INTRODUCTIONS AND ASSUMPTIONS

Torsion is the introduction to the problems of variable stress

Although the general theory of these problems are complex
its application consists of little more than substituting given
values in the formulas soon to be derived and is fairly
simple
The general technique used in all cases of nonuniform
stress distribution is outlined in these steps
 Determine the relations between stresses that are
compatible with the deformations produced by a specific
load plus the application of Hooke’s law Such relations
are known as the equations of compatibility
INTRODUCTIONS AND ASSUMPTIONS
% Obtain additional relations between the stresses by
applying the conditions of equilibrium to a freebody
diagram of a portion of the body These relations
resulting from a study of the equilibrium between
externally applied loads and the internal resisting forces
over an exploratory section are called equations of
equilibrium
' Be sure that the solution of the equations in steps  and
% is consistent with the loading conditions at the surface
of the body This is known as satisfying the boundary
conditions
INTRODUCTIONS AND ASSUMPTIONS
In deriving the torsion formulas we make the following
assumptions These assumptions may be proved
mathematically and some may be demonstrated
experimentally The first two apply only to shafts of circular
section
 Circular sections remain circular
% Plane sections remain plane and do not warp
' The projection upon a transverse section of straight
radial lines in the section remains straight
- Shaft is loaded by twisting couples in planes that are
perpendicular to the axis of the shaft
. Stresses do not exceed the proportional limit
DERIVATION OF TORSION FORMULAS
The figure below shows two views of a solid circular shaft If
a torque T is applied at the ends of the shaft a fiber AB on
the outside surface which is originally straight will be
twisted into a helix AC as the shaft is twisted through the
angle q This helix is formed as follows
DERIVATION OF TORSION FORMULAS
DERIVATION OF TORSION FORMULAS
Consider any internal fiber located a radial distance r from
the axis of the shaft The radius of such a fiber also rotates
through the angle q causing a total shearing deformation ds
equal to DE The length of this deformation is the arc of a
circle whose radius is r and which is subtended by the angle
q in radians0 the length is given by

ds 1 DE 1 rq 2a3

The unit deformation of this fiber is

 s 
   2b3
L L
DERIVATION OF TORSION FORMULAS
The shearing stress at this typical fiber is determined from
Hooke’s law to be
 G 
  G    2c3
 L 
Equation 2c3 may be called the equation of compatibility
since the stresses expressed by it are compatible with the
elastic deformation Note that each of the terms in the
parentheses in this equation is a constant that does not
depend on the particular internal fiber chosen for analysis0
the product of these terms represents a constant
DERIVATION OF TORSION FORMULAS
Therefore it is concluded that the shearing stress at any
internal fiber is determined by the product of a constant and
a variable radial distance0 that is the stress distribution along
any radius varies linearly with the radial distance from the
axis of the shaft
DERIVATION OF TORSION FORMULAS
A differential area of section MN at a radial distance r from
the axis of the shaft carries the differential resisting load
dP 1 t dA
DERIVATION OF TORSION FORMULAS
To satisfy the condition of static equilibrium we apply
SM16 or the fact that the applied torque T equals the
resisting torque Tr The resisting torque Tr is the sum of the
resisting torques developed by all differential loads dP

T  Tr   dP    (dA)

Replacing t by its value from Eq 2c3 gives

G

2
T  dA
L
DERIVATION OF TORSION FORMULAS
Or since ∫ rdA 1 J the polar moment of inertia of the
cross section
G
T J
L
This is usually written as
TL
 
JG
In SI units the angle q will be determined in radians if T is
expressed in Nm L in m J in m and G in N;m 2Pa3 In
US Customary Units q will be in radians if T is expressed in
lbin L in in J in in and G in psi
DERIVATION OF TORSION FORMULAS
By replacing the product Gq;L in Eq 2c3 by its equivalent
value T;J from the above equation we obtain
T

J
This is called the torsion formula
The formula that determines the maximum shearing stress is
a more common form of the torsion formula It is obtained
by replacing r by the radius r of the shaft
Tr
Max. 
J
DERIVATION OF TORSION FORMULAS
Note that since Hooke’s law was used in deriving these
equations the stresses must not exceed the shearing
proportional limit0 also these formulas are applicable only to
circular shafts either solid or hollow
The following equations are the modifications of the torsion
formula
2T 16T
Solid shaft Max.  3  3
r d
2TR 16TD
Hollow shaft Max.  4 4
 4 4
 (R  r )  (D  d )
DERIVATION OF TORSION FORMULAS
In many practical applications shafts are used to transmit
power From dynamics it is known that the power P
transmitted by a constant torque T rotating at a constant
angular speed w is given by
P 1 Tw
where w is measured in radians per unit time If the shaft is
rotating with a frequency of f revolutions per unit time w 1
%pf and we have
P 1 T%pf
DERIVATION OF TORSION FORMULAS
Thus the torque can be expressed as
P
T
2f

