Professional Documents
Culture Documents
AMHPmains
AMHPmains
AMHPmains
1. Architecture .............................................................................................................................................................. 2
2. Pottery..................................................................................................................................................................... 12
3. Indian Paintings ....................................................................................................................................................... 15
4. Classical and Folk Dances ........................................................................................................................................ 26
5. Classical and Folk Music .......................................................................................................................................... 30
6. Important Modern History Events Before 1857 ...................................................................................................... 34
7. Revolt of 1857 ......................................................................................................................................................... 42
8. Growth of Nationalism in India ............................................................................................................................... 45
9. Partition of Bengal (1905) ....................................................................................................................................... 49
10. Events led to Non-Cooperation Movement ....................................................................................................... 54
11. Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement:........................................................................................................ 56
12. Post NCM course of action and debate about the strategy ............................................................................... 57
13. Civil Disobedience Movement and Round Table Conferences........................................................................... 62
14. National Movement During World War I and II ................................................................................................. 67
15. Overall Impact of Britishers on Indian Society ................................................................................................... 72
16. Important Personalities...................................................................................................................................... 73
17. Post-Independence Consolidation and Reorganization within the Country ...................................................... 78
18. Issues Associated with Languages and Official Language .................................................................................. 83
19. Regionalism ........................................................................................................................................................ 86
20. Political Developments during Nehruvian Period .............................................................................................. 91
21. Naxalism ........................................................................................................................................................... 113
22. Indian Economy since Independence .............................................................................................................. 115
23. Educational and Scientific Developments in India since Independence .......................................................... 120
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Architecture
1. Architecture
Keywords from Aaj Ka Quality Enrichment (http://bit.ly/aaj-ka-enrichment)
The Ancient India encompassed a large area which incorporated present Pakistan, Afghanistan, Burma and parts of
Indo-China. It was flanked by the Himalayas on the North-East, the Hindukush on the North-West and the Arabian sea,
Indian ocean and the Bay of Bengal around the peninsula.
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• Examples: Stupa architecture of Andhra Pradesh, Stupas of Amrawati and Nagarjunikonda, both on river
Krishna, have box like projections on all the four cardinal directions
of the Stupa.
Sanchi Stupa (Madhya Pradesh)
• It features an upper and lower Pradakshinapatha.
• It showcases four beautifully decorated Toranas depicting events
from Buddha's life and the Jataka tales.
• The stupa's figure compositions display high relief with naturalistic
postures and prominent projection of heads
• The stupa's foundation was most likely set by Ashoka.
Amravati Stupa (Andhra Pradesh)
• Its surfaces were carved in the Bharhut style, but some
characteristics of the Mathura and Gandhara sculptures were also
adopted.
• It has carved panels narrating the story of the life of Buddha.
• Limestone with a white marble finish was utilised in the building.
Viharas
Vihara, etymologically meaning ‘dwelling place’ was meant for the Buddhist monks.
• The rock-cut vihara comprises of a central hall for worship and a few cells around it for the monks to live in. The
square or rectangular hall is entered through a rock-cut doorway and a pillared verandah.
• Hinayanist viharas are majorly found in the Western Ghats, at sites like Ajanta and Ellora.
• Hinayana viharas also include those at Bedsa, Kondane and Pitalkhora, and cave no. 3, 8 and 15 at Nasik. The
highly decorated facades, i.e., frontals as well as sculptural panels and friezes are the noteworthy elements of these
viharas.
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• Nalanda University: An ancient mahavihara in India, known from Xuan Zang's writings, founded in the 5th
century CE by Kumargupta I.
• Sirpur In Chhattisgarh: It is an early-Odisha style structure from the 550–800 era that has both Hindu and
Buddhist shrines.
• The most important and prominent architectures are the Hathi Gumpha cave with the inscriptions of Kalinga king
Kharavela of the Chedi tradition, the Rani Gumpha, Svargapuri and Manchapuri caves, Ganesa-Gumpha.
• The caves in Udayagiri especially the Rani and Ganesa Gumpha describe the Jaina legends, mythology and
iconography.
• The representation of Kalinga real figures can be witnessed in the Rani Gumpha and Manchapuri caves.
Ellora caves:
• Cave number 15 of Ellora belongs to the period of Rashtrakuta
Dantidurga.
Lord Shiva and Lord Vishnu are mostly represented in this
cave in many forms. This two-story building features a sizable
courtyard where a monolithic Nandi mandapa is located.
• Great Kailasa temple of Cave 16 at Ellora was carved under the
direction of Krsna I (CE 757-83), the successor of Dantidurga.
o The Kailasa temple is a magnificent example of rock-cut
architecture. It is a huge temple complex with walled
compound. It consists of the entrance gateway (mukha-
mandapa), the oblong (gopuram) with barrel-vault (sikhara),
Nandi Madapa and Garbha- grha. The temple is west facing and rests on a raised rectangular platform in east-
west direction.
• The history of rock cut architecture at Ellora is older than the arrival of the Rashtrakutas. Cave number 1 to 10
and Cave 21 belong to the period of the Kalacuris of Mahismati.
Ajanta Caves: They are collection of 29 rock-cut caves near the Waghora River in Maharashtra, developed between
200 BCE and 650 CE with Vakataka dynasty patronage for Buddhism.
Elephanta Caves: These Caves in Mumbai date back to the eighth century AD. The three-faced figure of Shiva is a
masterpiece, along with depictions of Ravana shaking Kailasa, Shiva and Parvati's marriage, the Tandava dance, and
Ardhanariswara.
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Temple Architecture
Evolution of Temples
• Architecture of temples have developed out of the types of
houses such as huts (Neolithic period) and different ground
plan such as round, square, rectangular, the apsidal and oval.
• This occurred in the reign of Sunga-Kusana, i.e., from 200 BCE
through CE 200.
• Influence of foreigners belonging to the ruling and business
classes can be seen in the architectural remains with
decorative elements excavated from Mathura.
Nagara Style Temples
Nagara style temples are the north Indian temples with curvilinear shikhara. They are majorly recognised as temples
built by Guptas, Chandelas, Odishan temples, temples of Rajasthan and Gujarat and temples of Rajput period.
Features:
• Tallest Tower: The tallest tower is always exactly beneath the garbhagriha.
• The installation of Amalaka or Kalash on Shikhara is a distinguishing element.
• Examples: Kandariya Mahadev Temple in Madhya Pradesh, Sun Temple in Konark and Sun Temple in Modhera,
Gujarat.
• A main Rekha-Prasad Shikara and one or more rows of smaller steeples are located on either side of the main
spire. Mini Shikaras are also present at the base and corners.
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of South Indian temples, which is typically formed like a tiny stupika or an octagonal cupola.
• Entrance: The entrance to the garbhagriha is adorned with fierce Dvarapalas, or the doorkeepers, guarding
the temple.
• Examples: Shiva temple of Thanjavu, Annamalaiyar Temple in Tiruvannamalai, Tamil Nadu, Meenakshi
temple in Tamil Nadu, Airavatesvara temple etc.
Vesara Temples
The most recognized of all the temples at Belur is the Cennakesava
temple built by the Hoyasala king Visnuvardhana in CE 1117.
Features:
• These temples stand in an enclosure with a usual garbha-grha
fronted by an antrala and a pillared mandapa known as
navaranga/gudha-mandapa.
• Some temples also have mukha-mandapa or sabha-mandapa.
• The navaranga are specially known for its “lantern ceilings”
because they have deep niches or domes constructed by means
of stone beams placed diagonally across the corner of the square.
The navaranga of the Amrtesvara temple has forty-eight domes
with carvings.
• Examples: Brahmadeva temple, Savadi, remarkable for being
entirely stellate; Mallikarjuna temple, Sudi (and Joda-kalasha
temple); Ramalingesvara temple, Gudur; Mahadeva temple,
Ittagi; Kasivisvesvara temple, Lakkundi (and several other
temples at Lakkundi);
• The crowning achievement of Chalukyan architecture is the
Virupaksha temple in Pattadakal, which was modelled after
Kailashnath temple.
Indo-Islamic Architecture
Indian architecture (1206-1761 C.E.) blended native and foreign influences under Muslim patronage.
Evolution of Indo-Islamic Architecture
Indo-Islamic architecture is categorized into three phases:
• Delhi or Imperial Style (1200-1500 AD) under dynasties like Slave, Khilji, Tughluq, and Lodi
• Provincial Style practiced by independent Subedars
• Mughal Style developed by Mughals representing the pinnacle of Indo-Islamic expression.
Stylish Evolution of Architecture
Indo-Islamic architecture began with the Turks' occupation of Delhi in 1192 AD.
• Qutbuddin Aibak captured Lal Kot and constructed a Jami Masjid (1198).
• Other structures like Qutab Minar (1199-1235), Arhai Din Ka Jhoupra (c. 1200), and Iltutmish's tomb (1233-4)
showcase Islamic details in decoration.
Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320 AD) introduced Seljuk architecture.
• Red sandstone was commonly used, seen in structures like Alai Darwaja and Siri Fort.
• 'Lotus-bud' fringe under arches, a Seljuk feature, appeared.
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Provincial Style
Features:
• They developed buildings in this style of architecture, which persisted for 250 years, using locally available
materials and fusing regional designs with conventional Muslim characteristics like domes, arches, minarets, and
mihrabs.
• They initially constructed on the remains of Hindu and Jain temples before creating their own architectural style.
Mughal Style
Features:
• The Mughal style was a thriving architectural movement in India from the middle of the 16th century until the
early 17th century.
• It is a distinctive fusion of Turkish, Persian, and Indo-Islamic design.
• The structures were excellent, strikingly symmetrical in form, homogeneous in pattern, and ornately decorated.
Types of Architecture
Forts:
• Building monumental forts with embattlements was a regular feature in medieval times, often symbolising the seat
of power of a king.
• Some examples of strong, complex edifices which still exercise the imagination of the visitor are the forts of Chittor,
Gwalior, Daulatabad, earlier known as Devgiri and Golconda. Commanding heights were utilised to great
advantage to construct forts.
• Daulatabad had several strategic devices to confound the enemy, such as staggered entrances so that gates could
not be opened even with the help of elephants.
➢ It also had twin forts, one within the other but at a higher elevation and accessed by a complex defence
design arrangement.
➢ The Gwalior Fort was invincible because its steep height made it impossible to scale. It had many
habitations and usages.
➢ An interesting aspect associated with forts is that within the palace complexes stylistic and decorative
influences were absorbed most liberally.
Minars:
In the subcontinent, another form of tower known as the minar was commonly
seen. Two remarkable minars from medieval times are the Qutub Minar in
Delhi and the Chand Minar at Daulatabad Fort.
Features:
• The everyday use of the minar was for the azaan or call to prayer.
• It’s phenomenal height, however, symbolised the might and power of
the ruler.
• The Qutub Minar also came to be associated with the much-revered
saint of Delhi, Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki.
➢ It is characterised by highly decorated balconies and bands of
inscriptions intertwined with foliated designs.
• Chand Minar, built in the fifteenth century, is a 210- feet-high
tapering tower divided into four storeys.
Painted peach now, its façade once boasted of chevron patterning
on the encaustic tile work and bold bands of Quranic verses.
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Tombs:
Monumental structures over graves of rulers and royalty were a popular feature of medieval India. Some well-known
examples of such tombs are those of Ghyasuddin Tughlaq, Humayun, Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanna in Delhi, Akbar
and Itmaduddaula in Agra.
• According to Anthony Welch, the idea behind the tomb was eternal paradise as a reward for the true believer on
the Day of Judgement.
• This led to the paradisiacal imagery for tomb construction.
• Beginning with the introduction of Quranic verses on the walls, the tomb was, subsequently, placed within
paradisiacal elements such as a garden or near a body of water or both, as is in the case of the Humayun’s tomb
and the Taj Mahal, which follows the charbagh style.
Sarai:
A hugely interesting feature of medieval India was the sarais which ringed cities
and dotted the vast space of the Indian subcontinent.
• Sarais were largely built on a simple square or rectangular plan and
were meant to provide temporary accommodation to Indian and
foreign travellers, pilgrims, merchants, traders, etc.
• In effect, sarais were public domains which thronged with people of
varied cultural backgrounds.
• This led to cross-cultural interaction, influences and syncretic
tendencies in the cultural mores of the times and at the level of the
people.
Modern Architecture
The Europeans came to India as traders and over gained power and established as rulers. They brought in the effects
of industrial revolution as well as the European architectural styles, In the early 20th century some Indian architects
also trained and adapted the European styles. Corbusier and Louis Kahn who were commissioned for projects in India
also influenced many architects in India and started a trend in Modem Architecture.
Evolution of Modern Architecture
Portuguese
Few places can rival the grandeur of the magnificent religious and secular works in Goa, which served as the prosperous
seat of the Portuguese in India from 1530 to 1835.
• Among the surviving churches, Church of the Holy spirit is most important.
• The Portuguese introduced Gothic and Baroque architecture in India.
• With its three floors and baroque design, the Basilica do Bom Jesus in Old Goa is reminiscent of late Renaissance
architecture.
• The large Golden Bell is housed at the Cathedral de Santa Catarina, which combines Tuscan and Corinthian
architectural elements.
• The Church of Saint Francis of Assisi, Convent of Santa Monica, Chapel of the Weeping Cross, Sanctuary of Saint
Joseph Vaz, and other religious buildings constructed during their rule also heavily use Portuguese architectural
elements.
• The Bandel Church, located on the banks of the River Hooghly in West Bengal, is another well-known Portuguese
structure in India.
French
• Numerous locations in India display Parisian architectural designs.
• French architecture utilised regionally-sourced materials and took local climatic factors into account.
• The French style included French shutter windows, carvings on archways, and thin street fronts.
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British
• The British officer wanted to implement the Palladian style in the 18th century. Constantia, a well-known example
of a structure in this style, was built by General Martin in Lucknow.
• A trend to incorporate the greatest features of Indian and Western architecture emerged in the 19th century.
• Example: It can be seen in the Moor Market in Chennai and the Museum in Jaipur.
• The Gateway of India in Mumbai was designed by G Wittet, who used a number of Mughal features.
Significance of Architecture
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o The AMASR Act was passed by the Parliament in 1958 for the purpose of protection and preservation of
archaeological and historical monuments and sites.
o It also provides for the regulation of archaeological excavations and for protection of sculptures, carvings
and other such objects.
o The original Act prohibits construction in an area of 100 metres around protected monuments, and the central
government can extend this area beyond 100 metres.
o The AMASR (Amendment) Bill passed by the Lok Sabha in 2017 allows the government to take up infrastructure
projects within prohibited areas around protected monuments
Conclusion
Indian art has existed from the beginning of civilization. Several structures are now well-known tourist attractions. India
has a long history of producing distinctive patterns and artwork. There have been various historical artefacts found on
the Indian subcontinent. The setting is therefore thought to be perfect for preserving historical artefacts.
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Pottery
2. Pottery
In the early villages of Mehrgarh, pottery from the Indus Valley Civilization (3300 BCE– 1500 BCE) has been found. In
India, this cultural art form is being actively practised today. In the study of culture and the reconstruction of the past,
pottery is important.
Evolution of Pottery
Neolithic Age
• Pottery or ceramic ware emerged in the Neolithic period and became more advanced in the post-Neolithic era,
spreading across the globe.
• The shaping of pots can be achieved through handmade or wheel-made techniques, while decorations and
paintings, ranging from geometric to naturalistic designs, can be applied before or after firing.
Chalcolithic Period
• Malwa ware: A characteristic pottery type of Malwa Chalcolithic culture. It is a wheel made pottery with buff or
cream slip and has painted patterns in dark brown or black colour.
• Painted Grey Ware (PGW): It is a characteristic pottery of early Iron Age in India, the other being NBP. This is
produced from well-levigated clay and on a fast wheel. A thin slip is applied on both surfaces and the vessels baked
at 600° C under reducing conditions producing the smooth ashy surface.
• Northern Black Polished ware (NBP): This is made on a fast wheel from well-levigated clay, well-baked with a
blackish-grey and occasionally reddish core, and is thin and sturdy. Its distinctive feature is its glossy surface with
mirror effect.
Iron Age
• Iron technology in South Asia including India is primarily associated with late prehistoric or early historic cultural
periods.
• Archaeologically, Painted Grey Ware culture of Northern India is considered as iron using group in the sub-
continent.
• In Northern India, Painted Grey Ware and Northern Black Polish were the earliest Iron Age cultures; at some sites,
a pre-Painted Grey Ware known as Black and Red ware is said to mark the beginning of Iron Age.
