Sivarajah, & CalvoMerino, 2016). Although bodily
expressions have been studied in the past in various domains, fewer studies have
examined how dance expertise impacts one's ability to perceive and express emotion
[sic].

In this respect, it seems important to study the impact of dance expertise as a factor that
could enhance sensitivity, in the relation between emotional expressivity and emotional
sensitivity. Presumably, there is an association to emotional sensitivity and acquiring
dance expertise. Specifically, what motivated me to do this study is prior research
suggesting that experts in body movement are individuals who experience daily training
in expressing affect through body movement and that dance expertise could enhance
sensitivity to the emotions expressed in the movements of others. Similarly to other
studies on dance experts, in this study, dance experts are conceptualized as individuals
who experience daily training in expressing affect through body movement (Sze et al.,
2010).

Why is it important though? Having all considered let me emphasize on the reasons for
examining this topic, from a broadly scientific point of view.
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Firstly, one of the most common perceptual activities human engages in daily life is
trying to deduce others' intentions. From this point of view, it is interesting or perhaps
necessary to examine if dance expertise can enhance emotional sensitivity, and if this
sensitivity is expressed through empathic concern or egocentric concern (Gross, &
John, 1997; Guarino, Rogers, & Olasson, 2007). As previously stated, peoples’ will to
act may be found into sensitivity (Riggio, 1986), and may be expressed with skill related
factors, such as being able to decode subtle movements or being able to express
empathic concern (Hogan, 1969; Christensen et. al. 2016).

Secondly, there are many other reasons to acquire a better understanding of the body-
mind system by investigating it from an emotion-focused perspective. Following this
perspective, embodiment refers to different domains, suggesting that our perception is
influenced by our motor experience (Reimann, Feye, Malter, Ackerman, Castaño, Garg,
& NZhong, 2012). A further investigation could allow scientists to better comprehend
the relation between emotional processing, such as to decode and express emotions
through bodily movement and perceptual processes. Interestingly, a recent study that
examined the relation between emotion processing and perceptual processes found that
being able to recognize others' emotional state from the way that they move, could be
an indicator of healthy aging (Chard, Edey, Yon, Murphy, Bird, & Press, 2019).

Thirdly, to investigate the underlying factors of emotional sensitivity, having in mind

that dance expertise could enhance sensitivity, could provide the scientific world with
a greater understanding of how health practitioners could improve their clinical
strategies when working with dance-experts. Perhaps a further investigation would help
emotion-focused therapists or whichever therapeutic orientation is used by the
therapists, to better identify the adaptive and maladaptive emotional experiences of
dance experts, such as the nature of suppression strategies that dance experts might
adapt when in therapy (Greenberg, 2002, as referred to Linton, 2013). Linton (2013)
argues that the transdiagnostic approach postulates that emotional consequences can be
predictive processes, meaning human behaviour can be described between the
interaction of function and context. According to this view, pain and emotion have the
shared function to reduce unpleasant conditions that restore homeostasis (i.e., balance)
(Linton, 2013). Hence, regarding health purposes, if dance expertise impacts the shared
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mechanism of emotion and pain, by enhancing sensitivity, it is useful for health
practitioners to take this factor into consideration. Perhaps, this could lead to them
avoiding misdirection and to work more efficiently, targeting the psychosocial
emotional mechanisms that work in developing the given problem (Greenberg, 2002,
as referred to Linton, 2013). It is thus important to distinguish between experts and non-
experts, when assessing interpersonal sensitivity related to health issues, if dance
expertise enhances emotional sensitivity.

In what follows, an overview is presented composed by notable publications relating to

the researched topic and highly based on the current debate on embodiment approach
from a neurobiological, cognitive and socio-constructivist perspective and on dance-
related research.

Historical overview
Depending on the emotion theory, Darwin's (1872) animal research is considered to be
one of the first researches that referred to the significant role of body expressions and
how they are associated with emotions in animals. Emotion research is considered to
be a multifaceted field (Barrett, Lewis, & Haviland-Jones, 2016) and from a historical
point of view, defining emotion has been a great debate.

James-Lange Theory - Bodily Perception Theory

The James-Lange Theory indicates that bodily reactions are prior to emotions and that
arousal is an important dimension of subjective experience of emotion. James argued:
“A purely disembodied human emotion is a nonentity” (James, 1890, pp. 452, as
referred to Laird, & Lacasse, 2014). James seemed to imply that expressive behaviors

generate emotions and that these rapid behaviors function as feedback by reasoning that
bodily changes lead our perception and inform us about the context and the actions
(Barbalet, 2001). Even though his theory has received mixed support (Laird et al, 2014),
his paper Mind played a key role in developing the theory of emotion specific
autonomic nervous system activity (James, 1884; Stephens, Chad, Christie, Israel,
Friedman, & Bruce, 2010). The idea that many physiological systems interact with the
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experience of an emotion has been articulated in a variety of emotion theories (Fox,
2008). For instance, according to Lang (1978), emotions are multi-componential and
affect cognitive, behavioral, central and peripheral physiological response systems.
Other theories postulate that emotions unfold in many embodied ways, such as facial
expressions, physiological responses and involuntary motor movements (Mauss &
Robinson, 2009). These theories seem to acknowledge, at least in part, the bodily
perception theory (James, 1884; 1894). A plethora of studies have argued whether
emotions arise due to cognitive appraisal or are bodily perceptions due to physiological
changes (Reimann et al, 2012). Scherer (2005) supports that one of the components of
emotion is the motor expression component, which is connected to somatic nervous
system and its aim is to communicate intentions through expressive behaviors.