where In SI units with P in watts 2 W 1  Nm;s3 and f in

revolutions per second 2rps3 or hertz 2 Hz 1 ;s3 the
equation above will determine the torque T in Nm When
using the US Customary Units with P in lbin;s and f in
revolutions per second the above equation will calculate the
torque in lbin
A steel shaft ' ft long that has a diameter of - in is
subjected to a torque of . kipft Determine the maximum
shearing stress and the angle of twist Use G 1 %x6 psi
What is the minimum diameter of a solid steel shaft that will
not twist through more than ' in a @m length when
subjected to a torque of % kNmA What maximum shearing
stress is developedA Use G 1 B' GPa
Two solid shafts of different materials are rigidly fastened
together and attached to rigid supports as shown The
aluminum segment is ' in in diameter and GA 1 -x6 psi
The steel segment has a diameter of % in and GS 1 %x6
psi The torque T 1 6 kipin is applied at the junction of the
two segments Compute the maximum shearing stress
developed in the assembly
A shaft with a constant diameter of % in is loaded as shown
in the figure below by torques applied to gears fastened to it
If the modulus of rigidity G 1 %x6 psi compute in degrees
the relative angle of twist between gears A and D
A solid shaft in a rolling mill transmits %6 kW at % Hz
Determine the diameter of the shaft if the shearing stress is
not to exceed -6 MPa and the angle of twist is limited to @
in a length of ' m Use G 1 B' GPa
FLANGED BOLT COUPLINGS
A commonly used connection between two shafts is a
flanged bolt coupling It consists of flanges rigidly attached to
the ends of the shafts and bolted together as in below The
torque is transmitted by the shearing force P created in bolts
FLANGED BOLT COUPLINGS
Assuming that the stress is uniformly distributed the load in
any bolt is given by the simple stress equation of P 1 At and
equals 2pd;-3t It acts through the center of the bolt and
tangent to the bolt circle The torque resistance of one bolt is
PR where R is the radius of the bolt circle Therefore for
any number of bolts n the torque capacity of the coupling is
expressed by
d 2
T  PRn  Rn
4
FLANGED BOLT COUPLINGS
Occasionally a coupling has two concentric rows of bolts
Letting the subscript  refer to bolts on the outer circle and
subscript % refer to bolts on the inner circle the torque
capacity of the coupling is
T  P1 R1n1  P2 R2 n2
FLANGED BOLT COUPLINGS
The relation between P and P can be determined from the
fact that the comparatively rigid flanges cause shear
deformations in the bolts that are proportional to their radial
distance from the shaft axis Thus the shearing strains are
related by
1  2

R1 R2
Using Hooke’s law for shear G 1 t;g we have
1 2 P1 / A1 P2 / A2
 or 
G1 R1 G2 R2 G1 R1 G2 R2
FLANGED BOLT COUPLINGS
If the bolts on two circles have the same area A 1 A and
if the bolts are made of the same material G 1 G the
relation between P and P reduces
P1 P2

R1 R2
Using the relation between P and P the above equation
will determine the torque capacity of the coupling
A flanged bolt coupling consists of ten steel %6mm diameter
bolts spaced evenly around a bolt circle -66 mm in
diameter Determine the torque capacity of the coupling if the
allowable shearing stress in the bolts is -6 MPa
A flanged bolt coupling consists of eight 6mm diameter
steel bolts on a bolt circle -66 mm in diameter and six 6
mm diameter steel bolts on a concentric bolt circle of '66
mm in diameter as shown below What torque can be
applied without exceeding a shearing stress of @6 MPa in
the boltsA
In the preceding problem determine the number of 6mm
diameter steel bolts that must be used on the -66mm bolt
circle to increase the torque capacity to - kNm
In a rivet group subjected to a twisting couple T show that
the torsion formula t 1 Tr;J can be used to find the
shearing stress t at the center of any rivet Let J 1 S Ar
where A is the area of a rivet at the radial distance r from
the center of the rivet group
A plate is fastened to fixed member by four %6mm
diameter rivets arranged as shown Compute the maximum
and minimum shearing stress developed
The plate shown is fastened to the fixed member by five
6mm diameter rivets Compute the value of the load P so
that the average shearing stress in any rivet does not
exceed C6 MPa
HELICAL SPRINGS
The closecoiled helical spring in the figure below is
elongated by an axial load P The spring is composed of a
wire or round rod of diameter d wound into a helix of mean
radius R The helix angle is small so that any coil of the
spring may be considered as lying approximately in a plane
perpendicular to the axis of the spring
HELICAL SPRINGS
To determine the stresses produced by P we follow the
general procedure of passing an exploratory cutting plane m
n through any typical section as shown and then determining
the resisting forces required for equilibrium We then analyze
the stress distribution that creates these resisting forces
HELICAL SPRINGS
HELICAL SPRINGS
16 PR  d 
  3 
1 
d  4 R 

For heavy springs

16 PR  4 m  1 0.615  2R
  3 
  m
d  4 m  4 m  d

For light springs

16 PR  0.5 
 3 
1 
d  m 
HELICAL SPRINGS
Practically all the spring elongation measured along its axis
is caused by torsional deformation of the spring wire
3
64 PR n
  4
Gd
Determine the maximum shearing stress and elongation in a
helical steel spring composed of %6 turns of %6mm
diameter wire on a mean radius of D6 mm when the spring
is supporting a load of . kN Assume heavy spring and use
G 1 B' GPa
A rigid bar pinned at point O is supported by two identical
springs as shown Each spring consists of %6 turns of ¾ in
in diameter wire having a mean diameter of @ in Determine
the maximum load W that may be supported if the shearing
stress in the springs is limited to %6 ksi
Two steel springs arranged in series as shown
below support a load P The upper spring has
% turns of %.mm diameter wire on a mean
radius of 66 mm The lower springs consists
of 6 turns of %6mm diameter wire on a mean
radius of C. mm If the maximum shearing
stress in either spring must not exceed %66
MPa compute the maximum value of P and
the total elongation of the assembly Assume
heavy spring and G 1 B' GPa Compute the
equivalent spring constant by dividing the load
by the total elongation