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• Mauryan Period: The ceramic wheel gained popularity. Ceramics from the Mauryan era come in a wide variety
of styles. The most sophisticated method, however, may be seen in a type of pottery called Northern Black
Polished Ware (NBP), which was well-liked in the earlier and early Mauryan times.
• Kushana Period: The Kushan cultural epoch in Bengal and North India brought about a new era in pottery. This
phase's pottery is characterised by a characteristic red polished ware with stamped design as well as a sizable
amount of dull or strong redware.
• Guptas Period: Remains of Gupta pottery found in Ahichchhatra, Rajgarh, Hastinapur, and Bashar are remarkable
examples of their ceramic prowess. The most recognisable style of pottery from this era is redware.
• Mughal and Rajput Period: Glazed pottery with Persian and Indian designs are found in Gujarat and Maharashtra
and date to the Sultanate era. Modern Jaipur's Blue Pottery is frequently regarded as a traditional Jaipur craft.
Importance of Pottery
• Cultural Importance: Pottery reveals past cultures. Historically, Style changes with distinct cultures. It reflects
social, economic and environmental conditions. Also, Helps understand history.
• Social Importance: Pottery provides insights into the use of fire, cooking, storage, and trade. It reflects the lifestyle
and settlement patterns of ancient societies. Pottery evolves into an artistic form of expression. It helps in
understanding social stratification and societal organization.It reveals the belief in gods and deaths.
Way Forward
• E-commerce: In addition, as the industry develops and receives more traction, leveraging e-commerce for online
visibility and operational efficiencies will show to be a crucial success factor.
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• Enhance conditions of craftsmen: The government has already made enormous achievements by enacting
policies that would make handcraft items competitive globally and enhance the conditions of our craftsmen,
notwithstanding the precarious state of artisans needing attentive interventions for their uplift.
Conclusion
In the study of culture and the reconstruction of the past, pottery is important. Pottery has changed over time in
response to various civilizations. It depicts the social, economic, and environmental circumstances in which civilization
arose and developed, assisting historians and archaeologists in understanding our past.
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Indian Paintings
3. Indian Paintings
Paintings
• Mural paintings in India have a diverse history spanning centuries.
• The earliest examples can be found in the Buddhist caves of the Satavahana
period (224 BC to 200 BC), depicting scenes from the life of Buddha and his jataka
stories.
• Similar murals from the Kushana period can be found in Central Asian caves.
• However, it was in the 4th century AD that mural paintings reached their zenith.
• Sites like Ajanta, Bagh, and Badami showcase remarkable murals from this
period.
Mural Paintings
Features
Indian mural paintings use dry technique and the features are:
• Ancient traditional murals were done using natural colours on lime-plastered walls.
• The murals used only five basic colours — ochre red, ochre yellow, green, black and white — which were made
using natural materials such as laterite, coal, patina and leaves.
• Material used: The brushes were made using grass and the fine hair in calves’ ears. Over time, when synthetic
paints came about, artists started doing murals in acrylic on canvas or paper.
Pallavas School
The Pallavas of Kanchi, an early South Indian dynasty, had Emperor Mahendravarman as their illustrious ruler. He was
an avid supporter of the arts and was known as Chitrakarapuli, or "the tiger among painters," for his generosity.
• The cave temple Sittanavasal near Tamil Nadu contains the Jaina paintings from his era.
• Later, during the early Pandya era, stunning figurative paintings were added to this cave.
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• The ruins of paintings at the Kailashnath Temple, Kanchi Temple, and Panamalai Temple speak of the existence of
the glorious Pallava art style. These artworks show the enduring influence of Ajanta in technique, materials, and
figure treatment.
Chalukya School
In the Deccan region, the Western Chalukyas succeeded the Vakatakas. It was a dynasty of great power. The well-known
kings of this dynasty were Vikramaditya, Mangalesha, Pulakesi, and Keertivarman.
• Their main city was Badarni.
• The Vaishnava cave, located in Cave 3, is the most magnificent and regal building.
• It is renowned for its towering sculptures of many manifestations of Vishnu, including Varaha, Trivikrama,
Narasimha, and Ananta Vishnu.
• A cave's inscription states that Mangalesha, the cave's patron and a Bhagata Dharma adherent, had the entire
cave decorated.
But the magnificent picture is currently just partially visible. Mangalesha is unmistakably depicted as a patron of the
painter's work in the incomplete paintings from Badami. A scene from the palace is depicted on a huge panel.
Rashtrakuta School
Rashtrakuta established their rule in Deccan after overthrowing the Badami Chalukyas.
• The Kailasa cave at Ellora, crafted in the 8th century, is a remarkable rock-cut structure.
• Ellora's mantapas (pillared halls) showcase paintings on walls and ceilings, depicting Shiva Purana themes, as well
as floral, animal, and bird designs.
• One iconic panel in Ellora portrays a dancing Shiva.
• The unique trait, which here became stylistic elements of Jain manuscript paintings in the 12th century CE, is the
odd placement of the eyes and the angular nose in three-quarter view. This is the last illustration of a mural painted
in the Ajanta style.
Cholas School
The painting tradition in Tamil Nadu flourished under the Pallava, Pandya, and Chola dynasties. The Pallava kings, who
succeeded the Chalukyas, patronized the arts. Mahendravarma I, a Pallava ruler in the seventh century, built temples
at Panamalai, Mandagapattu, and Kanchipuram. The Chola kings, who reigned from the ninth to the thirteenth
century, continued the tradition of temple construction and adorned them with carvings and paintings.
• Though Chola paintings are seen in Nartamalai, the most important are those in Brihadeswara temple.
• The paintings were executed on the walls of the narrow passage surrounding the shrine.
• Two layers of paintings were found when they were discovered.
o The upper layer was painted during the Nayak period, in the sixteenth century.
o The cleaning of the surface painting revealed the splendid tradition of Chola period paintings.
o The paintings show narrations and aspects related to Lord Shiva, Shiva in Kailash, Shiva as Tripurantaka,
Shiva as Nataraja, a portrait of the patron Rajaraja and his mentor Kuruvar, dancing figures, etc.
Vijayanagara Paintings
In the post-Ajanta visual arts scenario, the Badami Chalukyas, Pallavas of Kanchipuram and Chola kings patronised
mural paintings.
The Virupaksa temple's maharangamantapa is the Vijayanagara monument in Hampi with paintings that have
survived till date.
• The paintings occupy the large ceiling of the maharangamantapa.
• They are divided according to subjects in a rectangular compositional frame.
• The Trimurtis along with their spouses and retinue are depicted in an individual composition.
• The other important themes like Girija Kalyana, Tripura Samhara Shiva and Kama disturbing Shiva's penance are
composed in one row.
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Nayaka Paintings
• Tirumala Nayaka of Madurai built a new pillared hall adorned with exquisite murals, while Raghunatha Nayaka of
Tanjore oversaw impressive constructions.
• Paintings from Raghunatha Nayaka's era can be found in Tanjore, Tenkasai, Perur, and other places.
• These paintings showcase the fascinating way of life during that time, featuring intricate attire, adornments, and
other elements.
• They faithfully capture the characteristics of the Vijayanagara period, complemented by sculptural embellishments.
Kerela Paintings
• Kerela Paintings: “Kerala murals have a unique charm. Most of the murals in the old temples of Kerala were done
between the 15th and 19th centuries by unnamed artists.
o A 10 ft by 16 ft copper-covered cement relief of a mural painting welcomes visitors into Saju Thuruthil’s
3500 sq ft studio-cum-residential art gallery, Art and Mind, in North Paravur, near Kochi.
o The top half of the art work is a shiny, cheerful shade of copper and the other is dull, a muddy brown.
• Although the unique style was formed, many aspects of the Nayaka and Vijayanagara styles were included.
• The current Kathakali and Kalam Ezhuthu traditions served as inspiration for the artists.
• Three-dimensional human figures have been displayed in vivid and dazzling colours.
• Paintings in palaces as well as on the cloister walls of temples and shrines
Mural painting remains prevalent on interior and exterior walls of houses in villages and havelis across India. Women
often create these murals during ceremonies, festivals, or as part of routine wall cleaning and decoration. Some of the
traditional forms of murals are pithoro in parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat, Mithila painting in northern Bihar’s Mithila
region, warli paintings in Maharashtra, or simply paintings on the walls, be it in a village of Odisha or Bengal, Madhya
Pradesh or Chhattisgarh.
Miniature Paintings
As the name suggests, miniature paintings are colourful handmade paintings very
small in size. One of the outstanding features of these paintings is the intricate
brushwork which contributes to their unique identity.
Features:
• Colors derived from natural sources like vegetables, indigo, precious stones,
gold, and silver.
• Themes include Ragas (musical notes), religious, and mythological stories.
• Executed on small-scale materials like paper and cloth.
• Pioneered by the Palas of Bengal, reached its zenith during Mughal rule.
• Continued by artists of Rajasthani schools: Kishangarh, Bundi, Jaipur,
Mewar, Marwar.
History
• Miniature paintings originated in India around 750 A.D when the Palas ruled over the eastern part of India.
• They gained popularity due to their association with religious teachings and images of Buddha written on palm
leaves.
• As these paintings were done on palm leaves, they had to be miniature in nature because of space constraint.
• Around 960 A.D, similar paintings were introduced in the western parts of India by the rulers of the Chalukya
Dynasty. During this period, miniature paintings often portrayed religious themes.
• With the rise of the Mughal Empire, miniature paintings started growing on a level unknown before.
• Indian miniature paintings combined elements of Persian style of painting, to give rise to the Mughal style of
painting.
• These miniature paintings further evolved with the influence of European paintings in the Mughal court.
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Pala School
• Earliest Indian miniature paintings: Related to the Pala School dating back to the 8th century A.D. This school of
painting emphasized on the symbolic use of colours and the themes were often taken from the Buddhist tantric
rituals.
• Buddha and other deities were portrayed on palm leaves and often displayed in Buddhist monasteries.
• The use of lines with finesse and grace, the modelling of forms using subtle and expressive pressure variations,
the use of natural colours, etc. are all attributes of the Pala School.
Orissa School
• In the seventeenth century A.D., the Orissa School of miniature painting was founded.
• Even though paper was widely used in India during the 17th century, the Orissa School of miniature paintings
stayed true to its roots and continued to display this intricate art form on palm leaves.
• The Radha and Krishna love story were portrayed in the majority of the paintings.
Jain School
• The Jain School of painting, one of the first miniature painting schools in India, rose to popularity in the 11th
century A.D. when holy books like the "Kalpa Sutra" and "Kalkacharya Katha" were depicted as miniature
paintings.
• Jain School presented its artwork on palm leaves, just like other schools of miniature paintings, but they began
employing paper in the latter half of the 12th century.
• To illustrate the story, natural colours like gold and silver were used.
• These paintings have unique characteristics such depicting magnified eyes, square-shaped hands, and
fashionable people.
Mughal School
• The Mughal School of miniature painting emerged from the fusion of Indian and Persian miniature art.
• It's interesting to note how heavily Chinese paintings impacted Persian miniature art.
• In particular during Akbar's rule, the Mughal style of painting flourished from the 16th through the 18th
centuries.
• These paintings frequently depicted scenes from the royal court, hunting expeditions, wild life, and conflicts.
• Realistic depictions of plants and trees may be seen in the paintings' richly designed frames.
• The Mughal Emperors valued miniature painting so highly that numerous well-known artists were asked to create
a variety of works of art.
• Hindu painters were also influenced by the Mughal style of painting and created miniatures of the Ramayana
and the Mahabharata.
Rajasthani School
• The Rajasthani School of painting includes the Mewar School, Marwar School, Hadoti School, Dhundar School,
Kangra School, and Kullu School of art.
• The Rajput emperors had the same passion of art as the Mughal Emperors and supported miniature paintings.
• Rajasthani miniature paintings frequently showed the legacies of current and previous rulers, in addition to stories
from the Ramayana and the royal lifestyle of kings and queens.
• Additionally, they illustrated societal norms and the modifications made by rulers to advance society.
• A distinctive aspect of the Rajasthani school was the background of the paintings. The colours employed were
frequently strong and jarring.
• Natural colours derived from plants, minerals, shells, precious stones, gold, and silver were employed.
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Kangra school
The Kangra school's lyrical attractiveness had fully formed by 1770. It peaked in the first several years of the rule of
Raja Sansar Chand (1775–1823), one of its most significant benefactors.
• The school had numerous unique idioms and covered the entire Himalayan foothill region, not just the Kangra
state.
• The most prevalent theme in the paintings is the life and loves of Krishna as they are described in the literary
works the Bhagavata-Purana and the Gitagovinda, along with other Hindu stories, hero-heroine relationships.
Mughal Paintings
Mughal painting is a type of paper painting that is only used for miniatures, either as book illustrations or as solo
pieces to be stored in albums (muraqqa), and originates from the South Asian region
that was once home to the Mughal Empire.
• It originated in the 16th to 18th centuries at the court of the Mughal Empire
from Persian miniature painting, which was partly Chinese in origin.
• Subjects included battles, legends, hunting scenes, animals, royal life, and
mythology.
• The art gained popularity among kings for its regal appeal and as a means to
showcase their valour and achievements.
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• Other well-known works that Akbar ordered include "Gulistan," "Darab Nama," "Khamsa of Nizami,"
"Baharistan," etc.
o Saadi Shirazi's masterpiece, "Gulistan," was produced at Fatehpur Sikri.
o More than a hundred painters were employed by Akbar between 1570 and 1585 to practise Mughal
painting at his court.
Jahangir
Under his rule, the Mughal painting grew more and more. Jahangir instructed his painters to utilise the single point
perspective used by European painters since he had been heavily influenced by European painting.
• His "Jahangirnama" endeavour was one of the more significant ones. It was Jahangir's autobiography, and it was
made up of a number of paintings with strange subjects like spider wars.
• They also created several solo portraits of Jahangir.
• He also commissioned a great deal of realistic paintings of flowers, animals, and birds.
• Overall, under Jahangir's administration, Mughal painting flourished and continued to change.
Shahjahan
He bought a lot of paintings that were intended for his own collection. These paintings were based on beautiful visual
subjects like gardens and photographs. He also commissioned a lot of pieces that showed lovers in intimate
circumstances.
One of the remarkable works created during his rule was the "Padshanama."
• This opulent piece featured lavish gold plating, giving it a grand appearance.
• The "Padshanama" chronicled the achievements of the monarch and included paintings of courtiers and household
staff.
• Even the maids were depicted with meticulous detail, showcasing their unique personalities within the artwork.
Muhammad Shah
Muhammad Shah was a lover of the arts, and as a result, Mughal painting saw a brief renaissance during his rule.
• He promoted painting, and two of the best painters of the day, Nidha Mal and Chitarman, served in his court.
• Their paintings frequently included scenes from the royal court, festivities, festivals, the king's hunting
expeditions, and daring activities like hawking.
Rajput Paintings
During the late 16th and early 17th centuries A.D., the royal state of Rajasthan played a crucial role in the development
of the distinctive Rajput Paintings art form. As the Mughals held sway over most of the princely states in Rajasthan, a
significant Mughal influence is evident in Rajput paintings. Every Rajput Kingdom has many parallels and differences
because to its evolution into separate styles.
• Rajput paintings from India were also painted on the interior walls of palaces, havelis, and forts. The painting's
colours came from several sources, including minerals, plants, conch shells, precious stones, gold, and silver.
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• Raja Rai Singh drew heavily on Mughal art and combined it with the Rajput
artistic flair. Various scenes from the Bhagavata Purana, Rasa Lila, and
Ragamala have been painted.
Bundi School
• The Mughal art form had a significant influence on the Rajput Paintings, which
began to emerge in Bundi at the end of the 16th century.
• The Bundi School of Rajput Paintings is most characterised by Rao Ratan Singh
(1607–1631), and his wall paintings.
• Along with this, there are instances by Bhao Singh (1658-1681) and Rao Chattar
SaI (1631-1658), whose works place the highest emphasis on court scenes.
• Along with this, the lives of lovers, ladies, and nobility were among the other
themes that were utilised.
Kota School
• The calligraphic style used in Kota paintings makes them appear incredibly
natural.
• During Jagat Singh's rule (1658–1684), vivid colours and strong lines were
frequently used in portraiture.
• After Arjun Singh (1720–1723), guys with large hooked noses began to
appear in the paintings.
• Hunting scenes, Ragamalas, and portraits as topics were also popular in the
18th century.
Kishangarh
• Painting in the Kishangarh style was essentially a blend of Mughal and local
styles.