Dance expertise & sensitivity - neurobiological perspective

From a neurobiological perspective, Gallese and Goldman (1998) write about humans'
mind-reading in connection to emotion expression and empathy. The researchers view
mind-reading ability as being an ability that allows us to represent others' expectations,
beliefs and goals. It is an ability whose capacity has evolved, from what they call an
action execution-observation matching system, a cortical system formed by mirror
neurons (Gallese et al., 1998). According to Rizzolatti and Craighero (2004), mirror
neurons have been defined as premotor neurons and have been observed that they help
humans understand others’ intentions. Interestingly, these neurons fire when one is
observing an action being performed by someone else. This results in the observer
undergoing the same neural event as the one who acts. Thus, possibly a way to answer
the sensitivity observed in dance experts, from a

neurobiological perspective, is taking into account mirror mechanism theory.

According to this theory, mirror neurons cause motor facilitation in the same muscle
groups of the observer, which justifies the person's ability to match or track on others
mental states (Ammaniti, & Gallese, 2014). If when we perceive someone expressing a
given basic emotion we experience the same emotion (Wicker, Keysers, Plailly, Royet,
Gallese, & Rizzolatti, 2003), this indicates that we are influenced by the motor acts of
others, but also that our motor system plays an important role in how we shape our
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relation to the world (Ammaniti et al., 2014). Gallese (2007; 2008; 2015) argues that
the motor potentialities of our bodies define our cognitive schemas because they define
the space surrounding our body. From this point of view, it could be said that our bodily
empathy shapes our experience. Galleses’ work emphasizes on mirror neuron systems
on aesthetic experiences which highly supports my argument, that it is reasonable to
acknowledge and assume the possible impact of dance expertise in one's ability to
perceive and express emotions. In his latest work, Gallese (2008; Ammaniti et al., 2014)
is reasoning that our experience is the measure from which we understand others and
their experiences. If it is so, dance training is a type of training that requires mimicry.
This implies that dance experts activate the same neural areas in order to understand;
by feeling others intentions and that could result in experts understanding better others'
feelings.

Dance expertise & sensitivity - cognitive perspective

From a cognitive perspective emotion has quality and quantity (De Houwer, &
Hermans, 2010). However, according to James’s theory both quality and intensity of an
emotion are determined by the intensity and quality of bodily responses (James, 1894;
De Houwer et al., 2010). The cognitive models of affective reactions also suggest that
evaluative association occurs automatically. Emotional stimuli help us make analogies
and make predictions by classifying proximal stimuli into a percept. The theory of
automatic affective processing reflects study’s assumptions and explains what an
affective stimulus is. According to the authors, affective stimuli are stimuli that attract
attention and that is the attention that increases the impact of the stimuli. Moreover,
they explain that it is crucial if the properties of the stimuli have been highly accessible
in the past. From this point of view, dance experts are perceived as individuals who
have chronically engaged in movement consciously.
Training in dance is considered by this theory, as a form of manipulation of
accessibility that results in dance expertise (De Houwer et al., 2010). In other words,
based on this theory, it could be said, that the emotional sensitivity that has been
observed in dancers, might be due to bodily expressions being an affective stimuli,
that attract dancers attention and that it is causing affective reactions, with long term
effects (Sze et al., 2010). How does the observers’ sensitivity to affective dimension
interact with the familiarity of the stimuli? That is a question that has been previously
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stated and tested. It has been found that dance experts in comparison to non-experts,
discriminated strongly among happy and sad movements but as well that dance
experts’ subjective behavioral responses correlate with psychophysiological responses
(Christensen et al., 2016).

Socio constructivist perspective

Another possible explanation is the social constructivist approach to emotion. The
constructivist approach is known for highlighting the role of culture and the role of
language. According to this approach the emotions are socially constructed (Fiske,
2010). Although the focus is on social aspects, this approach is also based on James's
bodily perception theory (James, 1884, 1890, 1894). The process of categorizing a core
affect is influenced by context, culture and language. According to Barret (2006), the
core affect theory acknowledges that emotions are socially constructed. It also
postulates that the physiological arousal vary on two dimensions, arousal and valence,
is then labeled with words in terms of specific emotion. According to Russel and Barrett
(1999), a core affect is composed by a mental component and a physiological
component.

Dance research & Emotion research

A widely accepted view in dance research through time tells us a lot about how social
bodies express themselves, but also shows how dance is a social practice capable of
conveying emotional meaning. Karg (2013) divides bodily movements into three
categories, artistic movements, like dancing, functional movements, and
communicative movements. Dance has been a part of every culture, and has appeared
as a ritualistic function, as entertainment and as training exercise, which tells us that the
body has always been an instrument of expression (Desmond, 1997). From a
sociocultural perspective dance is considered as an embodied social practice constantly
informing us about our perceptions (Barret, 2006). According to Desmond (1997)
’’dance is a highly aesthetic form, an embodied social practice that projects norms of
our cultures and societies’’ (pp2). An increasing number of cultural studies has
analyzed how and why dance bodies as social bodies express social categories that exist
across cultures and societies. For instance, Douglas and Wolff's remarkable work shed
light on how informative is viewing the body as a site of culture through which one can
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identify the developmental regimes in western societies, such as the views about the
female body (Wolff, 1986, Desmond, 1997). Categories such as hierarchies, gender,
age and ethnicity are expressed through bodily movement. For instance, through artistic
expression and traditions one can understand how differently masculinity and
femininity is being expressed in certain contexts (Desmond, 1997).

