The Opening of Japan and international society

in the 19th century (1)

 Why did the seclusion policy start to crumble?

Let me introduce some answers from the class

＊Geographical reasons:
☆Difficult to control the coastline
＊Internal reasons: the deterioration of the Shogunate power

＊Challenges to seclusion made by Western powers

the UK, France, the USA
＊The alarming news of China’s defeat in the Opium War
→the Japanese became aware that adhering to the seclusion
policy would endanger the independence of the country.
＊Countermeasures of the Bakufu were insufficient
 The gradual breakdown of the Tokugawa
Shogunate’s seclusion policy
Outline of Lecture 2：
1) Geographical reasons:
☆Difficult to control the coastline
☆Difficult to control the “castaways”
(∵shipwreck, drift away due to technical trouble etc.)
2) The rise of Dutch and Western studies in Japan
⇒ ☆Difficult to control the influx of information (intellectuals)
3) International Society in the late 18th ∼mid 19th century
4) Challenges to seclusion made by Western powers and
the Countermeasures of the Bakufu
The alarming news reached Japan in the 19th century
↓
5) How did they influence the Japanese attitudes towards the
changing world?
 1) Geographical reasons:
☆ difficult to predict the arrival of foreign vessels
☆ difficult to control the trading of the clans that were
geographically far from Yedo (e.g. Satsuma clan)
☆ difficult to control the “accidental castaways / drifters”
∵shipwrecks due to technical trouble were quite common.
Note the significance of the information they brought back to Japan.

⇒＊Why so many technical troubles?

The ban on trading and long-distance voyage→ construction of
large and durable vessels was not allowed. → In other words,
the increasing technical difficulties were the by-products of
the seclusion policy.
⇒ the growing awareness of the geographical condition of
Japan (i.e. Japan is surrounded by the sea) and of its
vulnerability.
 2) The rise of Dutch and Western studies in Japan
Scholars of Dutch studies
Main interest in the 18th ∼ early 19th century= science →
wider interest
①Medical sciences, including anatomy, natural sciences,
chemistry, electricity, arts, printing skills
②astronomy, ship building, geography, technology
＝ ②included delicate subjects under the seclusion policy
i.e. politicization of Western knowledge
⇒ Unwelcome to the authority, but the new knowledge was
still limited to the intellectuals, and most of the people were
uninformed. (i.e. Although it became increasingly difficult
for the Bakufu to restrict the influx and circulation of
information, it was still controllable until early 19th century.)
→from the mid-19th century many scholars in Dutch studies
became the target of suppression. → See 5) (of today’s lecture).
Before analyzing the challenges of the Western powers
and how the Bakufu reacted, we should examine the
nature of the Western powers approaching Japan.
↓
3) International society surrounding Japan：Nineteenth
century ∼
3) International society surrounding Japan：Nineteenth century ∼

1. Western Society in the mid-nineteenth century and

its interest towards the non-Western world
① economic and commercial elements：
② the change in the social structure：
Industrial Revolution →the Age of Capitalism
↓ ／ ↓
↓ 乚 ――――― ／ ―→ the rise of Democracy →the Age of Revolution
↓ ／ ↓
the rise of middle classes ←→①anti-bourgeoisie mov’t
& the rise of the working classes
↓ ②the rise of Nationalism / the birth of modern nation states
↓
quest for a new market,
⇒①for industrial & commercial reasons
⇒②to ease & deviate the dissatisfaction of the working classes
to maintain the superiority over the working classes as the leaders of
trade & biz
↓
Towards the Age of Imperialism
3) International society surrounding Japan：Nineteenth century ∼

2. The complex feelings of the middle classes in Western

society: particularly from the mid-19th century
＊feeling of uneasiness towards working class movements
＊the desire to gain more “power”
⇒better education to their off-springs + acquisition of land & wealth
∴ trading overseas + colonial officers (job opportunity & social
status↑) = an effective way to gain more “power”

⇒∴ the dynamism of overseas expansion should not be

analyzed only from the point of view of West vs Non-West
/ Eur vs Non-Eur. The class conflict, several struggles to
gain power should also be taken into consideration.
3) International society surrounding Japan：Nineteenth century ∼

3. Diplomatic intentions: What did the major Western

countries expect to gain through persuading Japan to
end the seclusion policy?
How were China and India ‘incorporated’ into this
structure? ⇒How did the procedure effect the process of
the opening of Japan, and eventually Korea?

＊NL (the Netherlands)

＊Russia
＊UK
＊USA
＊France
 3) International society surrounding Japan：Nineteenth century ∼

4. Intentions of the Western countries approaching Japan

＊USA：①Discovery of Gold Mine in California→the
expansion of the Western Frontier=biz chance! ②Whaling
③strategic significance of the Far East & SE Asia
＊Russia：several attempts →see 4)-1.
Intention: ①rivalry vs. the UK＠Europe, Indian border
②to open a nonfreezing port throughout the year
＊UK：several attempts →see 4)-1.
Intention: ①rivalry vs. Russia, the US＠Europe, Indian border,
②Japan →evaluate the market potentiality cf. China, India
③In quest of coal storage for long-distance vessels
④ the British were also interested in Ogasawara Islands,
and the Ryukyu Islands for strategic reasons cf. the USA
 3) International society surrounding Japan：Nineteenth century ∼

4. Intentions of the Western countries approaching Japan

＊the Netherlands：
Background= (1) relative decline of power in world politics e.g.
vs. Napoleon / the Belgian Revolution (1830-1839) etc
(2) economic depression in the mid-1840s = difficult to back
up Japan in case the UK attacked Japan (cf. Opium War)
⇒<1> necessary to cover up the relative decline of power
<2> necessary to advise Japan to avert any warfare against
the Western powers
⇒1844 King Willem II sent an official letter to the Shogun
(Tokugawa Iyeyoshi) to open up the country, offering help as a
proof of long-standing friendship
⇔was rejected by the Bakufu.
 4) Challenges to seclusion made by Western powers
and the Countermeasures of the Bakufu：
＊lacked consistency? flexible attitude?