• The portrayal of the love between Krishna and Radha was the style's most
prevalent subject.
• Other well-liked themes included Shahnama, court scenes, and Sawant Singh's
poetry.
• The paintings of Bani Thani indeed contribute to the fame of the Kishangarh
School of Painting.
Marwar
• The darbar scenes and portraits of aristocrats mounted on horses were the two
most prevalent topics in the 18th century.
• The Mughals began to have an impact on Marwar Paintings with the
entrance of artists like Dalchand.
• Paintings produced by the royal families of Jodhpur, Nagaur, Pali, Ghaerao,
Kishangarh, and Bikaner are considered part of the Marwar School of
Painting.
Malwa
• Was influenced by the Chaurpanchasika style.
• Bold lines and hues were strongly emphasised in the painting.
• Additionally, there is a faint Mughal influence in the paintings.
• Widespread use is made of dark backdrops like black and chocolate
brown, rigidly flat compositions, vibrantly coloured structures, etc.
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Pahari Paintings
• Pahari Schools of Painting includes towns, such as Basohli, Guler, Kangra, Kullu, Chamba, Mankot, Nurpur, Mandi,
Bilaspur, Jammu and others in the hills of western Himalayas, which emerged as centres of painting from
seventeenth to nineteenth century.
• Beginning at Basohli with a coarsely flamboyant style, it blossomed into the most exquisite and sophisticated style
of Indian painting known as the Kangra School, through the Guler or pre-Kangra phase.
• Themes that included recording the daily routine or important occasions from the lives of kings, creation of new
prototype for female form and an idealised face.
History
• New topics for Indian Pahari paintings were put into practise with the rise of the Bhakti movement.
• Argot poetry and Rama and Krishna folk songs were added to the Shaiva-Shakta themes.
• The artworks' themes also included love and devotion at the same time.
• Great epics, puranas, and other texts were illustrated as well.
• Devi Mahatmya manuscript's representation, which was painted in Kangra in 1552, has received widespread
praise.
Guler school
The first quarter of the eighteenth century saw a complete transformation in the Basohli
style, initiating the Guler–Kangra phase. Usually, referred to as the pre–Kangra or Guler–
Kangra kalam.
• The treatment of the eyes and the modelling of the face were different, giving the
picture a more realistic appearance.
• Landscapes were frequently employed as themes. In addition, this fashion
highlighted the grace and refinement of Indian women.
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Kangra School
Painting in the Kangra region blossomed under the patronage of a remarkable ruler, Raja
Sansar Chand (1775–1823).
• The Kangra style is by far the most poetic and lyrical of Indian styles marked with
serene beauty and delicacy of execution.
• Features of the Kangra style are delicacy of line, brilliance of colour and minuteness
of decorative details.
• Distinctive is the delineation of the female face, with straight nose in line with the
forehead, which came in vogue around the 1790s.
• Most popular themes that were painted were the Bhagvata Purana, Gita Govinda,
Nala Damayanti, Bihari Satsai, Ragamala and Baramasa.
• The series of Bhagvata Purana paintings is one of the greatest achievements of Kangra
artists.
Pithora Paintings
• This is the most prevalent and characteristic art tradition of the Rathwa community, who live in the region
bordering Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh states in India.
• While the styles vary with every Bhil group, they hold a deep social relevance.
Features:
• Seven Horses: Pithora paintings are characterized by the seven horses
representing the seven hills that surround the area where the Rathwas reside.
• Rectangle fence: This is enclosed within a rectangular fence in the painting that
defines this geographical area.
• Rectangle shape directions: This rectangle usually extends up to the Arabian
Sea in the west, Bharuch in south and Indore in north and east.
• River: The wavy line depicting the river Narmada cuts through the painting.
• Map: Things like fields, trees, farms, wild life, birds, sun and moon are present
in their relative positions in the map along with people and their ancestors.
• Modern Elements: Even modern elements like railway tracks, aeroplanes, and
computers feature in the paintings.
• Considered as God: Pithora is considered as God by Rathawa tribe because he identified his father right after
seeing him for the first time.
• Sacred: Pithora paintings are sometimes considered very sacred.
o The Rathwas consult the village Tantrik (witch doctor) to heal illnesses and undo bad omens. If a wish made to
“Baba Pithora” is granted, a Pithora painting has to be made in the main wall of the house, in consultation
with the Tantrik.
Rogan Paintings
This craft is a form of surface embellishment and practiced for over hundred years, but now by only a single family in
Nirona, Kachchh. The Persian term for "oil" is "rogan." It first arrived in Kutch some 300 years ago, having its roots in
Persia. The Khatris of Gujarat's Nirona Village are the only Muslim family that engage in this uncommon trade.
• A special paste made of castor is used in this craft.
• Castor seeds are hand-pounded to extract the oil and turned into a paste by boiling, Coloured powder diluted in
water is then mixed with this.
• The pastes of different colours yellow, red, blue, green, black and orange are stored in earthen-pots with water
to prevent them from drying up.
• The kalam, an iron rod, flat at both ends, is used to paint half the design with the support of the fingers of the left
hand.
• It is then impressed on the other half of the cloth by pressing the two halves together.
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• As they were inexpensive substitutes for embroidered textiles, they were popular alternative textiles for
clothing.
• Today, cushion covers, bed spreads, skirts, kurtas, curtains, tablecloths and wall hangings are painted using this
technique.
• Generally, geometrical motifs are preferred; motifs from nature such as tree-of-life are very popular for wall
hangings.
Pattachitra Paintings
Pattachitra evolved from Sanskrit. When broken down into its two parts, Patta means cloth, and Chitra means picture.
Hence, Pattachitra is a picture painted on a piece of cloth. This form of art is closely related to the cult of Shri
Jagannath and the temple traditions in Puri.
Believed to have originated as early as the 12th century, it is one of
the most popular living art forms, and people in Odisha practice it to
this day.
• Initial stage: A gauze-like fine cotton cloth is coated with white
stone powder and gum made out of tamarind seeds.
o This makes the canvass ready to accept the paint, made of
natural colors.
• Ingredient: The distinct characteristic of Pattachitra is its colours. The main component is kaitha tree gum, which
is used as a basis to create other colours by combining it with readily available raw materials.
• Some of the popular themes of this religious art are The Badhia (a depiction of the temple of Jagannath); Krishna
Lila (an enactment of Jagannath as Lord Krishna displaying his powers as a child); Dasabatara Patti (the ten
incarnations of Lord Vishnu); and Panchamukhi (a depiction of Lord Ganesh as a five-headed deity).
• Border of painting: A floral border is a must around the paintings, and so is the use of natural colors.
• After Completion: Following completion of a painting, the canvas is held over a charcoal fire and lacquer is applied
to the surface.
Importance of Paintings
Social Importance of Paintings
Governments utilise theatre, movies, music, sculptures, and murals as propaganda to sway public opinion and create
public awareness campaigns.
• Against Social Evils: The Government of India often uses murals and paintings to discourage open defecation,
foeticide, tree felling and other societal ills.
• Significant Impact: Historical events are frequently brought to life through art, as shown in films like Schindler's
List, The Pianist, Border, Lagaan, and many others.
• Respect: Art was used to pay homage to and show respect for the educated class.
• Journey through different eras: Through the use of artistic and literary works, we are able to journey through
time, space, and culture, visiting eras and locations that are hundreds of years and kilometres away.
• Religious myths: In the earlier period paintings were mostly concerned with religious myths though society was
also amply presented.
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Conclusion
India's diverse art and craftsmanship showcase rich cultural heritage. Different painting styles symbolize customs and
ideologies, each with distinct beauty. Created with natural dyes, these artworks evoke awe and respect, transporting
viewers to the past.
Significance:
The petroglyphs in the Konkan region of India hold significant relevance for several reasons:
• Ecological: Depicting rhinoceroses and hippopotami suggests a different past ecological makeup of the region.
• Cultural: Detailed and life-sized carvings indicate a rich cultural and artistic tradition.
• Religious: Concentration of religious art during the medieval period implies a possible spiritual significance.
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Classical Dances
Indian classical dancing emerged in India around 200 BCE, characterized by its joyful and celebratory nature. It often
serves as a form of devotion to Hindu deities, with performances intricately choreographed to depict historical events
and mythological tales. The various forms of Indian classical dance are known for their energetic movements,
expressive gestures, and spiritual significance. These dance performances are commonly showcased at festivals,
colleges, cultural events, and other venues, serving as a vibrant expression of India's rich cultural heritage.
In India, there are eight officially recognized classical dance forms as identified by the Sangeet Natak Akademi, the
primary organization for the preservation of Indian arts. These include Bharatanatyam, Kathak, Kuchipudi, Odissi,
Kathakali, Sattriya, Manipuri, and Mohiniyattam.
o Additionally, the Indian Ministry of Culture recognizes Chhau as a classical dance form, bringing the total to
nine recognized styles.
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o Notable dancers: Sitara Devi, Rohini Bhate, Maya Rao, Mandvi Singh, Shama Bhate, Shovana Narayan, Achhan
Maharaj, Shambhu Maharaj, Gopi Krishna, Pandit Birju Maharaj, Pandit Rajendra Gangani.
Kathakali (Kerela)
Kathakali dramatises stories, many of which are taken directly from Indian epics. It
combines dance, music, and acting.
• Makeup: The employment of heavy makeup and beautiful costumes is common.
• Features: With specific makeup and costumes, the dancers play the parts of the
stories—kings, gods, demons, etc.—while the vocalists tell the legend and the
percussionists play the instruments.
• Facial colours: Different facial colours denote various mental states and character
traits, such as green for nobility, black for wickedness, and red patches for a
combination of royal nobility and evil.
• Kerala Kalamandalam: The primary hub for Kathakali artists is Kerala Kalamandalam.
• Dance style similarities: Kathakali shares similarities with other dance forms like the Japanese "Noh" and "Kabuki."
• Famous artists: Notable Kathakali artists include Ramankutty Nair and Kalamandalam Gopi.
Mohiniattam (Kerela)
The traditional solo dancing style of Kerala is called Mohiniyattam, or the dance of Mohini (a
form of Lord Vishnu).
• References: Vyavaharamala (1709) by Mazhamagalam Narayanan Namputiri and
Ghoshayatra by poet Kunjan Nambiar mention Mohiniyattam.
• Characteristics: Delicate, lyrical, and graceful dance style.
• Comparison: Shares grace and beauty with Bharatanatyam.
• Revival: Kerala's prohibition on temple dancing was lifted in 1930 with the support of
nationalist Malayalam poet Vallathol Narayan Menon, who also founded the Kerala
Kalmandalam dance academy and encouraged its instruction and practise.
Manipuri (Manipur)
The Manipuri dance form is named after its region of origin, 'Manipur'. This dance form is also known as ‘Jogai’.
• Manipuri typically portrays the love between Radha and Krishna through Raaslila in the form of a dance-drama
on devotional tunes.
• Manipuri is a synthesis of South-East Asian and Indian cultures.
• Tandav or Lasya are two categories for the Manipuri dance style.
• Costumes: The female dancers dress in elaborate barrel-shaped drum-like long stiff skirts that are embellished
from top to bottom. A traditional veil is worn over hair that drapes beautifully over the face, which is covered by
a dark-colored velvet top.
• Famous Artists: Guru Bipin Sinha and Nirmala Mehta
• Revival or recent development: Manipuri dance instruction is offered by a number of commercial institutions as
well as a select number of government-sponsored facilities.
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o The most notable of these is the Jawaharlal Nehru Manipuri Dance Academy in Imphal, which is a
part of the Delhi-based Sangeet Natak Academy.
Odissi (Odisha)
Sensuous and lyrical, Odissi is a dance of love and passion touching on the divine
and the human, the sublime and the mundane.
• The Natya Shastra mentions many regional varieties, such as the south-
eastern style known as the Odhra Magadha which can be identified as the
earliest precursor of present day Odissi.
• This Bhakti-inspired dancing style was once performed at Jagannath
temples as a means of worship to God. Thus, inside the temple, one
discovers numerous sculptures in various dance poses.
• Feature: A gentle dance with calming lyrics that shares mudras and facial
gestures with Bharatanatyam.
• Famous Artists: Sonal Mansingh and Kelucharan Mohapatra.
Sattriya (Assam)
This dance was created by Assamese Vaishnava saint and reformer
Sankaradeva for Vaishnava religion in 15th century A.D.
• Name and Affiliation: Name Sattriya due to its religious nature and
affiliation with the Sattras.
• Themes: Performances center around Radha-Krishna and mythology.
• Revival: Transitioned to contemporary stage in 20th century. It gained
support inside and outside India.
• Sattriya Kendra Guwahati, an affiliate of Sangeet Natak Akademi:
Founded to support and preserve Sattriya.
Chhau (Odisha)
The Chhau is a synthesis of martial, tribal, and folk arts. The name "Chhau"
comes from the Sanskrit word "Chaaya," which means "shadow," "image,"
or "mask." Additionally, Sitakanta Mahapatra claims that the word "Chhau"
is derived from the Odia word "Chhauni" (Military Camp).
• Performed traditionally by male-only troupes.
• Themes: Vaishnavism, Shaivism, shaktism
• Revival: Chhau was included on the Representative List of the Intangible
Cultural Heritage of Humanity maintained by UNESCO in 2010.
o Government Chhau Centre was established in Seraikella in
1960, and Myurbhanj Chhau Nritya Pratishthan was founded in
Baripada in 1962.
o In Baripada, Odisha, the Sangeet Natak Academy founded the
National Centre for Chhau Dance.
Folk Dances
Indian folk dances are traditional, celebratory, and expressive. They are performed globally for social events like
weddings, festivals, and seasons. Both genders participate, often with musicians playing as dancers sing. Elaborate
clothing is common. There are numerous structured, old-fashioned folk and tribal dances, but many more are
developing right now.
Indian folk dances, with their elaborate costumes and jewellery, form an integral part of the country's cultural heritage.
Among them is Dumhal, a traditional dance from Kashmir, and Ras lila, performed during Janmashtami festivals.
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Indian Music
Music is the soul of any culture, and India boasts a rich history of innovative music. According to legend, Narada Muni
introduced music to the world. Evidence of a seven-holed flute from the Indus Valley Civilization signifies its ancient
presence. The Sama Veda and Gandharva Veda, further emphasize music's spiritual significance and scientific aspects.
• The Gandharva Veda, or the science of music, is an Upaveda of the Sama Veda.
History
• It is generally accepted that the religious practises of the Aryan people, who came in India around 3,000 years
ago, are where the roots of Indian classical music may be found.
• The Vedas, which literally translates as "knowledge," are the foundational writings of ancient Hindu scriptures
that the Aryans brought with them. Their worship ceremonies essentially revolved upon the well planned and
ordered recital of these lines.
• Hindu temple recitation shaped music's genesis.
• The appearance of North Indian music was altered by the introduction of Islamic and Persian components. For
instance, by the 15th century, the Dhruvapad or devotional style had evolved into the Dhrupad style.
Dhrupad
• One of Hindustani classical music's oldest and most opulent genres.
• It has reference in Natyashastra (c. 200 BC–c. 200 AD).
• Reached its pinnacle in the court of Akbar, the Mughal emperor.
• Tansen, along with other renowned musicians like Swami Haridas and Baba Gopal Das, were employed and
supported by Akbar. Tansen is regarded as one of the Navaratna or nine diamonds of the Mughal court.
Khayal
• This fashion industry's inception was credited to Amir Khusrau.
• It is used by artists because it allows for more room for improvisation.
• Based on a collection of brief songs with two to eight lines, it is also known as a "Bandish."
• Khayal also features a brief narrative and is composed in a certain raga and tala.
• Major Gharanas: Bhendibazaar Gharana, Gwalior, Kirana, Patiala, Agra
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Tarana Style
• The rhythm of this technique is highly important.
• The melody serves as the structure.
• It has a lengthy vocabulary and is sung quickly.
• The singers must have particular training and expertise in manipulating rhythms because it concentrates on
producing rhythmic concerns.
• Amir Khusro (13th–14th century) created it, and Guru Gobind Singh (10th Sikh Guru) incorporated it into his
works.
2. Carnatic Music
• The Sanskrit word Karnâtaka Sangîtam, which refers to "traditional" or "codified" music, is whence Carnatic music
gets its name.
• It has a long history and tradition and is made up of a system of Ragam (Raga) and Thalam (Tala).
• Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka are south Indian states where Carnatic Sangeet has
flourished. These states are renowned for giving the Dravidian culture a powerful portrayal.