Dance research concentrates on phenomenology and emotion research concentrates on

neuropsychology. I acknowledge that dance research considers the embodiment
framework and argue they are intertwined. Parviainen (2006) argues that “when
someone sees someone dancing, despite seeing the visual image they also experience
the movements in one's body” (pp. 109 - 13). In my understanding, this statement
despite supporting the mirror mechanism theory (Ammaniti et al., 2014), supports
conceptualization about mind-reading ability. As well as other studies that have
demonstrated that we are able to experience the emotion we perceive being expressed
by someone else (Wicker, et al., 2003). Likewise, another previous suggestion is that
kinesthetic empathy should be understood as being the internalization of other dancers’
movements (Desmond, 1997), which also articulates the same notion that dancing
affects one's motor experiences and that these motor experiences determine how the
persons understands others and the world (Ammaniti et. al., 2014).

Embodied assimilation
Embodied theories postulate that embodied simulations influence, and inform one's
conceptual processing (Montepare, Kodak & Zaitchik, 1999). Specifically, the theories
of embodied assimilation refer to how one's motor experiences affect one's emotional
processing and point out that our perception is shaped by our previous motor
experiences (Gallese, 2007; Ammaniti et al., 2014). Similarly, there are published
articles about the ability of bodily movements to generate emotions. For instance,
Niedenthal and her colleagues (2005) found that bodily movements activate emotional
experiences. In addition, research on bodies supports that people can extract more
information about fear and anger expressions through bodily expressions than from
facial expressions (Kret, & de Gelder, 2010; Abramson, Marom, Petranker, & Aviezer,
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2017). Equally, recent observations postulate that long training in dance can result in
motor expertise which increases the person's sensitivity to bodily movements but also
results in modulations in brain structure and specifically in premotor and sensorimotor
regions (Hänggi, Koeneke, Bezzola, & Jäncke, 2010). Likewise, Ambarson Petranker,
Marom, and Aviezer (2020) were interested in understanding what type of visual cues
facilitates emotion recognition. And postulate that bodily expressions more than facial
expressions play a crucial role in emotion recognition. Abramson and colleagues
(2020), among others, acknowledge the role of bodily expression in perceiving
emotions by highlighting that bodily expression functions as valuable contextual
information when it comes to understanding the social context and social interactions.

Dance expertise - Recent findings

An expectation is dance experts scoring higher on the emotional sensitivity scale. My
reasoning is based on empirical evidence that demonstrates that emotions are grounded
in bodily perceptions and that they can influence judgment and choice argued that
emotions can occur even in the absence of bodily changes, due to visual experience.
Vision seems to encompass the activation of emotion-related networks as well as the
activation of somatosensory and motor networks (Butterfill, & Sinigaglia, 2014).
According to Ammaniti and Gallese (2014) due to our multimodal motor system and
the mirroring mechanism we are capable of detecting others' intentions and through
them we form our perceptual experience. Applying this to the present research topic, it
could be so that during dance practice an action-observation occurs that requires
mirroring others emotional intentions. This leads to greater empathic enhancement that
can lead to greater empathic response (McGarry, & Russo, 2011). Visuomotor expertise
acquired from dance expertise has behavioral implications and the findings of a recent
study support the same. Recently, an experiment was performed to investigate dance
experts’ ability to automatically recognize a subtle difference between similar
contemporary dance movements. Twenty-four individuals participated in this study, 12
experts and 12 non-experts and all were shown 212 pairs of videos of complex whole-
body movement. According to the authors, the second video of each pair was either a
repetition or with a slight variation. The results indicate that acquired dance expertise
does modify the ability to visualize code whole-body complex movements and that was
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demonstrated in this study, with experts showing an ability to recognize the differences
between similar contemporary dance movements (Orlandi, Zani, & Proverbio, 2017).

Agreeing with Christensen et al (2016) self-observation and observing others bodily

movement during dance training could impact someone's subjective feeling, as this
embodied mimicry is training based on expressing affect, while arousal feedback occurs
constantly. In this experiment dancers' sensitivity was tested by setting participants
exposed to 96 video clips. The videos were shown half in forward presentation and half
in backward presentation and were either sad or happy. Out of the 43 participants, 19
were ballet dancers and were considered as affective movement experts. All participants
performed an affect rating task from which their subjective response was measured,
while their physiological response was measured through their galvanic skin responses
simultaneously. The results demonstrate that expertise in dance functions as a
moderator factor as dancers discriminated more strongly than controls. Specifically, the
sensitivity was shown towards the forward presentation, with the researchers,
interpreting that this sensitivity was stronger for movements in the way they are learnt
(as usual in forward presentation).