1. Major examples of arrival / measures of the Bakufu

1. (1) <Russia>
e.g. 1772 ＠Akkeshi;
1792 Laxman＠Nemuro −brought back Daikokuya Kodayu
1804 Rezanov： arrival at Nagasaki
⇒ 1806 Bakufu ordered for the Provision of Fuel and Water
☆1808-09 Mamiya Rinzo (an undercover agent of the Bakufu) explored
Sakhalin and some parts of Hokkaido (= Ezo-chi)
 4) Challenges to seclusion made by Western powers
and the Countermeasures of the Bakufu：
＊lacked consistency? flexible attitude?

1. Major examples of arrival / measures of the Bakufu

(2) <UK / USA> the arrival of UK/US vessels
• 1808 HMS Phaeton Incident (Nagasaki Harbour Incident) ←NLvsUK＠Europe
• 1818 Gordon(UK)＠Uraga →arrival of UK vessels became frequent
⇔ 1825 Edict to Repel Foreign Vessels

• 1837 Morrison Incident(US)

=US unarmed merchant ship arrived off Uraga Coast,
=7 Japanese shipwrecked castaways (Otokichi etc) were on board to
be repatriated.
⇒Bakufu bombarded the vessel in accordance with the 1825
Edict
⇒criticism ↑ ⇒1839 suppression of influential Western scholars(蛮社の獄)
 4) Challenges to seclusion made by Western powers
and the Countermeasures of the Bakufu：
＊lacked consistency? flexible attitude?
<a big turning point> 1840-42 Opium War
⇒ 1842 Order for the Provision of Fuel, Water and Food

＊How could the countermeasures of the Bakufu be assessed?

Inconsistent (←not knowing what to do)? Flexible?
Further dates: Growing interest of the Western countries towards Japan
• 1844 French vessel：arrival at Ryukyu(=Okinawa)
• 1844 King William II of the NL：sent a letter to the Shogun (Tokugawa
Ieyoshi) to put an end to the seclusion policy ⇔ Rejected by the Bakufu
• 1846 Biddle(US)：arrival at Uraga
• 1853 Perry(US)：arrival at Uraga
• 1853 Putyatin(R)：arrival at Nagasaki
• 1854 Perry(US)：returned to Japan as announced→US/Japan Treaty of
Peace and Amity
 4) Challenges to seclusion made by Western
powers and Countermeasures of the Bakufu
Asia since the early nineteenth century →the sense of
impending crisis rose rapidly.
New worries (particularly the news of Opium War, the
arrival of foreign vessels etc.)
Note how the updated information was brought about:
Western powers often provided negative information of
one another, which made it difficult for the Japanese to
decide which country was most reliable.
↓
The rise of the sense of impending crisis.
＊Sense of “National identity”?
 5) The attitudes of the Japanese intellectuals
before the Opening of Japan

＊How were the Japanese (the authority / some Clans that

were alert to the new “dangers” / the intellectuals / people
in general ) influenced by the new development ?
How did these factors influence the Japanese attitudes
towards the outer world?

＊ People in general were still underinformed compared to

the intellectuals. (Their attitude will be discussed in later
lectures.)
 5) The attitudes of the Japanese intellectuals before the
Opening of Japan

1, Scholars of Western (mainly Dutch) studies:

①Medical sciences, including anatomy, natural sciences,
chemistry, electricity, arts, printing skills
②astronomy, ship building, geographical knowledge,
technology
＝ ②included delicate subjects under the seclusion policy
i.e. politicization of Western knowledge
wider and more in-depth knowledge were sought for.
→ some scholars started to criticize ① the seclusion
policy; ② the Bakufu reactions to Western challenges.
⇒ many scholars of Western studies became the target
of suppression as in 1839 (蛮社の獄=a large-scale
suppression of the scholars of Western studies)
5) The attitudes of the Japanese intellectuals before the
Opening of Japan

2. The Attitudes of the Japanese intellectuals

①Although there were many scholars of Dutch studies
who remained as protagonists of the anti-seclusion
policy, some started to concentrate on pursuing
scientific research in order to evade being involved in
political issues.
②On the other hand, some Confucian scholars became
aware of the significance of widening their knowledge
and understanding towards the outer world.
e.g. Yokoi Shonan(横井小楠)
 5) The attitudes of the Japanese intellectuals before the
Opening of Japan

3. In the process of gaining updated information about

the world, the Japanese intellectuals became aware of
the change in the significance of the Netherlands.
This was something that the NL wanted to conceal!
The recognition of the decline of Dutch significance
(⇔since Dutch was the only official Western channel,
this shift took place, slowly and subtly. However, it
became impossible to hide the “reality” in the 19th
century)
⇒ Change in the trend of Western studies：
Dutch → Western studies
Lecture 2 Assignment →Group discussion during class.
Considering the increasing pressure of the Western powers
urging Japan to open up the country, what is your
impression of the countermeasures of the Bakufu? Would
you call it a lack of consistency, or would you evaluate it as
a sign of flexibility? →Go through the contents of 4).

Submission of individual paper is unnecessary for Lecture 2.

The absentees for today’s class do not need to submit their
views individually.

An answer sheet will be distributed to each group, so write

down your name and ID number, and the date. List up the
interpretations that came up during the group discussion and
scrutinize them. After the group discussion session, we shall
shift to class discussion.