Folk Music
Every State has a distinct musical style that is built on the cultural affirmation of its residents. The folk tradition has no
set rules; it is the music of the people.
State Music
Bengal Baul
Jammu & Kashmir Wanawan
Madhya Pradesh Alha & pai
Rajasthan Panihari
Maharashtra & Goa Ovi
Rajasthan Maand
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Recent Developments
Classical art forms hold significant cultural capital, attracting the socio-cultural elite and signifying social status.
• SPIC MACAY, founded in 1977, promotes classical arts alongside other forms, emphasizing yoga and meditation.
• Youth Association for Classical Music: It is an initiative in Chennai that focused on providing a performance
platform for artists below the age of 30 and taking Carnatic music to school children.
• Various organizations now aim to engage the youth using updated technology.
• However, classical music faces challenges rooted in its intimidating culture:
o Everyone invested in these musical forms refuses to look within and reflect on how the culture we exude
is intimidating and fear inducing.
o Caste and class overflow in every activity associated with classical music.
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• Lavani became well known outside Maharashtra — throughout India and even outside the country — following
its use in popular media such as cinema.
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Later Mughals
Succession crisis, Weak rulers, Power struggles, Regional fragmentation, Financial instability, Lack of effective
leadership, Expansion of British influence
• Aurangzeb's Reign (1658-1707): Aurangzeb was the last powerful Mughal ruler.
• Succession Crisis: Following Aurangzeb's death in 1707, a succession crisis ensued among his sons, leading to a
series of conflicts and power struggles. Weak rulers and infighting weakened the central authority of the Mughal
Empire.
• Regional Fragmentation: As the Mughal central authority weakened, regional governors (subadars) and local rulers
began asserting their independence.
• Decline and Disintegration: The later Mughal emperors faced constant invasions and conflicts with regional
powers, including the Marathas, Sikhs, and Afghans. The empire's financial instability, administrative corruption,
and lack of effective leadership contributed to its decline.
• British Intervention: The British East India Company took advantage of the weakened Mughal Empire and gradually
expanded its influence and control over parts of India.
Arrival of Europeans
• In 1600, the East India Company obtained a charter granting it a monopoly on trade with the East.
• Despite competition from other European powers, including the Portuguese and Dutch, the Company ventured
into the Indian Ocean.
• By the early seventeenth century, the Dutch too were exploring the possibilities of trade in the Indian Ocean.
• Soon the French traders arrived on the scene.
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Interesting Facts:
Portuguese Arrival:
• Vasco da Gama reached Calicut in 1498 AD but the political rise of Portuguese and East started with Albuquerque
as governor.
• They issued licenses known as Cartazes for the eastern trade.
Anglo-French Rivalry
• Economic Competition: British and French competed for control over lucrative trade routes and resources,
including textiles and spices.
• Political Influence: Both powers sought alliances with Indian rulers to gain political leverage and secure their
interests.
• Colonial Ambitions: The British East India Company and French East India Company aimed to establish colonial
dominance in India.
• Military Conflicts: Battles like the Carnatic Wars and the Seven Years' War witnessed direct clashes between British
and French forces.
• Support to Indian Allies: Both sides supported rival Indian rulers, using them as proxies in their struggle for
supremacy.
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Autonomous governance, Rebels, Diversified political power, Independent states, Destabilization of imperial control
The trend of making independent authority is clearly visible in different regions whether directly under the Mughals
or not in the first half of the 18th century. The states that emerged during this period can be classified into three broad
categories:
• The states which broke away from the Mughal Empire:
o Example: Awadh, Bengal, Hyderabad
o Autonomous governance within Mughal framework.
• The new states set up by the rebels against the Mughals:
o The 'new states' emerged in protest against the Mughals.
o They include the Marathas, Punjab, and the Jat State.
o These states challenged Mughal authority and diversified political power in India.
• Independent states:
o They emerged primarily due to the destabilization of imperial control.
o These included the kingdoms of Mysore, the Rajputs, and Kerala.
Puppet ruler, Company's confrontation, Company's triumph, Sponsored and plundered state, Misuse of trading
privileges, Weakening of Mughal Empire's authority, Black Hole Tragedy
• In 1756, Sirajuddaulah becomes Nawab of Bengal.
• The Company seeks a puppet ruler but fails.
• Sirajuddaulah confronts the Company, captures
officials, and blockades ships.
• Robert Clive leads Company's forces to defeat
Sirajuddaulah at Plassey in 1757.
• Mir Jafar's support aids in victory.
• First major Company triumph in India.
Consequences:
o Bengal became a sponsored and plundered state.
o East India company became capable of deciding the fate of incumbents i.e., puppet nawabs.
o Misuse of trading privileges.
o Weakening of Mughal Empire's authority in Bengal.
o Mir Jafar was proclaimed as the Nawab of Bengal by Clive but was soon replaced by Mir Kasim as the new
Nawab of Bengal.
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Interesting Facts:
The Black Hole Tragedy (June 20, 1756) in Calcutta:
• After the capture of Calcutta by Nawab Sirajuddaulah of Bengal, a large number of British prisoners were
allegedly confined overnight in a small prison cell known as the "Black Hole." The cell had limited space and
inadequate ventilation, resulting in the deaths of many prisoners due to suffocation and heat exhaustion.
Treaty of Allahabad, Puppet nawabs, Diwani rights, British territory expansion, Economic exploitation, Company's
changing approach
It took place between the forces of the British East India Company, led by Hector Munro, and a coalition of Indian rulers
comprising the Nawab of Bengal, the Nawab of Awadh, and the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II in which the coalition
was defeated. The war led to Treaty of Allahabad in 1765.
Interesting Facts:
• By the time Mir Jafar died in 1765, the mood of the Company had changed.
• Having failed to work with puppet nawabs, Clive declared: “We must indeed become nawabs ourselves”.
Threat to British interests, Alliance, Battle of Seringapatam, Subsidiary alliance, Treaty of Seringapatam, Influence
over strategic territories, Third Battle of Panipat, Maratha Confederacy, Treaty of Salbai
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Interesting Facts:
Treaty of Seringapatam (1792):
• Agreement signed between the British East India Company and Tipu Sultan.
• The treaty followed the Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-1792).
• It resulted in the cession of territories by Tipu Sultan, payment of war reparations, the alliance with the British,
surrender of weapons, and British control over the Malabar region.
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Impact of British Rule on India: Economic, Social and Cultural (1757-1857 and beyond):
Land Revenue Policy and Settlements, Commercialization of Agriculture, Drain of Wealth, Rise of New Money-
lending Class, Rise of New Middle Class, Deindustrialisation of traditional industries, Impact of Modern Ideas,
Reform Movements and Radical, Revivalist, Reformist movements
Economic:
• Textile Industry and Trade:
o Massive import of machine-made clothes from England to India.
o British goods sold at lower prices, causing threat to Indian handicrafts.
o India became importer of British clothes, exporter of raw cotton.
o Indian handloom industry collapsed, leading to unemployment and rural pressure.
• Land Revenue Policy and Settlements:
o British increased land revenue to finance their policies and administration.
o Different land revenue experiments caused hardship to cultivators.
o Permanent, Mahalwari, and Ryotwari settlements introduced.
• Commercialization of Agriculture:
o Introduction of commercial crops for British trade.
o British controlled opium and indigo markets, limited profit for Indian producers.
o Tea plantations brought hardships for workers.
o Commercialization increased transfer of land ownership and exploitation.
• Drain of Wealth: Taxes, trade profits, and salaries benefited the East India Company and British Empire.
• Rise of New Money-lending Class: Moneylenders exploited peasants, leading to transfer of land ownership.
• Rise of New Middle Class:
o British commercial interests created opportunities for a new elite.
o Landed aristocracy and professionals emerged.
o Spread of British power created job opportunities.
• Transport and Communication:
o British built railways for trade and transportation.
o Railways benefited British capitalists and facilitated trade.
o Railways played a role in national awakening and modernization.
• Deindustrialisation of traditional industries and introduction of few modern industries controlled by them.
• Impact of Modern Ideas: India adopted ideas of liberty, equality, human rights, science, and technology from the
West. Modernization accelerated through transport and education.
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Socio-Cultural Reforms:
The socio-cultural reforms in 19th and 20th-century India
were pivotal in challenging regressive customs, advocating
for social progress, and setting the stage for a more inclusive
and egalitarian society.
Examples of Revivalist:
• Dharma Sabha: Founded by Pandit Radha Kanta Deb in first half of 19 century. Opposed western education and
abolition of Sati and was against the reformist agenda of Raja Ram Mohan Roy.
• Arya Samaj: Found by Swami Dayanand Saraswati in 1875 in Bombay. Led Hindu revivalism but criticised Puranic
evils like polytheism, idol, worship,superstitious beliefs,etc.
Wahabi movement:
• Founder- Syed Ahmed of Bareilly.
• Emphasised upon puritan reconstruction of the Islam.
• Stood for the right of every man to read and interpret the religious text.
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Faraizi movement:
• Started by Haji Shariatullah in 1819.
• An effort by Muslims in Eastern Bengal to prevent un-Islamic behaviour and carry out their religious obligations.
Deoband Movement:
• launched by Muhammad Qasim Nanautavi and Rashid Ahmad Gangohi in 1866.
• Preserving spirit of warfare against foreign rulers and disseminating the clear teachings of the Quran and Hadis
among Muslims.
Reformist
• Neither favoured a blind revival of the past, nor the blind imitation of the West.
• Impressed by modern values like humanism, rationalism, liberalism.
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Revolt of 1857
7. Revolt of 1857
1857 Revolt/Sepoy Mutiny/First War of Independence, Doctrine of Lapse, General Service Enlistment Act, Greased
Cartridges, Revenue Collection Policy, Cheap British Manufactured Goods, Zamindars, Racial Discrimination,
Abolition of Sati, Transfer of Power, Secretary of State for India, Act of Good Governance of 1858, Crown Rule
The 1857 revolt was a watershed moment in Indian history. It emerged as a spontaneous uprising against various
grievances and injustices inflicted by the British East India Company.
Interesting Facts:
• According to Jawaharlal Nehru, he maintained that the Revolt of 1857 was essentially "a feudal uprising, though
there were some nationalistic elements in it."
• V.D. Savarkar considered the Revolt of 1857 as the First War of Independence.
• R.C. Majumdar expressed his perspective on the Revolt of 1857 by stating, "The Revolt of 1857 is neither First,
nor National, nor a War of Independence."
Political Causes:
• Annexation of Princely States through various instruments such as doctrine of lapse, subsidiary alliance among
others.
• Discontent among Sepoys due to various acts of Britishers, such as General service enlistment act, use of greased
cartridges in Enfield rifles.
• Loss of Power and Prestige of the Mughal Emperor as well as Zamindar due to British policies such as doctrine of
lapse and heavy taxes on land respectively.
Interesting Facts:
Doctrine of Lapse:
• Introduced by: Lord Dalhousie, Governor-General from 1848 to 1856.
• The doctrine stated that if an Indian ruler died without a male heir, his kingdom would be annexed by the East
India Company.
• Kingdoms annexed under this: Satara (1848), Sambalpur (1850), Udaipur (1852), Nagpur (1853), and Jhansi
(1854).
• Economic Causes: The peasants suffered due to high revenue demands and the strict revenue collection policy.
Artisans and craftsmen suffered from the influx of inexpensive British goods. The loss of royal patronage displaced
those pursuing religious and cultural pursuits, resulting in a loss of livelihood. Zamindars were discontented due to
high land taxes and stringent collection methods.
• Socio-religious Causes: Racial discrimination caused resentment among Indians. Displacement of elites led to loss
of status. Interference in Religious Practices through acts such as Abolition of Sati act of 1829, Hindu widow
remarriage act of 1856.Protection of Religious Identity.
• Immediate Cause: Use of Enfield rifle and greased cartridges and the rumours around them.
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The 1857 revolt itself did not achieve immediate independence but left an indelible mark on India's history, shaping
the trajectory of its freedom struggle.
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Nationalism, British rule, Western civilization, Political unification, Economic critique of colonialism, Economic
integration, Codification of Indian laws, Middle class intelligentsia, Press and literature, Reactionary policies, Racial
arrogance, Limited social base, Moderates and Extremists, Self-governance, Swaraj
Political reasons:
• Political unification of the country under the banner of congress.
• Modern means of transport and communication led to exchange of political ideas and mobilisation of public
opinion on various issues.
Economic reasons:
• Economic critique of colonialism as in Dadabhai Naoroji in his “Poverty and un British rule in India” and RC Dutt’s
“Economic history of India”.
• Economic integration of the country as economic fate of different regions got linked together.
Administrative reasons:
• Codification of Indian laws under Lord Macaulay led to the legal uniformity in the subcontinent.
• Introduction of All India services led to administrative uniformity in the country.
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Pre-Congress Organization:
Before the formation of the Indian National Congress (INC) in 1885, several organizations and movements emerged in
India that laid the foundation for the nationalist movement.
• Indian Association (1876): It was founded by Surendranath Banerjee and Ananda Mohan Bose in Calcutta. It aimed
to provide a platform for political discussions, promote national unity, and work towards political reforms.
• Madras Mahajan Sabha (1884): It, established by M. Veeraraghavachariar and G. Subramania Iyer, sought to
address social and political issues and create awareness among the masses. It advocated for civil liberties,
education, and representation in the government.
• Poona Sarvajanik Sabha (1870): It was a social and political organization founded by Mahadev Govind Ranade and
others. It focused on social reforms, education, and improving the conditions of the lower castes.
• Bombay Presidency Association (1885): It, led by Pherozeshah Mehta, was formed to address political and
economic grievances of the people in the Bombay Presidency. It emphasized constitutional methods and worked
towards increasing Indian representation in governance.
• Anjuman-e-Islam (1874): Founded by Badruddin Tyabji, it was a Muslim organization that aimed to promote
education and social welfare among the Muslim community. It later played an active role in the national
movement.
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Interesting Facts:
Bal Gangadhar Tilak gave slogan: "Freedom is our birthright, and we must have it."
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Methodology 1. They follow the principles of 3P: 1.Guided by 4 principles Swarajya, Swadeshi, Boycott of
Petition, Prayer and Protest. foreign goods and National education to make Indians
2. They believed in cooperation and aware.
reconciliation. 2. Believed in atmashakti as a weapon against
domination.
Social Zamindars and Upper middle classes in Educated middle and lower middle classes in towns.
support towns.
Leaders Surendra Nath Banerjee, Dadabhai Lala Lajpat Rai, Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak. Bipin
Naoroji, Gopalakrishna Gokhale Chandra Pal, Aurobindo Ghose
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Lord Curzon, East Bengal, West Bengal, Administrative Efficiency, Divide and Rule Muslim Majority, Hindu Majority,
Swadeshi Movement, Cultural Identity, Nationalism, Boycott British Raj, Dhaka Bengal Presidency, Political
Mobilization, British Colonialism, Communalism, Linguistic Identity, Annulment
The partition of Bengal in 1905 stands as a watershed moment in India's fight against colonial rule, symbolizing the
spirit of resilience, unity, and the unyielding pursuit of freedom. It was announced by Lord Curzon, the viceroy of India
at the time, on July 20th, 1905, and went into effect on October 16th, 1905, only to be reversed six years later.
Administrative Motives: The British government justified the partition on administrative grounds, citing the need for
better governance and improved efficiency in the administration of the vast Bengal province. The Bengal Presidency
was British India's largest province, with a population of 78.5 million people.
Territorial Division: The Bengal Presidency included the states of Bengal, Bihar, and parts of Chhattisgarh, Orissa, and
Assam. It was divided into two separate provinces: Bengal with a Hindu majority and Eastern Bengal and Assam with a
Muslim majority.
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Interesting Fact:
• Rabindranath Tagore composed the iconic song ‘Amar Sonar Bangla’, which eventually became the national
anthem of Bangladesh.
Significance:
• Curzon’s contentious decision to divide Bengal, coupled with the rise of the 'Extremist' faction within Congress,
catalyzed the advent of Muslim separatist politics.
• Separate electorates for Muslims and Hindus in 1909 created distinct political entities. Muslims held a dominant
position in the Legislature due to their substantial population.
• The Swadeshi Movement, initiated in 1905 and lasting until 1908, was a self-sufficiency campaign significantly
influencing Indian nationalism.
• It commenced as a united backlash against the British Government’s announcement of Bengal's partition in
December 1903, aiming to reduce dependence on foreign products by promoting domestic production.
• The leaders in Bengal realized that mere protests and resolutions were insufficient; more tangible actions were
needed to demonstrate the depth of public sentiment.