Dance experts
Dance experts are considered to be performers that are experts in using and handling
their bodies when found in performance mode. For this reason, it is important to specify
that similarly to previous positions, dance experts in this study are viewed as individuals
who do use their body for implying effect and doing that by being aware of conveying
intention within a controlled group, and environment, because it is destined for show.
Contrary, non-experts are viewed as having different perspectives in handling their
bodies and different socio-cognitive skills from non-performers (Goffman 1959; Evola,
& Skubisz, 2019).
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Hence, in this study dance experts are considered as individuals with high sensorimotor
experience and visuomotor expertise. It is worth mentioning that empirical evidence
postulates that our sensory-motor system and mirror neurons even play an important
role in language semantics (Gallese, & Lakoff, 2005, Gallese, 2007, 2008). Damasio
(1999, as referred to Fox, 2008) argued that, if emotions are socially constructed and
are influenced by language and culture, this means that the subjective representation of
emotion, feelings, could be considered as reflections of the emotional bodily experience
in relation to language.

In this study emotions are viewed from a socio constructivist perspective, implying that
emotions are not only biologically determined but they are constructed by culture,
language and society. Taking into account the existing limited literature, I argue that
the impact of dance expertise has been understudied at an individual and group level.
And that dancers and their knowledge of bodily movements, has been mostly examined
under the scope of expression and perception (eg. emotional processing). The main aim
of this paper is to study emotional expressivity and emotional sensitivity, specifically
comparing dance experts and non-experts by performing an independent group design,
and my hypothesis is that group differences will be revealed. Specifically that dance
experts will show greater empathic concern than non-experts. From this point of view,
if our body-brain system affects our capacity to emphasize, this makes our expectations
reasonable to assume that dance experts will score higher on empathic concern.

Methods

Participants

Participants were asked to complete an online survey. Initially, 130 individuals

participated but we removed those (N=17) who failed to complete the survey,
specifically the second questionnaire. After exclusions, our analyses focus on the
remaining 113 participants who completed the online survey. The sample consisted of
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81 women (71.8%), 28 men (24.7%) and 4 (other gender) participants. Fifty-five
percent were within the 25-34 age range, 28.3% within the 18-24 age range, 11.5%
within the 35 - 44 age range and the remaining (2.8%) were 45 years old and above.
The survey included questions regarding their educational background, where they
settled (city/country) and how often they dance (Full details about the sample are
reported in the appendix). Participants were asked to answer a 7-point rating scale
ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).

Measures
The Berkeley Expressivity Questionnaire
Emotional expressivity has been defined as the observable behaviors which cause the
person to manifest emotional impulses behaviorally (Gross, & John, 1997). According
to Gross and his colleagues, emotional expressivity could be conceptualized as a trait
and as a dimension that includes both negative and positive emotions (Gross et.al,
2000). The idea that generated this questionnaire was to see if there is a dimension of
emotional expressivity and if it was possible to distinguish and make facets of
emotional expressivity. The Berkeley Expressivity questionnaire is composed of three
subscales: positive expressivity (beq_pex), negative expressivity (beq_nex) and
impulse strength (beq_str), that together makes a total score (beq_mean) that can be
reliably differentiated. Negative expressivity is defined by six items concerning the
expression of negative emotions, such as fear, anger, nervousness and a general marker
item. The positive expressivity by items concerns the expression of positive emotions,
such as amusement and happiness and a general marker item. The impulse strength
facet is defined by 6 items and its items are concerning strong positive emotional
reactions that are accompanied behavioral and emotional changes. Thus, the scale
includes items representing overt expressivity (e.g. “When I’m happy my emotions
show”) and items that aim to assess the expression of discrete emotion. In addition, the
scale includes items that represent the strength of the emotional impulse (e.g. “I have
strong emotions”) and two items that consider to be general markers of negative and
positive expressivity (e.g. “Whenever I feel negative emotions, people can easily see
exactly what I am feeling”). Regarding the scoring procedure, 3 of the items of the scale
were reversed before starting the calculations. One can either view the facets as separate
scores or an overall Emotional Expressivity score to combine them all together. The
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instruction was the following: “For each statement below, please indicate your
agreement or disagreement. Do so by filling in the blank in front of each item with the
appropriate number from the following rating scale” which ranged from 1 (strongly
disagree) to 7 (strongly agree) (Gross, & John, 1997).

Emotional Sensitivity Questionnaire

The ESS is composed of the independent factors Positive Interpersonal Sensitivity
(PIPS) and Negative Egocentric Sensitivity (NES). Positive Interpersonal Sensitivity is
best described as other-oriented emotional sensitivity (e.g. I find it easy to understand
others’ feelings when they are distressed), and negative egocentric sensitivity is
described by personal distress (e.g. When I feel miserable, the worst thing is to hear
other people laughing and having fun).