• The movement encouraged the use of Indian-made goods (Swadeshi) and boycotting British goods. Mass meetings
were organized across Bengal to take pledges for this cause.
• Public bonfires of foreign clothing and picketing outside shops selling foreign goods were widespread.
• The movement emphasized self-reliance, known as 'Atma Shakti'.
• National education was an important constituent of the movement, promoting self-sufficiency.
• Bengali students were prominent in the movement, advocating for Swadeshi and leading picketing against foreign
goods. The government, however, sought to suppress them through punitive measures, including fines, expulsions,
and arrests.
• Women's active involvement, particularly from the urban middle class, was a noteworthy element of the Swadeshi
movement.
• Some prominent Muslims, such as Abdul Rasul, Liaquat Hussain, and Guznavi, supported the movement. However,
others, like the Nawab of Dhaka, remained neutral or supported the partition due to communal interests.
• Lord Curzon acknowledged that partition aimed to give Muslims in Eastern Bengal a sense of unity, reminiscent of
earlier Muslim rule.
Interesting Fact:
• The British government employed repressive measures to quell the Swadeshi Movement, including banning
rallies, censoring newspapers, and imprisoning leaders.
• Various acts were passed to hinder the movement, such as the Seditious Meeting Act (1907), Criminal Law
Amendment Act (1908), and Indian Press Act (1910).
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• Boycott of Buyers and Sellers of foreign goods including clothing, sugar, etc.
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Provisions:
• Legislative councils expanded at both federal and provincial levels.
• Members of provincial legislative councils were indirectly elected by local bodies through an electoral college,
which in turn elected members of the Central Legislative Council.
• Various stakeholders such as local governments, chambers of commerce, landlords, colleges, trade organizations,
and Muslims were represented among the elected members.
• The majority of members in provincial councils were non-official, but due to the nomination of non-official
members, there was a non-elected majority overall.
• The Imperial Legislative Council included Indian members for the first time.
• Muslims had separate electorates; certain seats were reserved for Muslims, where only Muslim voters could elect
Muslim representatives.
• The introduction of the ‘separate electorate’ system institutionalized communal representation for Muslims. Lord
Minto was dubbed the Father of Communal Electorate as the Act legalized communalism.
• Legislative councils could debate the budget, propose resolutions, discuss issues of public interest, and seek
clarifications.
• Matters pertaining to foreign policy or relations with princely states were not open for discussion.
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• Satyendra Prasanna Sinha became the first Indian member of the Viceroy's Executive Council, following strong
advocacy from Morley.
• The Secretary of State's Council on Indian Affairs included two additional Indian members.
Evaluation of the reforms: The ‘constitutional’ reforms were aimed at dividing the nationalist ranks by confusing the
Moderates and at checking the growth of unity among Indians. The Government aimed at rallying the Moderates and
the Muslims against the rising tide of nationalism.
• The system of election was too indirect and it gave the impression of infiltration of legislators through a number
of sieves. While parliamentary forms were introduced, no responsibility was conceded.
Importance of reforms: It effectively allowed the election of Indians to the various legislative councils in India for the
first time. The introduction of the electoral principle laid the groundwork for a parliamentary system.
Congress was largely unsatisfied with the reforms. Only some members like Gokhale put to constructive use the
opportunity to debate in the councils. The reforms of 1909, gave the people of the country, a shadow rather than
substance. The people had demanded self-government but what they were given was ‘benevolent despotism’.
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The Government of India Act 1919 represents an important milestone in the constitutional progress of India under
colonial rule.
While they expanded the legislative councils and introduced limited self-governance, they fell short of meeting the
aspirations of Indian nationalists for complete independence and a truly representative system of government
The Rowlatt Act, also known as the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act of 1919, was enacted by the British
colonial government in India.
Objective:
• It empowered the authorities to suppress revolutionary activities and curb dissent against British rule. It provided
the government with powers to arrest without trial.
British troops, under the command of General Reginald Dyer, opened fire on a peaceful gathering, resulting in the
deaths of hundreds of unarmed Indians.
Rowlatt Satyagraha:
• In response to the Rowlatt Act of 1919, Gandhi established the Rowlatt Satyagraha Sabha, which represented a
shift in the nationalist movement from agitation to active resistance, through non-cooperation and civil
disobedience.
• The limited Montford Reforms and the repressive Rowlatt Act, which Gandhi dubbed the "Black Act", came as a
betrayal to Indians who expected progression towards self-rule for their support in the war effort.
• Gandhi’s call for an all-India protest through Satyagraha was met with violent anti-British demonstrations in various
cities.
• The National Congress transformed into an action-oriented organization, with the struggle for independence
increasingly involving peasants, artisans, and the urban poor, reflecting a shift in focus to the masses, who were
encouraged to become politically active.
• Gandhi emphasized the importance of self-sufficiency and the dignity of labor through khadi (hand-spun and
handwoven cloth) as a symbol. He encouraged nationalists to connect with rural India and awakened the masses
for political activism, with protests involving nationwide strikes, fasting, prayer, and civil disobedience.
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The Khilafat and the Non-Cooperation movement, despite having different issues, adopted a unified plan of action of
non-violence and non-cooperation during 1919-22.
The Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movements significantly impacted India's independence struggle by uniting the
diverse groups against British rule, mobilizing the masses, fostering Hindu-Muslim unity, and shaping the nationalist
movement trajectory.
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12. Post NCM course of action and debate about the strategy
Swarajists and No Changers:
Similarities • Both Groups were determined to end Colonial Government in India and demanded
Independence from British Rule.
• Both of the Groups were aware of a Bitter Division of Congress as Surat Split of 1907 and were
determined to work as Different Wings of Congress under Gandhi Ji.
The 1920s and 1930s marked a significant period in Indian history. Indians participated actively in the national
movement. And India saw the emergence of new forces including youth and trade unionism.
• The Activism of Indian Youth: Formation of student leagues and conferences. Jawaharlal Nehru's significant role
in engaging students.
• Peasant Agitations: Demanded revision of tenancy laws, lower rents, protection from eviction, and debt relief.
Major uprisings in United Provinces, Andhra, Rajasthan, Bombay, and Madras. Vallabhbhai Patel led Bardoli
Satyagraha in Gujarat (1928).
• Growth of Trade Unions: All-India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) was founded in 1920. Major strikes in Kharagpur,
Tata Iron and Steel Works, and Bombay Textile Mills. May Day was first observed in India in Madras in 1923.
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• Caste Movements: Expressions of societal contradictions through caste associations. Notable movements: Justice
Party, Self-respect Movement, Mahars under Ambedkar.
• Revolutionary Activities: Groups dissatisfied with nonviolence sought armed struggle. Hindustan Republican
Association in Punjab-UP-Bihar. Surya Sen led revolutionary groups in Bengal.
North Indian revolutionaries realized that armed conflict necessitated propaganda, recruitment, and arms, and the
upsurge in youth activism played a significant role in facilitating the spread of socialist ideas.
Revolutionaries Activities:
The revolutionary activities were a defining aspect of the country's quest for freedom from British colonial rule, driven
by a desire for liberty and armed resistance, forming a distinct nationalist force.
Ideology of Revolutionaries: Strike terror in the hearts of rulers, Freedom through revolution, Heroic actions, supreme
sacrifice, assassinate unpopular British officials, Expel British with force
Reasons: Impacts:
• Economic exploitation of Indians by the British • Secret societies of the revolutionaries came up all
Government and the Partition of Bengal amplified the over the country. E.g., The Anushilan Samiti created
spirit of nationalism among the countrymen. revolutionary centers all over India.
• Fallout of the Swadeshi and Boycott Movement was the • It had an impact on the Congress’ strategy to
immediate reason. involve the youths in the short-term program of
• Leadership’s failure to tap the revolutionary energies of rural reconstruction.
the youth. • Their sacrifices aroused the emotions of the
• Government repression left no peaceful avenues open Indians which helped the building up of the
for the protest. national consciousness.
• Inspired by the individual heroic action along the lines • It could not mobilize the masses. They believed in
of Irish nationalists or Russian nihilists. individual heroism.
Though the revolutionary movement failed it made a valuable contribution to the growth of nationalism in India.
Bhagat Singh, Chandrashekhar Azad, Rajguru, etc. became a household name of the Indian people and aroused
patriotism among the masses.
Revolutionary Movement
Interesting Fact:
Ghadar Party, initially called the Pacific Coast Hindustan Association, was founded on July 15, 1913, in the United
States by Lala Har Dayal and others.
Ghadar Party:
• Ghadar Party aimed to assassinate officials, publish anti-imperialist literature, work with Indian troops abroad,
acquire arms, and incite revolts in British colonies.
• With the onset of World War I in 1914, Ghadar Party members went to Punjab to incite an armed revolution.
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• They smuggled weapons and stirred mutiny among Indian soldiers in the British Army.
• The uprising, known as the Ghadar Mutiny, was suppressed by the British, executing 42 mutineers in the Lahore
Conspiracy Case trial.
• The party fought against colonialism from 1914 to 1917, with support from Germany and the Ottoman Empire.
• It also published a weekly newspaper called The Ghadar, rallying for rebellion against British rule.
• The Komagata Maru Incident in 1914, involving Canadian anti-Indian immigration laws, motivated thousands of
Indians in the United States to support Ghadar Party.
Causes of Failure
• Many Ghadar leaders were arrested upon arriving in India. The British government, as well as native Punjabi
populations, did not support the Ghadar movement.
• Sikhs, who were significant in the British Army and benefited from it, did not align with Ghadar leaders. Ghadar
leaders were surprised by the loyalty of their countrymen to the British and realized the importance of gaining
support from native Punjabis.
The Ghadar Party’s success lay in its ideological stance, promoting militant nationalism while being secular. It failed
politically and militarily due to a lack of organized leadership, underestimation of preparation needed, and the
potential unsuitability of Lala Har Dayal as an organizer.
Simon Commission:
Objectives: Impact:
• The British government established the Simon • Mobilized a new generation of young people into
Commission to review the Government of India Act of political action.
1919 and suggest further reforms. • Radical forces demanded total independence and
• It aimed to foster communal divisions to destabilize extensive socio-economic reforms.
India's social unity. • Political parties unified in response to Lord
• The commission intended to delay the transfer of Birkenhead's challenge to create a mutually agreed
governance powers to Indians. constitution.
• It aimed to encourage regional movements to weaken • The Commission's report led to the promise of
national movements. dominion status for India and the Government of
India Act 1935, which influenced the current Indian
Constitution.
• The first provincial elections were held in 1937,
resulting in Congress-led governments in most
provinces.
• The Commission's arrival invigorated the Indian
independence movement.
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Criticism:
• The entirely British composition of the Commission was seen as a slight to Indian nationalism, leading to a boycott
by the Indian National Congress.
• The British government justified the Commission's composition by stating that it had to report to the British
Parliament.
• This argument was contested due to the existence of Indian members in the British Parliament.
• The British government claimed that the lack of unanimous Indian opinion on constitutional development made it
impossible to appoint an Indian member to the Commission
Key Features:
• Dominion status: Dominion status for India within the British Commonwealth, with a parliamentary system of
government.
• Fundamental Rights: The report advocated for the protection of fundamental rights, including freedom of speech,
religion, and equality before the law.
• Provincial Autonomy: It proposed a federal structure with substantial autonomy for the provinces, allowing them
to govern their internal affairs.
• Representation and Franchise: The report recommended universal adult suffrage, without any discrimination
based on gender, religion, or property ownership.
• Minority Safeguards: It included provisions for protecting the rights of religious and linguistic minorities, and
preserving their cultural and educational interests.
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Negotiations and Truce: After several months, negotiations took place between the British and Indian leaders, leading
to the Gandhi-Irwin Pact in 1931, which temporarily halted the movement.
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Nevertheless, the conferences played a role in shaping the political discourse and highlighting the diverse interests and
challenges in India's struggle for self-rule.
First Round Table Second Round Table Third Round Table Conference
Conference (1930-1931) Conference (1931) (1932)
Dates November 12, 1930 - September 7, 1931 - November 17, 1932 - December 24,
January 19, 1931 December 1, 1931 1932
Key - Ramsay MacDonald - Mahatma Gandhi - B.R. Ambedkar
Participant (British Prime Minister) - B.R. Ambedkar - Tej Bahadur Sapru
s - B.R. Ambedkar - Madan Mohan Malaviya - Sir Mohammad Iqbal
- Tej Bahadur Sapru - Sarojini Naidu - Various Representatives from
- Aga Khan III - Sir Mohammad Iqbal Indian States
- Srinivasa Sastri - Aga Khan III
- Sarojini Naidu - Ramsay MacDonald
- Various Princes and (British Prime Minister)
Representatives from
Indian States
Main - The structure of • Representation in the - Awarding a separate electorate to
Discussions government in British India central legislature the 'Depressed Classes' (Scheduled
- Representation of the • Minority rights and Castes)
provinces representation - Representation of minority
- The role of native princes • The Federal Structure communities
in governance • Gandhi-Irwin Pact & its - Drafting of a new constitution for
- Minority representation implications India
and rights
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Key - It was decided that India • Disagreements, mainly • Communal Award declared,
Outcomes should have a federal between Congress and granting separate electorates to
structure with autonomy other parties, led to no minorities, including the
for provinces. significant outcomes. Depressed Classes.
- Agreement on the need • The British • B.R. Ambedkar and Mahatma
for communal government began to Gandhi reached the Poona Pact,
representation. lose faith in the which revised the Communal
Congress as the sole Award by increasing
representative of representation for Depressed
Indian interests. Classes
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Major provisions:
• Federal Structure: Establishment of a federal structure for India, with power divided between the central
government and the provinces. This federation never fructified since princely states did not join it.
• Provincial Autonomy: It granted a significant degree of autonomy to the provinces, empowering them with
legislative and executive authority over a range of subjects.
• Separate Electorates: It retained the provision of separate electorates for religious minorities, ensuring
representation for Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, and Anglo-Indians.
• Franchise: The Act introduced limited electoral reforms, expanding the electorate by extending voting rights to a
larger segment of the population.
• Central Government: It established a bicameral legislature at the centre, consisting of the Federal Assembly and
the Council of States.
• Reserved Subjects: It assigned reserved subjects, exclusively to the central government's jurisdiction, including
defence, foreign affairs, and the administration of tribal areas.
• Provincial Governors: It introduced the concept of provincial governors, who held significant powers and acted as
representatives of the British Crown.
• All India Federation: It proposed the formation of an All-India Federation, which would include both the British
Indian provinces and the princely states.
Significance:
The Government of India Act 1935 served as a significant step towards constitutional reforms in India. Although it did
not fully meet the aspirations of Indian nationalists for self-governance and complete independence, it laid the
foundation for future constitutional developments and played a role in shaping India's political landscape.
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• The Congress session at Lucknow in April 1936, presided over by Jawaharlal Nehru, resolved to contest elections
on a manifesto basis and affirmed that the people of every part of India should have the same political, civil, and
democratic liberties and the right to self-determination.
• For the 1937 elections, every member of the Congress made a concerted effort to ensure the success of the party's
candidates. The election results were generally favourable for the Congress, with the party faring well in all regions
except Bengal, Punjab, and Sindh. The Congress emerged as the single largest party in Bengal, NWFP, Assam, and
Bombay. However, the Congress did not do well in elections to the upper houses, as voting was limited to the upper
strata of society.
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During World War I and World War II, India's national movement experienced significant developments and played a
crucial role in the country's struggle for independence from British colonial rule.
Overall, both periods marked significant milestones in India's struggle for freedom, laying the foundation for the
country's eventual independence.
August Offer:
• It was a proposal made by the British government in August 1940 during World War II.
• It aimed to gain the support of Indian political parties and leaders in the war effort against the Axis powers.
• Promised the expansion of the Executive Council of Viceroy, with inclusion of more Indians, and the formation of
a constituent assembly after the war to frame a new constitution.
• However, the offer fell short of the Indian nationalist demands for immediate and complete independence and
was rejected.
Individual Satyagraha:
• Individual Satyagraha was launched by Mahatma Gandhi in 1940 as a non-violent protest against British policies,
specifically to voice dissent against India's forced involvement in World War II.
• Unlike mass movements, this campaign focused on individual acts of civil disobedience. Notable individuals like
Vinoba Bhave and Jawaharlal Nehru were chosen by Gandhi to lead the protest.
• Participants spoke out against the war and criticized British decisions without calling for mass protests or strikes.
• The British government responded by arresting the participants, including Gandhi. e. Significance: This movement
kept the momentum of the freedom struggle alive and emphasized the moral high ground of non-violence.
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Growth of Communalism:
• The period saw an increased polarization among religious communities, primarily Hindus and Muslims.
• In 1940, the Muslim League passed the Lahore Resolution, demanding a separate nation for Muslims, later known
as Pakistan.
• These elections heightened communal tensions as the Muslim League and the Indian National Congress emerged
as representatives of the Muslim and Hindu communities, respectively
• In 1946, the Muslim League called for Direct Action Day which resulted in widespread communal violence.
• The British colonial administration is often accused of employing a divide-and-rule policy that fueled communal
tensions.
Peasant Movements:
• Peasants faced economic hardships due to oppressive agricultural policies, taxation, and the impact of World War
II.
• Tebhaga Movement: In 1946, this movement took place in Bengal, where sharecroppers demanded a reduction in
the share of crops given to landlords.
• Telangana Rebellion: This was a peasant revolt in the Telangana region (now in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana)
against the feudal lords and the Nizam between 1946 and 1951.
• Peasant movements found support from the Indian National Congress and Communist parties.
• These movements played a significant role in mobilizing the masses and weakening the British hold over rural India.
Cripps Mission:
● The Cripps Mission was a delegation sent to India in March 1942 by the British government, led by Sir Stafford
Cripps.
● The mission aimed to seek Indian support for the British war effort in exchange for a promise of Dominion
status and the right to determine India's future constitution.
● The proposals included the formation of an interim government with full Indian participation and the granting
of the right to secede from the British Commonwealth.
However, the Cripps Mission failed to reach an agreement with Indian leaders, primarily due to disagreements over
the issue of the Muslim League's demand for a separate homeland.
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• Although the movement faced repression and was eventually suppressed, it marked a turning point in the Indian
independence struggle and further weakened the British hold on India
Wavell Plan:
• The Wavell Plan, in 1945, aimed to resolve the political deadlock in India and facilitate the transfer of power.
• The plan called for the formation of an executive council with a majority of Indian members and the inclusion of
representatives from the Muslim League.
• However, Congress rejected the plan, as it did not guarantee full independence and failed to address the issue of
separate electorates for religious communities.
• The plan also faced opposition from the Muslim League, as it did not fulfil their demand for a separate homeland.
The failure of the Wavell Plan highlighted the deep divisions between Congress and the Muslim League and the
challenges of achieving a united political solution.
Impact of INA
The INA had failed to achieve its goal, but it made a significant impact on the freedom struggle:
• It became clear to the British that, they could no longer depend on the loyalty of Indian Soldiers and treat them as
mercenaries.
• The Red Fort Trials in which several captured INA soldiers were put on trial by the British at the Red Fort in Delhi,
which further fueled nationalist sentiments.
• The INA's struggles showed that armed struggle against the British was not affected by communal division, as
Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs fought as Indians.
• The actions of Rani Jhansi Brigade, an exclusive women force, demonstrated the capabilities of Indian Women
waging armed struggle against the British.
• The INA had also demonstrated the enthusiasm and concern of overseas Indians for the freedom of their
motherland.
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• Enduring Legacy: He is often remembered as a symbol of courage, resilience, and unwavering dedication to India's
independence.
Hence, INA's military campaigns and Bose's dynamic leadership inspired nationalist sentiments and challenged British
rule which continue to be remembered as an integral part of India's freedom movement.
Proposals:
a. Union of India: The plan proposed the creation of a united India with a federal structure, comprising both British
India and the princely states.
b. Grouping of Provinces: The provinces were to be grouped into three sections based on religious majorities,
providing a measure of autonomy to Muslim-majority provinces.
c. Interim Government: The plan recommended the formation of an interim government with representatives from
all major political parties until a permanent constitution could be adopted.
d. Constituent Assembly: A Constituent Assembly was to be formed to draft a new constitution for independent
India.
• The Boundary Commission delineated new borders, and British suzerainty over princely states ended.
• Princely states had to choose to join India, Pakistan, or stay independent; over 560 opted for India.
• Until the new dominions established their constitutions, Governor-Generals acted as heads of state with the ability
to assent to laws through Constituent Assemblies.
• The Royal Assent to the Independence Act was granted on July 18, 1947, bringing it into effect.
The passage of the Indian Independence Act in 1947 marked a turning point in India's constitutional journey. This
legislation heralded the dawn of a new era of liberty in India, even though it was met with discontent among many
citizens. Regardless of its shortcomings, the Act undoubtedly culminated in the cessation of British dominance in India.
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1. Modern Education: Various commissions like 1. Economic Exploitation: They imposed heavy taxes and
Hunter, Raleigh, etc. for education reforms. extracted raw materials from India. Charter Act of 1833
2. Infrastructure Development: Construction of further opened the Indian market.
railways, roads, bridges, and ports. For example, 2. Social Disruption: The introduction of land policies and
Dalhousie changed the map of India by the Zamindari system caused widespread
introducing telegraph, Railways. impoverishment leading to various riots like Deccan riots
3. Legal and Administrative Reforms: They laid the in 1875
foundation for a more organized governance 3. Cultural Suppression: As seen through Macaulay's
system in India through codification of laws, rule minutes of 1835 which favoured anglicists (Modern
of law, etc. education) and his downward filtration theory.
4. Technological Advancements: Modern 4. Political Subjugation: Indians were subjected to
machinery and scientific knowledge led to growth discriminatory laws and were excluded from political
of industries and agriculture. Eg: Engineering participation. Eg: Arms Act of 1878, Illbert Bill
College in 1847 and Agricultural College at Pusa controversy, etc.
1905. 5. Divide and Rule: They exploited divisions between
different communities to perpetuate their rule. Ex:
Bengal division 1905, separate electorates, etc.
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Important Personalities
Dadabhai Naoroji
Dadabhai Naoroji was a prominent Indian nationalist and social reformer who made significant contributions to India's
freedom struggle and socio-economic development.
1. Economic Drain Theory: In his book "Poverty and Un-British Rule in India," he highlighted how the British through
economic exploitation caused impoverishment of India.
2. Indian National Congress: He played a pivotal role in the formation of INC in 1885.
3. Voice for Indian Representation: He became the first Indian to be elected to the British Parliament where he
passionately advocated for Indian interests.
4. Social Reforms: He worked towards the upliftment of women and supported the cause of female education. He
founded the East India Association in London, which aimed to promote Indian welfare.
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5. Journalism and Publications: He published several articles and books, including "Poverty and Un-British Rule in
India" and "The Causes of Indian Famines."
6. Swadeshi Movement: He believed that promoting Indian industries and self-reliance would help India break free
from economic dependency on Britain.
Dadabhai Naoroji's ideas on economic exploitation, representation, and self-reliance continue to inspire generations
of Indians fighting for justice and equality.
Mahatma Gandhi
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Gandhi in India:
• Gandhi returned to India in 1915, and spent the next year touring the country.
• He resolved not to take a stance on any political issue for at least a year.
• He was aware of the limitations of moderate politics and opposed the Home Rule agitation that was gaining
popularity.
• He believed non-violent Satyagraha was the only method capable of achieving nationalist goals.
• Gandhi participated in three struggles in Champaran, Ahmedabad, and Kheda before launching the Rowlatt
Satyagraha.
Shyamji Krishna Varma was an Indian freedom fighter, scholar, and philanthropist who advocated for Indian self-rule,
and promoting Indian culture and education.
Jayaprakash Narayan was an Indian independence activist, theorist, socialist, and political figure.
Post-Independence Role:
• In 1952, he formed the Praja Socialist Party (PSP).
• In 1954, he was devoted to the Bhoodan Yajna Movement, of Vinoba Bhave, which demanded land redistribution
to the landless.
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• In 1959 he argued for a “reconstruction of Indian polity” by a four-tier hierarchy of village, district, state, and union
councils (Chaukhamba Raj).
• After the end of the Emergency, JP Narayan played a pivotal role in the formation of the Janata Party.
• He launched Total Revolution against Indira Gandhi Regime as she was found guilty of violating electoral laws.
• He was posthumously conferred with the Bharat Ratna (1999), for his contribution to the freedom struggle and
upliftment of the marginalised.
Narayan was a staunch advocate of socialist principles and worked towards establishing a more egalitarian society and
played a significant role in shaping India's political landscape.
100 years of Periyar because of whom Tamil Nadu became Maharishi Dayanand Saraswati Jayanti is celebrated
modern and progressive. every year to mark his birth anniversary.
● Born in 1879, E V Ramasamy ‘Periyar’ is remembered ● He was an Indian philosopher, social leader and
for the Self Respect Movement. founder of the Arya Samaj.
● Periyar started his political career as a Congress ● His vision of India included a classless and casteless
worker. society.
● He associated himself with the Justice Party and the ● He considered Veda’s to be infallible. He gave the
Self Respect Movement. slogan “Back to the Vedas”.
● He would later be referred to as Vaikom Veerar due to ● He wrote Satyarth Prakash, which became the
his participation in Vaikom satyagraha of 1924. moral and spiritual foundation of the Arya Samaj.
● As a social reformer, he focused on social, cultural and ● He was the first to give the call for Swaraj as “Indian
gender inequalities. for India”.
● Periyar died in 1973 at the age of 94. ● Dayanand was a staunch advocate of women’s
● Periyar is revered as Thanthai Periyar, the father figure rights.
of modern Tamil Nadu.
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In 2022, PM Participated in a Programme Commemorating In 2022, Nepal celebrated 161st Birth Anniversary of
Sri Aurobindo's 150th Birth Anniversary. Bharat Ratna Mahamana Madan Mohan Malviya.
• His theory of nationalism was based on Vedanta • He was midway between the Liberals and the
philosophy which saw unity and oneness in man and Nationalists, the Moderates and the Extremists.
God. • He was given the title of ‘Mahamana’ by Mahatma
• He helped establish the Anushilan Samiti of Calcutta in Gandhi and Dr. S.Radhakrishnan gave him the status
1902. of a ‘Karmayogi’.
• He and his brother revolutionary Barin Ghose • Popularized the term ‘Satyamev Jayate’.
contributed articles to the magazine Jugantar. • He helped establish the Hindu Mahasabha in 1915.
• He was the editor of Bande Mataram. • He founded the Banaras Hindu University (BHU) in
• In May 1908, Aurobindo was arrested in connection 1916.
with the Alipore Conspiracy Case. • Malaviya was the editor of Hindi weekly, the
• In 1914, he started publishing a magazine Arya. Hindustan and Indian Union.
• His greatest literary achievement was ‘Savitri’, an epic • In 2014, he was posthumously conferred with
poem. Bharat Ratna.
In 2022, Tamil Nadu CM Stalin inaugurated statue of The President of India paid floral tributes to Dr. Rajendra
'Mahakavi Subramanian Bharathiyar' at Varanasi. Prasad, on his birth anniversary at Rashtrapati Bhavan
• Indian nationalist writer recognised as the father of on 3rd December 2022.
modern Tamil style. • He joined the Indian National Congress in 1911 and
• He was famously known as 'Mahakavi Bharathiyar'. played a crucial role in the Champaran and Kheda
• He fought for self-determination. Satyagrahas.
• He joined the Tamil daily newspaper Swadesamitran • Gandhiji's non-cooperation movement and salt
after 1904. satyagraha in Bihar was supported by Dr. Prasad.
• Bharathi had the weekly newspaper ‘India' printed • In 1946, he joined the Interim Government as the
with red paper in order to announce its revolutionary Minister of Food & Agriculture.
zeal. • Rajendra Prasad was elected as the President of the
• His poem "Pudiya Russia", written in response to the Constituent Assembly of India in 1946 and was the
1917 Russian Revolutions, is a remarkable example of first President of the Republic of India.
the poet's political ideology. • He headed committees of constituent assembly
• Kannanpattu, Panchali sapatham, Kuyil pattu are such as Finance and Staff Committee, Steering
among of his most important works. Committee, etc.
• He was awarded Bharat Ratna in 1962.
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• Provisions under Delhi Agreement: In 1951, the state constituent assembly was elected. In 1952, the Delhi
Agreement was signed between Prime Ministers of India and Jammu & Kashmir giving special position to the state
under the Indian Constitutional framework.
• Accession of Jammu and Kashmir: On 6th February 1954, the J&K constituent assembly ratified the accession of
the state to the Union of India. The President subsequently issued the constitution order under Article 370.
Integration of Tribals
The integration of tribals in post-independence India has been a significant challenge due to historical injustices,
cultural diversity, and socio-economic disparities. The Indian government has implemented various policies and
programs to address the specific needs of tribal communities and ensure their integration into the mainstream society.
These issues made a systematic process of tribal and tribal area development necessary.
Here are some key approaches for tribal integration in post-independence India:
Approach Features
Assimilation This assimilation approach seeks to fully integrate tribal communities into mainstream society
Approach by GS by eradicating their distinct cultural practises and identities.
Ghure: Tribal communities are expected to adopt the majority's language, religion, and customs.
Assimilation policies often promote the abandonment of tribal languages, cultures, and
livelihoods. This approach could weaken tribal autonomy and cultural heritage.
Isolation The isolation, seclusion, or preservation approach emphasises keeping tribal communities
Approach or isolated from mainstream society.
National Park It shields tribal cultures from outside influences. Isolation policies involve creating tribal
Approach by reservations and restricting outside contact.
Elwin: This approach protects tribal cultures but limits their access to essential services, economic
opportunities, and socio-political participation.
Integration The integration approach balances tribal culture preservation and socio-economic integration
Approach: into society.
Tribes' cultural identities are respected while they participate equally in mainstream social,
economic, and political processes.
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Education, healthcare, land and resource rights, livelihood opportunities, and decision-making
representation empower tribal communities.
The integration approach preserves and promotes tribal cultures while giving tribes equal rights,
opportunities, and development benefits.
Steps taken
Tribal panchsheel shaped constitutional arrangements for tribals. These ideals gave tribal governance a boost for
rebuilding India.
• Indian Constitution lists Scheduled Tribes (STs).
• Article 342 of 1950 constitution designates 212 tribes in 14 states as STs.
• Article 19(5) allows special restrictions for protecting ST interests.
• Article 46 mandates support for educational and economic interests of impoverished communities, including STs.
• Article 164 establishes Tribal Welfare Ministers in Bihar, Orissa, and Madhya Pradesh.
• Article 244 enables the President to designate regions with large tribal populations as Scheduled Areas. Scheduled
Areas empower tribal rights and welfare.
• Tribes Advisory Council advises Governors in Scheduled Areas.
• Scheduled Areas exempt from certain laws unless extended by Governors.
• Article 275(1) authorizes special grants for ST welfare.
• Article 338 establishes the National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (NCST).
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Conclusion
Assimilation and isolation have been criticised for ignoring tribal communities' rights, autonomy, and cultural diversity.
The integration approach respects and preserves tribal cultures while addressing socio-economic disparities and
ensuring tribal participation in shaping their future.
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Introduction:
The language issue in India has been a divisive and challenging issue. Linguistic diversity posed challenges for national
consolidation with the debate over the union's official language, and states' linguistic reorganisation.
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The Seventh Constitutional Amendment Act of 1956 inserted Article 350-B in the Constitution. It provides for a
Special Officer for Linguistic Minorities appointed by the President of India. It would be the duty of the Special Officer
to investigate all matters relating to the safeguards provided for linguistic minorities under the constitution.
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Way Forward
To preserve linguistic diversity, it is crucial to promote quality education in mother tongues and minority languages,
support cultural activities and media in these languages, and ensure the representation and participation of linguistic
minorities. Additionally, implementing initiatives for language preservation and revitalization can safeguard
endangered languages for future generations.
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Regionalism
19. Regionalism
Regionalism refers to the political or cultural principle that focuses on the promotion of the interests of a particular
region or group within a nation or international entity. It involves advocating for specific regional needs, characteristics,
and identities, often leading to demands for autonomy or increased political power within a state.
Factors of Regionalism:
• Historical and Cultural factors:
o Historical forces foster regional awareness.
o Cultural groups draw inspiration from local heroes.
o Customs, social, economic, and religious complexes reinforce historical memories.
• Demographic:
o Unwanted migration disrupts regional demography, affecting economic activities and native ethnic identity.
For example, Assam protests against illegal migrants from Bangladesh to preserve Assamese identity.
• Economic:
o Economics shape regionalism and Scarcity of know-how, corruption, and law and order issues create a dismal
politico-economic landscape.
o Regionalism arises due to unequal benefit sharing in development.