Through a scenario technique a set of items were formed in order to describe emotional
situations. The responses of a sample of undergraduate students to these emotional
situations resulted in generating the forced-choice ESS scale (true-false). After
exclusions, the questionnaire is composed of 43 items. Validity of the scale was
assessed by comparison with other scales such as the IRI—Davis, (1980, as referred to
Guarino, et al., 2007)) which is a multidimensional measure of empathy, the QMEE
(Mehrabian, & Epstein, 1972, (Guarino, et al.,2007), a composite index of empathy
and EPI-N (Eysenck, & Eysenck, 1964, Guarino et al., 2007)

Regarding the scoring procedure out of the 43 items, 7 had to be reversed, two from the
PIPS factor and five from NES. The PIPS comprises 15 items while the NES 28 items.
The instruction given to participants was the following: This scale consists of a number
of statements. Read each statement carefully and choose the one alternative which is
most like you. There are no correct or incorrect answers.

Procedure

The Berkeley Expressivity Questionnaire (BEQ) and Emotional Sensitivity

Questionnaire (ESS) were used. After getting permission for the two self- administered
scales, the procedure started. The questionnaires were administered by using Qualtrics
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software. The estimated time of the survey was approximately 10-15 minutes.
Following provision of informed consent, participants were allowed to complete the
online survey. Before starting the online survey participants were informed that the
questions are related to dancing habits and how one reacts in different situations. First,
participants completed a few demographic questions and then two single- item
questions (How often do you dance? Do you hold a dance degree?) Here, we tried to
determine the non-experts from dance experts by asking participants clearly if they hold
or not a dance degree. The BEQ and ESS questionnaires followed. Data from non-
completers were not analyzed. Participants were assured that their responses will be
kept confidential and that the data would be analyzed at a group level and not at an
individual level.

Ethics
Despite provision of informed consent other ethical considerations were taken into
account. Following the ethical guidelines granted by the department of Psychology, and
the general guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki, the Qualtrics Software was
recommended for this type of methodological procedure. Participants had the right to
withdraw at any time, as the software allowed them to continue or withdraw from the
online survey. Participants were provided with the researcher’s personal email, for
contacting at any time, in case questions arise. Regarding confidentiality the use of
Qualtrics software, is known for its data protection as it has been previously used in
psychological research. It is a web-based software, a tool that has been designed for
research purposes.
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Results
According to the answer given in the questionnaire regarding dance education,
participants were divided in two groups: dance experts and non-experts.
The analysis was done using JASP 0.3.1. For the comparison of the two groups,
independent t tests analysis were performed, for emotional sensitivity (ESS), and for
emotional expressiveness (BEQ). Regarding emotional sensitivity, independent sample
one-tailed t-test revealed significant mean differences between the two groups on both
subscales, with dance experts scoring higher on Emotional sensitivity scales than non-
experts. On average, dance experts had higher scores on Positive Interpersonal
sensitivity (PIPS) factor than non-experts, (t(105)=1.77; p<0.05), as well as on Negative
egocentric sensitivity (NES) factor (t(105)= 1.68; p<0.05). Cohen’s d estimated at .33
and .35 for NES factor and PIPS factor respectively, which is a medium effect based on
Cohen’s Guidelines (1992) (see Table 1). A representation of the means and the 95%
confidence intervals is displayed in Table 2. T-tests were performed for the BEQ
subscales and the total score, and the results revealed no significant statistical
differences between the two groups. The means are presented on Table 3. As you can
see in Table 4, a number of correlations were found within the BEQ but not between
the BEQ and the ESS scale. Specifically between beq_nex and beq_str, beq_nex and
beq_pex, beq_mean and beq_str, and between beq_mean and beq_pex and beq_mean
and beq_nex.

In brief, the findings suggest that dance experts score higher on both factors of the ESS
questionnaire.
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Table 1

Group Descriptives of ESS Scale

Group N M SD SE

PIPS 1 41 11.6 2.41 .38

2 66 10.6 2.93 .36
NES 1 41 14.6 7.43 1.16
2 66 12.4 6.26 .77
Note: M=Means, SD=standard deviations and SE=standard errors for the two groups

(Dance experts and non-experts), in the two subscales of ESS (Positive Interpersonal

Sensitivity, and Negative Egocentric Sensitivity).

Table 2

Scores on Cohen's d, Confidence Intervals, of ESS Scale

ESS t Cohen’s d 95% CI p

PIPS 1.774 .353 .062 .04

NES 1.681 .334 .029 .05

Note: PIPS- Positive Interpersonal Sensitivity, NES-Negative Egocentric

Table 3 Descriptive Statistics in the 4 Facets/subscales of BEQ for the Two Groups

Variables Group N M SD SE
BEQ_NEX 1 43 3.87 1.08 .16
2 69 3.84 .94 .11
BEQ_PEX 1 43 18.7 2.84 .43
2 69 18.7 2.63 .32
BEQ_STR 1 43 27.4 4.27 .65
2 69 26.3 4.80 .58
BEQ_MEAN 1 43 31.6 4.22 .64
2 69 31.3 3.72 .45

Note: Group- Dance Experts. Group 2 - Non- experts

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Table 4.

Pearson’s Correlations between the Subscales/ Facets of BEQ and the Two Scales of
ESS.

Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6

1. BEQ_NEX
2. BEQ_PEX .30**
3. BEQ_STR .39*** .22*
4. BEQ_MEAN .62*** .85*** .64
5.PIPS .03 .11 .08*** .11
6.NES .09 .15 .06 .04 .04 .58
*p <.05 ** p < .01, *** p < .001

Discussion

The main finding was that dance experts in comparison to non-experts are individuals
with a greater emotional sensitivity. Specifically the results showed that dance experts
seem to have a greater empathic concern as they scored higher on both PIPS and NES.
In other words dance experts in comparison to non-experts have greater other-directed
sensitivity (PIPS) and self-centered sensitivity (NES). Together these findings add to a
growing literature suggesting that daily training in expressing affect through body
movement could enhance sensitivity (Sze, et.al 2010; Christensen et al., 2016).
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Interestingly the correlation matrix table of the variables showed a number of
correlations within the BEQ but not between BEQ and ESS. Specifically between
beq_nex and beq_str and beq_mean (See table 4.) The significant correlation found
between the facets, beq_str and beq_nex of the BEQ, further supports the argument of
association of impulse strength with negative emotionality and somatic complaints
(Larsen & Diener, 1987 as referred to Guarino et al., 2007). Based on previous findings
health complaints have been related to impulse strength (beq_str) and secondly to the
negative expressivity scale (beq_nex) (Guarino et.al, 2007). In our case, correlation
between impulse strength and negative expressivity was expected, because of the design
of the impulse strength subscale. According to Guarino and colleagues, impulse
strength subscale (beq_str) included primarily impulses that one experiences as
negative and difficult to control. (Guarino et al., 2007). A possible interpretation about
the experience of negative impulses could be the one proposed by Watson and
Pennebaker. They argue that the person experiencing high impulses struggles to control
them and expresses them in a form of somatic complaints (Watson, & Pennebaker,
1989, p. 248). In addition, if strong impulses affect one's ability to control actions and
thoughts (Larsen, & Diener, 1987, Guarino et al., 2007) this could explain the personal
distress that dancers might often seem to experience. One could hypothesize based on
these results that dance experts in comparison to non-experts habitually engage more
into coping mechanisms to deal with the overwhelming negative impulses [sic].

From a therapeutic perspective, this should be taken even more into consideration.
Dance experts is a group of people who often experience bodily injuries. Hence, in
treatment therapies it matters to acknowledge that expertise in dance enhances
sensitivity, especially within the context of pain and emotion. [sic] The correlation
analysis showed association of impulse strength and negative self-oriented emotional
expressivity. This could be connected to what has been referred to as interpersonal bias.
According to this term, people sometimes interpret sensory information or an
unpleasant experience as pain. The transdiagnostic approach, regarding the relation of
emotion and pain, it is important to understand the underlying mechanisms of this
relation, but the challenge is to separate the primary and secondary mechanisms,
because they seem to affect both pain and emotion (Vlaeyen & Linton, 2000, 2012, as
referred to Linton, 2013). For instance, strategies such as withdrawal, distraction and
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cognitive reappraisal, are present both in pain and emotion. Experiencing anxiety
sensitivity and distress tolerance can lead to repetitive negative thinking that is
expressed through catastrophizing and worry (Cacioppo, 2009). These negative
emotions induced seem to increase the intensity of pain (Villemure, Bushnell, 2002, as
referred to Cacioppo, 2009).

Moreover, PIPS is viewed as empathic concern, Ekman and Friesen had found that
those scoring high on PIPS could rapidly identify facial emotional expressions than
those scoring low on PIPS (Ekman & Friesen, 1978). The results showed that dance
experts scored higher on PIPS than non-experts and support previous positions about
the impact of dance training that highlight that during dance practice an action
observation occurs, that requires mirroring others emotional intentions. (Mc Garry, &
Russo, 2011). This leads to greater empathic enhancement that can lead to greater
empathic response. The idea that there is a causal relationship between recognizing
emotion and empathy has been previously assessed, like to be able to discriminate the
emotions expressed in dance. Our data definitely speak to embodiment accounts that
have shown how dance training links to the psychophysiological responses of emotion,
resulting in a higher embodiment (Goldman & Sripada, 2005) that makes dance experts
at identifying and understanding the affective experiences expressed by others
(Gallese, 2003, Jacob, & Jeannerod, 2005; Blakemore, & Decety, 2001; Christensen et
al., 2016). The current findings support other current observations and also suggest that
dance could be beneficial for disorders that are characterized by socio-emotional
impairments, by increasing patients' individual sensitivity (Scharoun, Reinders,
Bryden, & Fletcher, 2014, as referred to Christensen, et al., 2016).

Moreover, based on these findings it is argued that the growth of digital culture that is
based on observations of bodily movement through the screen is evolving speedily that
might impact one's sensitivity. This speedy development could also stimulate the ability
of social bodies to observe and understand the experience of others (Eihenberg, as
referred to Desmond, 1997) through bodily movements and result in enhanced
sensitivity (Sze et al., 2010, Christensen et al., 2016).
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My paper is calling attention to the importance of exploring the relationship between
emotional expressivity and emotional sensitivity. The theory of automatic affective
processing highlights the role of effective properties of the stimuli but mainly
postulates that the strength of affective reactions is determined by the degree the stimuli
has been influenced, by manipulations of accessibility. Based on this theory an
interpretation regarding the results, is that dance experts may pay attention to the others'
bodily movements because of the bodily expressions being an effective stimulus for
dancers. The impact of dance training increases the arousal towards bodily movements,
expressed by strong affective reactions. If these affective reactions do have short term
effects and long lasting effects on behavior and cognition (De Houwer & Hermans,
2010), explains why dance experts scored higher on ESS scale.