• Reasons for Regional Disparity:
o Low economic growth hampers development due to high population growth.
o States struggle with land reforms and feudal mentality.
o Backward states lack adequate infrastructure for agriculture.
o Developed states prioritize social expenditure on education, health, and sanitation. Tamil Nadu and Kerala set
benchmarks for healthcare.
o Political and administrative failures lead to sub-regional movements. Examples include Jharkhand,
Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand, and Telangana.
o Better-developed regions protest resource diversion to underdeveloped areas. Example: Harit Pradesh
demand by Green Revolution beneficiaries.
"Son of Soil" or nativist doctrine prioritizes locals over migrants in society, including employment and resources. It
can empower locals but may also cause regionalism, discrimination, and social tension if mismanaged.
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o Disparity between the regions originated from colonial rule, with Andhra under direct crown rule and
Telangana under the less efficient rule of the Nizam of Hyderabad.
• Shiv Sena agitation against Kannadigas: Launched in Maharashtra under the banner of Marathi pride. In 1966,
Shiv Sena launched its agitation against Kannadigas.
• Bodoland demand in Assam: Led by Assam Bodo Students Union, seeking a separate state due to educational and
job disparities in backward regions.
Reasons behind the difference in claims between Andhra Pradesh and Telangana:
• The erstwhile united Andhra Pradesh was bifurcated more than eight years ago and the division of assets and
liabilities between the two States remains elusive as the States make their own interpretation of the provisions
under the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act 2014.
• Several bilateral meetings between the two States as well as those convened by the Union Home Ministry
failed.
Inter-State Disputes
• Boundary disputes:
• Examples:
o Between Karnataka and Maharashtra on Belgaum where the Marathi speaking population is
surrounded by Kannada speaking people
o between Kerala and Karnataka on Kasargod
o between Assam and Nagaland on Rengma reserved forests
• Water dispute:
• Example:
o Use of water of three rivers mainly Narmada, Krishna and Cauvery in which states of Madhya Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Gujarat and Maharashtra were involved.
o Disputes also arose regarding use of Cauvery waters among the states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala and
Karnataka.
o Dispute between Punjab, Rajasthan and Himachal Pradesh over the use of waters of Ravi River.
o Issue over SYL – Satluj Yamuna link is looming between Haryana and Punjab.
SYL Issue:
• The Punjab government has refused to construct the remaining portion of the Sutlej-Yamuna Link (SYL)
Canal, saying it does not have additional river waters to share with Haryana, the Union government
informed the Supreme Court in March 2023 in a progress report.
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Negative Impacts:
• Internal Security Challenges: Regionalism can threaten national unity and development, leading to insurgency.
• Political Impact: Regional demands influence national policies in coalition governments.
• Vote Bank Politics: Regional leaders exploit regionalism for vote bank politics, impacting democracy.
• Uneven Development: Development plans may favor regions associated with influential leaders, causing unrest.
• International Diplomacy: Regionalism affects international relations, as seen in Tamil Nadu's opposition to PM's
visit to Sri Lanka and West Bengal's disagreements on border and Teesta river agreements.
Reorganisation of States:
• The reorganization of states in India, primarily on linguistic lines, is a significant event in the country's post-
independence history. This process began after independence in 1947 to meet the aspirations of diverse linguistic
and cultural groups.
Before independence:
• Demand for linguistic reorganisation: Tilak advocated for linguistic reorganisation of provinces.
• Demand of All India Congress Committee (AICC): AICC demanded a Telugu-speaking state carved out of the
Madras Presidency based on the recommendation of its Lucknow session.
• Acceptance of the demand for linguistic reorganisation: Following that, the Congress accepted the creation of
linguistic states in principle at its Nagpur session in 1920.
• First state carved out on linguistic lines: Due to the efforts of Madhusudan Das, Odisha was the first Indian state
to be formed on linguistic grounds in 1936, and it became Orissa Province.
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• The States Reorganisation Act, 1956, was enacted by Parliament under Article 4 of the Indian
Constitution.
• This act led to the formation of new states such as Andhra Pradesh, Bombay (now Maharashtra and
Gujarat), Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Madras (now Tamil Nadu), Mysore (now Karnataka), Punjab, and
Rajasthan.
• Also, Five Zonal Councils were set up vide Part-III of the States Re-organisation Act, 1956.
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• Threat to one’s culture: Recently, there has been a worry of losing one's language and culture, as evidenced in
Karnataka by laws encouraging Kannadigas in blue-collar occupations.
Conclusion
Various factors contribute to unfulfilled proposals for state creation, including ethnicity, underdevelopment, and
logistical challenges. Some individuals seek separate states to preserve their ethnic traditions, while others desire
better development.
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Regionalism
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• The Agreement on Trade and Intercourse between Tibet region of China and India in April 29, 1954 highlighted the
Five Principles of Peaceful Co-existence (Panchsheel).
Panchsheel became the foundation of the Non-Aligned Movement at the 1961 Belgrade Conference.
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as when it criticised nations for forming alliances then signed a treaty of friendship with the USSR for 20 years in
1971, claiming that it was required owing to the Bangladesh situation.
• India aimed to promote global peace through NAM, mediating tensions between the two Cold War coalitions.
o For this aim, India mediated between cold war adversaries, particularly those involved in the 1950s Korean
War.
o The pinnacle of India's non-alignment policy came when it successfully ended the civil conflict in Congo.
• Following the same policy, the foreign powers recognised India's fairness during the 1956 Suez Canal issue.
• Early Relations:
o India recognized China early and supported its UN membership.
o The Panchsheel Agreement (1954) emphasized peaceful coexistence and mutual respect.
• Border Dispute and Sino-Indian War:
o Border disputes arose between them in the 1950s over Aksai Chin and the eastern sector with each side having
differences over McMahon Line, the border between Tibet and India's northeastern region.
o In October 1950, China invaded eastern Tibet and occupied Chamdo, disregarding India's objections.
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o India mediated, but China rejected offers and claimed Tibet as its own.
o The Panchsheel pact of 1954 recognized China's claim to Tibet, but Tibetans revolted for autonomy.
o The Dalai Lama sought sanctuary in India, causing tensions with China.
o Tensions between India and China escalated, resulting in the Sino-Indian War in 1962. The war ended in India's
defeat and China's occupation of disputed territories. This conflict strained bilateral relations and had a lasting
impact on India's view of China.
• Impact on Non-Alignment:
o The Sino-Indian War and China's aggression influenced India's policy of non-alignment. India became more
cautious of China and forged closer ties with the Soviet Union to counterbalance China's influence.
o The conflict also affected India's international standing, with some non-aligned countries sympathizing with
China and India's role within the Non-Aligned Movement being influenced by the conflict and alignment with
the Soviet Union.
• Attempts at Normalization:
o After the Sino-Indian War, India made diplomatic efforts to normalize relations with China. High-level visits,
such as Zhou Enlai's visit to India in 1960 and Nehru's visit to China in 1961, were conducted to improve ties.
o Both countries also engaged in negotiations and talks to resolve the border dispute, but these efforts did not
lead to significant progress in resolving the underlying issues.
• Result of attempts made at settling the disputes:
o ‘Maintenance of Peace and Tranquillity’ (1993), military CBMs (1996), ‘Political Parameters and Guiding
Principles’ for the settlement of boundary question (2005), and border defence cooperation (2012) — have
failed to lead to a settlement of the border question.
• Legacy:
o The border dispute between India and China, originating from the Nehruvian period, remains unresolved and
has resulted in periodic tensions and military standoffs, including the Doklam standoff in 2017 and the Galwan
Valley clash in 2020.
o This conflict has shaped India's China policy, leading to an emphasis on border security, military preparedness,
and a cautious approach to engaging with China.
In summary, India-China relations during the Nehruvian period started with goodwill and the Panchsheel Agreement
but were strained by the border dispute and the Sino-Indian War. This led to a shift in India's policy and a closer
alignment with the Soviet Union. The unresolved border issue remains a significant factor affecting India-China
relations today.
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• Ignored agriculture: Neglected food production, relied on foreign aid. • Closed economy: Self-reliance led to
depleted foreign reserves, BoP crisis.
• Indo-China border dispute: Criticized for recognizing Tibet, missed opportunity for resolving NEFA issue.
• Ignorance of Agriculture: Excessive reliance on heavy industries, especially in the first years of the Mahalanobis
plan, led to India's food deficit and the need for foreign aid.
• Closed economy: Though the goal was self-reliance, the closed economy system eroded foreign exchange reserves,
which led to the 1991 BoP crisis in India.
Shastri Era
The succession controversy arose after Jawaharlal Nehru's 1964 death. Lal Bahadur Shastri and Morarji Desai vied for
the prime ministership. Shastri became Prime Minister under the Syndicate, a group of leading Congress leaders. He
took office in June 1964.
Challenges
As India's Prime Minister, Lal Bahadur Shastri faced several challenges:
• A stagnating economy, worsening Balance of Payments, and serious food shortage.
• Protests in Tamil Nadu seeking English as the official language beyond the Constitution's 15-year limit.
• Demands for Goa's union with Maharashtra and Punjab's separation.
• Nagaland's independence movement.
• Kashmir and Pakistan's ambitions.
• China's power increased with October 1964 nuclear test.
Operation Gibraltar:
• The operation was a failure as the presence of Pakistanis was reported to the Indian authorities. The Indian Army
retaliated and captured Pakistan Occupied Kashmir (PoK) Haji Pir Pass.
Reasons why Operation Gibraltar Failed:
• Differing views on the plan's effectiveness and execution.
• Clumsy and flawed attempt according to Pakistani and neutral analysts.
• Mis-judgment of Kashmiri people's response and lack of coordination among military services.
• Limited awareness among senior Pakistani officials and reluctance to escalate into a full-scale war with India.
• According to then Chief of the Pakistan Air Force, Air Marshal Nur Khan, there was little coordination amongst
the military services on the impending operation.
• Many senior Pakistani military officers and political leaders were unaware of the impending crisis, thus surprising
not only India, but also Pakistan itself.
• Many senior officials also were against the plan, as a failure could lead to an all-out war with India, which many
wanted to avoid.
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• Pakistan's misconception of India's weakness after its war with China influenced its strategy.
• The death of Nehru and India's food crisis, along with China's support to Pakistan, played a role.
• Operation Grand Slam targeted the Akhnoor Bridge in Jammu and Kashmir but was unsuccessful.
• Official beginning of the War: On 6th September, India crossed the international border (the Radcliffe Line),
marking the official beginning of the war.
• The Indian Army captured certain areas in the Lahore district of Pakistan. The conflict ended on September 23,
1965, after the UN Security Council called for an unconditional ceasefire.
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Split in Congress
• After Shastri's death, the Congress party lacked clear political leadership, leading to a division between Indira
Gandhi and Morarji Desai.
• Indira Gandhi's supporters formed the Indian National Congress (R), while those who opposed her formed the
Indian National Congress (O).
• The death of President Zakir Hussain intensified the rift, with the Syndicate supporting a different candidate. Indira
Gandhi promoted V.V. Giri as an independent candidate, causing further disagreements and Desai's resignation.
• S. Nijalingappa, the Congress President, issued a whip in Reddy's favor, but Indira openly backed Giri and called for
a 'Conscience Vote.' Approximately one-third of the members voted for Giri, resulting in his election as President
of India.
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Conclusion: India's role in the birth of Bangladesh has led to its current prosperity, marking a significant foreign policy
achievement.
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Politics of Defections
• Regional alliances were accepted because parties understood local issues and attempted to solve them.
• Corruption led to frequent defections among parliamentarians, with legislators in Haryana being famously referred
to as "Aaya Ram and Gaya Ram" (incoming and outgoing Ram).
• Except for the Communist parties and Jan Sangh, party discipline broke broken.
• 16 states voted in 1967. The Congress only governed one state after losing majority.
• This election caused mass defections. Between 1967 and 1971, 142 MPs and 1900 MLAs switched parties.
• JP movement, which led to emergency and Janata government, a coalition of parties with different ideologies, also
contributed to coalition era.
JP Movement
Causes of Movement
• Indira Gandhi faced odds coming from 1973. The economy, politics, Indira Gandhi's leadership, and the Congress
administration all deteriorated. The 1974 J.P. movement expressed disappointment. Emergency followed in 1975.
• Recession, unemployment, inflation, and food shortages led to a major crisis.
• The Bangladesh war and refugee influx drained grain stocks and caused a fiscal deficit in 1971, while the war
depleted foreign exchange reserves.
• Widespread drought in 1972 and 1973 resulted in food scarcity, high prices, reduced power generation, an
industrial downturn, and increased unemployment.
• Congress lost power due to corruption and failed to handle local political crises. The middle class turned against
Congress due to rising prices and corruption, and rich peasants opposed Congress due to land reforms.
Discourse of JP Movement
• In January 1974, popular discontent over rising foodgrain, cooking oil, and basic commodity prices sparked a
student protest in Gujarat that was soon joined by opposition parties.
• After the Gujarat uprising's success, Bihar students staged a similar campaign in March 1974. After the assembly
gherao on March 18, students clashed with overzealous police, killing 27 people in one week.
• Jayprakash Narayan, known as JP, returned from political exile to lead the campaign and advocate for a "total
revolution" or "a war against the very system which has pushed practically everybody to go corrupt."
• In June 1975, the Allahabad High Court found Indira Gandhi guilty of unethical campaigning, invalidating her
election and barring her from running for office for six years. This ruling revived the opposition, led by JP. Despite
pending Supreme Court appeal and upcoming elections, JP called for resistance from the military, police, and
bureaucracy. In response, Indira Gandhi declared an internal emergency on June 26, 1975. JP launched the Total
Revolution movement on June 5, 1974, in Patna, drawing a crowd of 5 Lakh people.
Discourse of JP movement
• The JP movement faced government accusations of foreign conspiracy, harming governance.
• Press censorship suppressed protests.
• Organizations like Jamaat-i-Islami, CP(ML), RSS, Anand Marg, were banned, and law enforcement targeted
smugglers, hoarders, and criminals.
• Parliament was ineffective, omitting anti-emergency statements.
• Judicial review was curtailed through laws and constitutional amendments, notably the 42nd Amendment.
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Analysis of Emergency
• Indira Gandhi's declaration of Emergency shocked India and the world.
• For 21 months, democracy was suspended.
• Right to Life was violated, and the Shah Committee investigated abuses. The government approved the report. It
was followed by the Constitutional (Forty Forth Amendment) Act, 1978, which strengthened emergency measures.
• The dark period saw the suppression of freedom and strengthened emergency measures.
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Unrest in Punjab
• During the 1980s, a separatist movement emerged in Punjab, aiming to establish Khalistan, a separate Sikh nation.
The movement, initially led by the Akali Dal political party, resorted to communal tactics after their request for an
independent state was denied.
• The Akalis' campaign gained momentum in Punjab, and Giani Zail Singh's Punjab Congress supported Sant Jarnail
Singh Bhindranwale, a traditionalist Sikh and former Punjabi terrorist, to counter the Akali threat.
• Bhindranwale and the All India Sikh Students Federation carried out the assassination of the Nirankari sect leader,
sparking a terrorist campaign.
• Bhindranwale's demands were rooted in the 1973 Anandpur Sahib Resolution.
• From September 1983 onwards, Bhindranwale targeted engaged in criminal activities such as bank robberies and
thefts. The Punjab police failed to contain the terrorists, exacerbating the crisis and causing concern within the
Congress party.
Operation Bluestar
• Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale, leader of Damdami Taksal, aimed to establish Khalistan. He and his hardline armed
supporters took control of the Golden Temple complex in Amritsar, Punjab, in 1984.
• Indian troops, on Indira Gandhi's orders, retook the Golden Temple complex from him after an eight-day battle.
500 Sikh insurgents and 830 military casualties were reported.
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• Indira Gandhi's Assassination: Sikh bodyguards retaliated by assassinating Prime Minister Indira Gandhi on
October 31, 1984, triggering anti-Sikh riots, causing numerous Sikh deaths and property damage.
• Radicalization and Insurgency: The operation fueled demands for a separate Sikh homeland, leading to a
prolonged period of Sikh insurgency in Punjab during the 1980s and early 1990s.
• Political Fallout: The Congress party faced criticism for its handling of the situation, resulting in a split within the
Akali Dal.
• Reconciliation Efforts: Steps like the Nanavati Commission investigation and reforms aimed to address grievances
and promote development in Punjab.
Nanavati commission
• NDA government formed Justice Nanavati panel in 2000 to investigate Sikh riot deaths.
• Commission's report released in February 2005.
• Criticized for not addressing alleged involvement of Congress party members.