Limitations

The results of this study should be translated into consciousness since it is

acknowledged, regarding the results, that there might be other reasons present that could
have played a certain role here. The study took place in summer 2020. In 2020
especially in the art field, the circumstances are unpleasant as many have been deprived
from implementing art projects, working routines, and planned performances. For this
reason, external factors such as the ones just mentioned should be taken into account.
Because not being able to follow your working routine could trigger experiences related
to personal distress.

A key consideration of the online survey was the language of the survey, which it is
assumed that has impacted respondents' performance. To test whether dance experts are
more emotionally expressive than experts, two questionnaires were used: the BEQ and
ESS, both in english language. Both questionnaires include emotional phrases. Based
on psycholinguistic studies it is reasonable to believe that possibly language has
impacted our data. The majority of participants were not native english speakers.

One of the limitations of this study that there was found no correlation between the ESS
and BEQ.
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Perhaps a limitation could also be that the ESS scale is comprised by forced-choice
items (true or false).

Future considerations

It was expected that dance experts would score higher on ESS as well on BEQ.
Regarding the lack of correlation between ESS and BEQ, perhaps the use of
psychophysiological measures, a great complement to self-reports, could shed some
light to these results. The psychophysiological measures serve the three-system
approach to emotion (Watson, & Pennebaker, 1989) because they allow scientists to
better study the emotion system. Their integration could possibly provide some input
on the relations of emotional expressivity and emotional sensitivity and help future
scientists to understand to what extent is valid the symptom-perception hypothesis that
was made about the correlation found between beq_nex and beq_str (Mauss, &
Robinson, 2009).

Nevertheless, a further investigation on the question whether there are cultural

differences among experts and non-experts is a future suggestion. For instance, a 2x2x2
design that would administer the same online survey to experts and non-experts of two
different ethnic groups could shed some light to this question.

Are there age- related differences in the ability to recognize emotions through bodily
postures? And how does this relate to empathic concern? Age is a term associated with
changes in psychological behavioural and physiological processes and not surprisingly
the question has been examined by Montepare who found that adults in comparison
make more errors particularly for negative emotions (Montepare, et al, 1999).
The present data raise questions also about expertise in bodily movements. As already
stated, it would be interesting to expand our knowledge and views about expertise by
assessing other specialist groups, experts that work with the bodily expression of
emotion. For example, to implement the same study with actors (graduates) and non-
actors (Christenstein et al. 2016).
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Another future recommendation is conducting the same study but simultaneously
measuring the ability of experts in recognizing subtle differences in bodily movements.
Do movements as emotional stimuli get prioritized in perception of dancers and to what
degree do their dance expertise make them emotional? Inspired by Christenstein and
colleagues examining dancers’ Emotional expressivity longitudinally, as they become
experts (Christensten et al. 2016) could be a future proposition.

In addition, assessing individual differences as one possibility could also show if dance
experts express differences in emotional regulation strategies and understanding health-
related outcomes on dance experts. Overall these study proposals can lead to fruitful
discoveries.

Conclusion
In relation to the widely emotion literature, my understanding of the relationship
between emotional expressivity and emotional sensitivity has expanded. This study
provides empirical and theoretical grounds on the relation between dance expertise,
emotional expressivity and emotional sensitivity. The findings contribute to the
discourse of emotion and health, by underlying the importance to view dance expertise
as a factor/quality that has psychophysiological implications related to emotions.
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Specifically, the results contribute to ongoing debate regarding whether or not dance
expertise can provide differences on the basis of group difference. The findings of this
study show that it is important to examine further bodily movement and reasonable to
acknowledge the possible impact of dance expertise in one's ability to perceive and
express emotions. The results support contemporary views on embodiment as well as
James (1984) physiological approach to emotion from a socio- constructivist
perspective.

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APPENDIX

● Age:0.8% answered that is under 18 years old, 28.3% answered that is 18-24
years old, 55.8% answered being between the ages 25 - 34 years old , 11.5%
answered that is 35 -44 years old , 2% between 45-54 years old and 0.8% 55 64
years old.
● Gender: Out of the 113 participants 81 women 71.8%), 28 men (24.7%) and 4
(other).
● Education - Out of the 113 participants 0.8% had no formal education - 1
23.9% had high school diploma - 27
11.5% had college degree - 13
34.5% had bachelor’s degree -39
24% had master’s degree -27
5.3% Professional degree -6
● How often do you dance?
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Almost everyday 36% -41
Once a week 15.% - 17
Several times a week 18.6% - 21
Once a month 6.1% - 7
Every now and then 17.7% - 20
Not at all 6.2% - 7
● Out of the 113 participants 44 were hold a dance degree (dance experts)
69 hold no a dance degree (non- experts)

Questionnaires

ESS
Gender: Age:

INSTRUCTIONS: This scale consists of number of statements. Read each statement carefully
and choose the one alternative which is most like you. There are no correct or incorrect
answers.
Please do not omit any of the statements.
1. I often get the feeling that I just want to give up altogether. TRUE FALSE
2. I often worry that I have done something to upset people. TRUE FALSE
3. Unexpected changes in my life often leave me absolutely gutted. TRUE FALSE

4. I often think about ways to help people in difficulty. TRUE FALSE

5. It often feels that my burden is greater than anyone else’s. TRUE FALSE

6. I often get angry with myself. TRUE FALSE

7. I find it easy to understand other’s people feelings. TRUE FALSE

8. I get angry when things don't work out. TRUE FALSE

TRUE FALSE
9. I easily get anxious and distressed when I see any of my family or close
friends facing a problem, and I wish I wasn’t there.

10. I find it easy to understand others’ feelings when they are distressed. TRUE FALSE

11. If someone said I was an agitated person, they would probably be right. TRUE FALSE
TRUE FALSE
12. I try not to get emotionally involved with people experiencing difficult
situations.
13. I find it easy to share in other’s happiness TRUE FALSE

14. When people close to me are having problems, I worry on their behalf. TRUE FALSE
TRUE FALSE
15. When I feel miserable, the worst thing is to hear other people
laughing and having fun.
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16. I worry constantly about making mistakes in my work. TRUE FALSE

17. I get very upset if my friends do not show up as planned. TRUE FALSE
18. When things do not go according to plan, I can usually accept it if there is TRUE FALSE
nothing I can do about it.

FALSE
19. I find it easy to recognise the feelings and moods of people around me,
TRUE even if they try to hide them.

20. I’m easily affected by others’ emotional problems. TRUEFALSE

21.I feel upset when I realise that there is nothing I can do to help other TRUE FALSE
people who are having problems.

22. I am easily frustrated. TRUE FALSE

23. Little things are often enough to put me in foul mood. TRUE FALSE

24. I often feel sorry for myself. TRUE FALSE

25. I feel really upset about the plight of people on the edge of society. TRUE FALSE

26. I sometimes feel that no-one cares about me. TRUE FALSE

27. I often feel despair when facing difficult situations. TRUE FALSE

28. I would try to help someone crying in the street. TRUE FALSE
TRUE FALSE
29. When a project I am working on starts off badly, I often see it as a bad
omen for the rest of the project.
TRUE FALSE

30. As long as I try my best in whatever I do, that's enough to make me happy.
31. I’m often more concern about others’ feelings and concerns than my TRUE FALSE
own.
32. It’s quite difficult for me to know the feelings and moods of people around TRUE FALSE
me.
33. I often think about how not to make a fool of myself when facing a novel FALSE
TRUE situation.
34. I feel more concerned than most people about those who are unfairly FALSE
TRUE treated.
35. I often feel let down by my friends. TRUEFALSE
36. I can handle criticism well. TRUEFALSE

FALSE
37. Whenever I see someone in trouble, I feel it’s my responsibility to help
TRUE and give support.
38. I get upset when other people are having a hard time. TRUEFALSE

39. I feel very put out if people don't pick up on how I feel. TRUEFALSE
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40. I am very questioning of myself. TRUEFALSE

41. I am generally an apprehensive person. TRUEFALSE

42. I often picture the worst case scenario for whatever I am about to do. TRUEFALSE

43. I can easily control my nerves. TRUEFALSE

SCORING KEY
POSITIVE SENSITIVITY:

Give one point for TRUE to items 4, 7, 10, 14, 19, 20, 21, 25, 28, 31, 34, 37, 38

And one point for FALSE to 12, 32

NEGATIVE SENSITIVITY:

Give one point for TRUE to items 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 11, 15, 16, 17, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27, 29, 33,
35, 39, 40, 41, 42

And one point for FALSE to items 13, 18, 30, 36, 43

♥ D. Roger/L. Guarino (2001)

● BERKELEY EXPRESSIVITY QUESTIONNAIRE

For each statement below, please indicate your agreement or disagreement. Do so by

filling in the blank in front of each item with the appropriate number from the
following rating scale:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

strongly neutral strongly

disagree agree
____ 1. Whenever I feel positive emotions, people can easily see
exactly what I am feeling.

____ 2. I sometimes cry during sad movies.

____ 3. People often do not know what I am feeling.

____ 4. I laugh out loud when someone tells me a joke

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that I think is funny. ____ 5. It is difficult for me to

hide my fear.

____ 6. When I'm happy, my feelings show.

____ 7. My body reacts very strongly to emotional situations.

____ 8. I've learned it is better to suppress my anger

than to show it. ____ 9. No matter how nervous or

upset I am, I tend to keep a calm exterior. ____10. I

am an emotionally expressive person.

____11. I have strong emotions.

____12. I am sometimes unable to hide my feelings, even though I would like

to.

____13. Whenever I feel negative emotions, people can easily see

exactly what I am feeling.

____14. There have been times when I have not been able to stop crying
even though I tried to stop.

____15. I experience my emotions very strongly.

____16. What I'm feeling is written all over my face.

Scoring(take from http://psychology.stanford.edu/~psyphy/resources.html):

Items 3, 8, and 9 are reverse scored.

Items 3, 5, 8, 9, 13, 16 make up the Negative Emotionality facet
Items 1, 4, 6, 10 make up the Positive Emotionality facet Items
2, 7, 11, 12, 14, 15 make up the Impulse Strength facet.

Scoring is kept continuous. Researchers can either keep the 3 facets as

separate scores or can combine them together to form an overall
Emotional Expressivity scale.