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Harchand Singh Longowal's in 1985 assassination and challenges hindered implementation. The Accord was a
significant step towards resolving Sikh disputes and promoting healing. It provided the groundwork for subsequent
efforts to restore peace and normalcy in Punjab, however obstacles and issues persisted.
Peace in Punjab
• September 1985: Punjab state assembly elections held despite Longowal's assassination. Akali Dal won, marking a
significant shift.
• Factionalism and soft policies allowed militant groups to exploit the state government, leading to increased
terrorist activities. President's Rule implemented in May 1987 due to the inability to control terrorism.
• Pakistan-supported terrorism escalated during President's Rule.
• The central governments of VP Singh and Chandra Shekhar tried to negotiate and pacify terrorists and radicals to
settle the Punjab crisis.
• By 1993, Punjab was almost terrorism-free thanks to the police.
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• Constitutional and Legislative Safeguards: It aimed to address their concerns about potential marginalization and
ensure their equitable representation in various institutions.
Rules for CAA: In January 2023, the Rajya Sabha committee has accepted the Centre's request for six more months
to frame rules under the Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) for the seventh time in a row.
Overall, the Assam Accord remains a landmark agreement that attempted to address the complex issue of illegal
immigration in Assam and protect the rights and interests of the indigenous Assamese population.
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• Civil Litigation and Compensation: Supreme Court in 1989 approved settlement, criticized for inadequate
compensation, ongoing legal battles.
• Judicial Criticism and Activism: Courts criticized for inadequate justice and compensation, activism on
environment and public health issues. The Bhopal Gas Tragedy's impact on survivors, affected communities,
compensation, justice, and accountability remains unresolved.
The Bhopal Gas Tragedy continues to have a lasting impact on the lives of the survivors and the affected communities,
and the issues related to compensation, justice, and accountability remain unresolved even after several decades.
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• Electoral Defeats: The government's popularity declined due to factors such as rising inflation, economic issues,
and anti-incumbency sentiments.
o The defeats in state elections weakened the government's political standing and created challenges in
implementing its policies and programs.
• Internal Party Conflicts and Factionalism: Differences within the party weakened its cohesion and hampered
effective governance.
o The government had to navigate internal rivalries and power struggles, which affected decision-making
and policy implementation.
• Coalition Politics and Loss of Majority: In the later years of Rajiv Gandhi's tenure, the Indian National Congress
lost its majority in the Lok Sabha, the lower house of Parliament.
o This led to the government relying on support from smaller regional parties, resulting in a coalition
government.
It is important to note that the factors contributing to the fall of the Rajiv Gandhi government were interconnected,
and the specific dynamics varied during his tenure.
1989 Election:
• The 1989 elections saw no single party win majority, ending Congress's dominance.
• Congress didn't form a coalition, and V.P. Singh became Prime Minister with National Front, Left, and BJP support.
• Mandal Commission Recommendations and Diversionary Tactics: To divert attention and counter the threat, V.P.
Singh announced the implementation of the Mandal Commission's recommendations in Parliament on August 7,
1990.
• Communal Tensions and Rath Yatra: L.K. Advani's announcement of the Rath Yatra, a religious procession,
heightened communal tensions. The yatra aimed to lay the foundation stone for the Ram Mandir, but Advani's
detention in Samastipur, Bihar, led the BJP to withdraw its support from the central government.
Mandal Commission:
• Backward classes investigation Established in 1978, the Mandal Commission surveyed and recommended
strategies for identifying and uplifting "backward classes."
• The commission's report was published in 1980 but couldn't be implemented due to the fall of the Janta
government.
Indra Sawhney case (1992): It held that reservations could be provided to socially and educationally backward classes
but capped the reservation quota at 50%.
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The economic reforms and policy changes implemented during this period laid the foundation for India's subsequent
economic growth and transformation.
Government of Vajpayee
• India's tenth Prime Minister, the first non-Congress Prime Minister to complete a full term.
• Advani declared Vajpayee as BJP's PM candidate in 1995 for his political acceptability to form a coalition.
• Vajpayee served as Prime Minister for three non-consecutive terms: 13 days in 1996, 13 months in 1998-1999, and
from 1999 to 2004.
• After the dissolution of the Gujral government, Vajpayee led the BJP to form its second government in 1998.
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Government Response:
• Military Operations: Indian Armed Forces launched Operation Vijay to reclaim captured territories, involving
ground assaults, artillery shelling, air strikes, etc.
• Diplomatic Efforts: Vajpayee government engaged in diplomatic efforts to gain international support and isolate
Pakistan.
• International Diplomacy: Vajpayee visited countries like the United States and China, seeking their intervention in
resolving the conflict. The international community largely supported India's position.
• International Pressure: India utilized international pressure to push Pakistan for withdrawal. The United States
played a crucial role in exerting diplomatic pressure.
• Successful Military Operations: Indian Army recaptured strategic positions, pushing intruders back across the Line
of Control.
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Conclusion
An atmosphere with more thorough policy measures is required to guard against the unfavourable effects of India's
green revolution on farmers, people's health, and the environment. It is also important to strike a balance between
conventional farming methods and contemporary farming methods, as well as with organic growth.
Operation Flood
It was one of the World's Largest Rural Development Programmes.
• Indian government launched dairy movement - White Revolution (1970).
o National Milk Day is dedicated to Dr Verghese Kurien who was the architect of Operation Flood.
• Operation Flood aimed to increase milk production, rural incomes, and consumer prices.
• Bedrock of the operation: The bedrock of Operation Flood has been village milk producers' cooperatives, which
procure milk and provide inputs and services, making modern management and technology available to
members.
• Objectives of Operation Flood: Increase milk production ("a flood of milk"), Augment rural incomes and
Reasonable prices for consumers
• Impact: Higher milk output, increased farmer incomes, anti-poverty program.
• Impact of Operation Flood:
o Significant rise in milk output, boosting farmers' incomes.
o Effective anti-poverty program, benefiting landless laborers and small farmers.
o Development of domestic dairy equipment manufacturing sector.
o Advancements in artificial insemination, MIS, dairy engineering, food technology, and animal nutrition.
o Establishment of 6,000 women's dairy cooperative groups with support from NGOs like SEWA and Operation
Flood.
o Positive effects on other cooperatives, including those for fruits, vegetables, oilseeds, salt, and tree growers
initiated by NDDB.
Positives of Operation Flood in India:
• Increased milk production: Operation Flood made India the largest milk-producing country globally, contributing
24% of global milk production in 2021-22.
o According to production data of Food and Agriculture Organization Corporate Statistical Database
(FAOSTAT), India is the highest milk producer i.e., rank first position in the world contributing twenty-four
percent of global milk production in the year 2021-22.
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• Improved rural livelihoods: Program empowered dairy farmers through resources, training, and technology,
enhancing their income and livelihoods.
• Enhanced rural infrastructure: Investment in milk collection centers, chilling plants, and processing facilities
improved dairy infrastructure in rural areas.
• Cooperative societies: Encouraged formation of dairy cooperatives, enabling farmers to collectively manage milk
production, processing, and marketing, empowering them and improving their bargaining power.
Conclusion
It is important to note that while Operation Flood had its limitations and challenges, it remains one of the most
significant agricultural programs in India's history and played a crucial role in transforming the dairy sector.
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Naxalism
21. Naxalism
Maoist Movement in India: Origins and Evolution
• Maoist movement is one of the longest and deadliest insurgencies in the country's history.
• Left-Wing Extremism (LWE) traces its origins back to the Telangana peasant rebellion (1946-51) but reached its
peak in 1967 with the Naxalbari uprising in West Bengal.
• After the initial rebellion was suppressed, the Naxalite movement emerged under leaders like Charu Majumdar,
Kanu Sanyal, and Jangal Santhal.
• Naxalite rebels received support from local villagers and even the People's Republic of China, which referred to
the movement as the "Spring Thunder."
• While initially inspired by Mao Zedong, the Naxalite movement developed its own distinct ideology, deviating
from traditional Maoism.
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4. Weak Technical Intelligence: Limited technical intelligence hampers effective countermeasures, especially in
areas with inadequate infrastructure and communication networks.
5. Lack of Administrative Follow-up: After regaining control, the administration fails to provide essential services
to the affected population.
6. Confusion over Approach: State governments often perceive Naxalism as a central government issue, leading to
a lack of proactive initiatives at the state level to combat the problem.
Through a holistic approach focusing on development and security related interventions, the LWE problem can be
successfully tackled. Civil society and the media should build pressure on the Maoists to eschew violence, join the
mainstream and recognise the fact that the socio-economic and political dynamics and aspirations of 21st Century
India are far removed from the Maoist world-view.
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• Socialism with Restricted Entry to Marketism without Exit, Crony Socialism to stigmatized capitalism, Limited
Liability ➔ Little Liability, Policy Paralysis, Multilateral Institutions, Decoupling from China to coupling with
India.
Infrastructure Development:
• Construction of dams, irrigation canals, and hydroelectric power projects to enhance agricultural productivity,
generate electricity, and provide irrigation facilities.
• Emphasis on the expansion of railways and road networks to improve transportation, trade, and connectivity
across the country.
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• Rapid industrialization reduced agriculture spending, second Plan saw 50% cut.
• The failure of the monsoon and its impact on inflation.
o Consecutive monsoon failures in 1965 and 1966 worsened the already stagnant agriculture sector, leading
to a decline in agricultural output.
o The USA decided not to renew the long-term PL-480 (wheat loan) agreement with India due to India's
stance on Vietnam.
• Impact of Wars: The conflicts in 1962 and 1965 led to increased defence spending, causing a fiscal deficit of 7.3%
of GDP for the governments in 1966-67.
• The balance of payments situation worsened due to insufficient reserves. Foreign exchange reserves averaged
around $340 million from 1964-65 to 1966-67, which was not enough to cover even two months of imports.
• Foreign aid has become increasingly relied upon during the first three Plans, but now its dependence has
significantly grown due to food shortages and a negative balance of payments.
• Reform measures: After 1967, a series of radical economic policies were implemented in India, which had a lasting
impact on the country's development efforts. The user mentioned that there are some things that they want to
discuss.
• On July 20, 1969, the 14 major private commercial banks underwent nationalisation.
o In 1972, insurance was nationalised.
o In 1973, the coal industry underwent nationalisation in the power sector.
• Aims of reforms: The move aimed to increase bank lending to agriculture, as big businesses were dominating the
credit flow.
• In 1969, the Monopoly and Restrictive Trade Practises Act (MRTP) was passed to promote a competitive
environment in business by imposing restrictions on the activities of large business houses.
o After 1969, any business group with assets exceeding Rs. 20 crores were deemed a monopoly and
prohibited from further business expansion.
• Foreign Exchange and Regulation Act (FERA) enacted in 1973 imposed strict regulations on foreign investment in
India.
• Nationalisation: The government has chosen to acquire and manage struggling companies, including textile mills,
instead of letting them shut down.
• India briefly suspended its five-year plans and instead implemented annual plans between 1966 and 1969. The
country decided not to allocate resources for an extended period.
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• The 1980s modifications were a flexible approach within the control regime, but underlying structural weaknesses
persisted.
• The issue of a structural bottleneck has not been addressed or resolved. In the 1980s, the Indian economy seemed
to be thriving, but underlying structural weaknesses were emerging.
• The user mentions several factors that contributed to the economic situation, including industrial control, the
licence raj, the Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practises Act (MRTP) of 1969, nationalisation of banks and
industries, self-sufficiency, and an inward-looking trade policy.
• In the late 1980s, there was a significant trade deficit as imports were almost double the number of exports. This
led to export earnings being only 55% of the total imports.
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Recent Years:
• Emphasis on Ease of Doing Business: India has undertaken reforms to improve the ease of doing business,
streamline regulations, and attract investment.
• India jumps 79 positions from 142nd (2014) to 63rd (2019) in 'World Bank's Ease of Doing Business Ranking
2020'.
• Digital Transformation: The government has prioritized digitalization and e-governance initiatives, promoting
digital payments, expanding internet connectivity, and leveraging technology for service delivery and financial
inclusion.
• India with 89.5 million digital transactions in the year 2022 has topped the list of five countries in digital
payments, according to data from MyGovIndia.
• Start-up Ecosystem: India has witnessed the rise of a vibrant start-up ecosystem, fostering innovation,
entrepreneurship, and job creation. Various government initiatives and funding support have boosted the growth
of start-ups in sectors like technology, e-commerce, and fintech.
The Startup India initiative was launched on 16th January 2016, by the Hon’ble Prime Minister. Since the inception
of the initiative:
• There are over 99000+ startups recognized by the government of India as of May 2023
• 49% of them having a base in Tier 2 - Tier 3 cities
• These startups are spread over 669 districts from 36 States and Union Territories of India
• As of 31st March 2023, India is home to 108 unicorns with a total valuation of $ 340.80 Bn.
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The journey of Indian economic development since independence has seen a transition from a planned economy to
economic liberalization, embracing globalization and fostering entrepreneurship. Challenges such as poverty,
inequality, and job creation remain, but India has emerged as one of the world's fastest-growing major economies
and a key player in the global economy.
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Analysis
• It was the first attempt to give Independent India's educational system direction, making it a significant milestone.
• Three-language formula was praised for national integration. The policy's recognition of central government
education promotion was a promising start.
• Critics said: Political compromise characterised the three-language model. Despite the good intentions, it would
burden pupils.
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• The "plus two stage" was recommended for all • NPE 1986 was a milestone in independent India's history.
schools. o Secularism, socialism, and democracy were
• Decentralised elementary education planning and stressed for the country's population.
control were also considered. • Policy aimed to reduce urban-rural education disparity
• Value education and understanding the country's and improve women, SCs, and STs' education and
cultural heritage were stressed. vocational training.
• To boost individual and national production, it • Policy was criticised for ignoring other factors affecting
prioritised vocational education. education, such as civil society activism, research, and
societal changes.
86th Amendment
• It introduced article 21A, which stipulates that “the state shall provide free and compulsory education to all
children of the age of six to fourteen years in such manner as the state may, by law, determine”.
• It paved the way for Right to Education Bill 2005, 2008, and 2009.
o Right to Education Act (RTE), 2009 Article 21-A took effect on April 1, 2010.
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• Higher Education Reforms: The NEP introduces reforms in higher education, including the restructuring of the
higher education regulatory system, the promotion of research and innovation, and the establishment of a
National Research Foundation (NRF).
• Focus on Equity and Inclusion: The policy aims to address inequities in education access and quality by providing
special provisions for disadvantaged groups, economically weaker sections, and students with disabilities.
Conclusion
India has evolved to a rights-based framework that requires the central and state governments to implement this
essential child right as guaranteed in Article 21A of the Constitution in line with the RTE legislation.
Scientific Developments
After India's independence in 1947, the country has made significant scientific advancements across various fields.
Here are some key scientific developments in India after independence:
Technical education, Space Research and Exploration: The government worked to improve technical education
infrastructure.
• The government opened the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) in Kharagpur, West Bengal, on August 18, 1951.
• It opened the nation's first technical college.
o In Bombay, Madras, Kanpur, and Delhi, similar institutions followed.
• The government produced the Scientific Policy Resolution of 1958, which emphasised "pure, applied, and
educational" cultivation of science and scientific research.
• Establishment of DRDO: The government merged the Technical Development Establishment, Directorate of
Technical Development and Production, and Defence Science Organisation to create the country's top military
research and development organisation, the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO).
• Space research: The government established the Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) under
the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) in 1962. Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) replaced it in 1969.
o Rohini, the first Indian satellite launched using SLV-3, was launched by ISRO in 1980.
o ISRO has successfully launched numerous satellites, including the Chandrayaan lunar missions and the
Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM).
• Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV): India developed the GSLV, a launch vehicle capable of placing
satellites into geostationary orbits. It has played a crucial role in India's space exploration efforts.
• Mangalyaan (Mars Orbiter Mission): In 2014, India successfully launched the Mangalyaan spacecraft, making India
the first country to reach Mars' orbit in its first attempt.
• Currently India is planning to study Sun (Adity L-1 Mission) and Under Gaganyaan Mission, it will send the first-
time humans to the space.
Nuclear Technology:
• Nuclear Power: India has made advancements in nuclear power generation.
• Nuclear Weapons Program: India conducted its first nuclear test in 1974 and became a nuclear weapons state in
1998. These developments marked significant milestones in India's nuclear technology capabilities.
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• India stands 4th globally in Renewable Energy Installed Capacity (including Large Hydro), 4th in Wind Power
capacity & 4th in Solar Power capacity (as per REN21 Renewables 2022 Global Status Report).
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Conclusion
The scientific developments in India have contributed to national progress, technological innovation, and global
recognition.
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