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 Chapter 10: Witchcraft

Chapter Ten
WITCHCRAFT
CHAPTER OUTLINE

THE CONCEPT OF WITCHCRAFT IN SMALL-SCALE SOCIETIES

Witchcraft among the Azande
The Zande Belief in Witchcraft
A Case of Witchcraft
An Analysis of Zande Witchcraft Beliefs
Witchcraft among the Navaho
Witchcraft Reflects Human Culture
Sorcery, Witchcraft, and AIDS
EURO-AMERICAN WITCHCRAFT BELIEFS
The Connection with Pagan Religions
The Witchcraze in Europe
The Witchcraze in England and the United States
Functions of Euro-American Witchcraft Beliefs
Witches as Women
Modern-Day Witch Hunts
BOX 10.1 THE EVIL EYE
BOX 10.2 SATANISM

CHAPTER SUMMARY

The idea of witchcraft as an evil force bringing misfortune to members of a community is found
in a great number of societies throughout the world. Unlike sorcerers who perform magic rituals
to achieve their evil ends, witches simply will death and destruction and it happens, for the
source of this evil is a supernatural power that lies within the body of the witch. Witches possess
personal characteristics that are the antithesis of those that characterize a good, moral person.
The concept of witchcraft in small-scale societies is largely based on the work of E. E. Evans-
Pritchard among the Azande of the Sudan. Evans-Pritchard concluded that a belief in witchcraft
serves three functions: It provides an explanation for the unexplainable; it provides a set of cul-
tural behaviors for dealing with misfortunate; and it serves to define morality.
Ideas of witchcraft in Europe were influenced by Christian ideas about the nature of evil.
Christianity accepts the existence of an evil spirit, known as Satan or the Devil. In this belief sys-
tem witches are individuals whose evil power originates with a pact with the Devil. In Europe,
witchcraft beliefs were merged with sorcery. Sorcery became associated with the invocation of
spirits, which was defined as being hostile to God. Anyone doing any form of magic was seen as
calling on the servants of Satan. Magic and witchcraft became not just crimes against society, but
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heresy—crimes against God. The period known as the Witchcraze began at the end of the Middle
Ages (around 1450) and lasted for about 200 years. In Euro-American witchcraft beliefs, witches
define all that is wrong and immoral. People who exhibit antisocial behavior are the most likely
targets of witchcraft accusations. Witches also fulfill our unconscious need to blame someone for
the misfortunes that we experience in our daily lives. In general, patterns of witchcraft accusa-
tions reflect deeply felt conflicts and divisions in a society.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading Chapter 10 the student should be able to:

• Identify, compare and contrast the three different conceptions of witchcraft.
• Describe the basic beliefs and behaviors associated with witchcraft in small-scale socie-
ties, including the Azande and Navaho.
• Explain the ways in which witchcraft accusations and behavior reflect the underlying ten-
sions existing in a society.
• Describe the origins of Euro-American witchcraft beliefs.
• Outline the historical development of the witch craze.
• Explain the functional approach to witchcraft beliefs for both small-scale and Euro-
American cultures.
• Explain why women were the main targets for witchcraft accusations in certain cultures
or at certain times.

KEY TERMS

Eucharist: A Christian sacrament that commemorates Jesus Christ’s last supper by consecrating
bread and wine. (p. 221)
Hedonism: Pursuit of or devotion to pleasure as a matter of principle. (p. 226)
Heresy: Crimes against God. (p. 220)
Inquisition: A unit of the Roman Catholic Church that convened to judge cases of heresy. (p.
220)
Witchcraft: The ability of a person to cause harm by means of a personal power that resides
within the body of the witch. (p. 213)

DISCUSSION TOPICS

• Why do you think that the conception of people who have the innate ability to do evil is
found in so many different cultures?
• Do we have any similar ideas in our modern culture?
• What conceptions do modern Americans have of witchcraft and witches?
• In what ways does witchcraft reflect human culture and human nature?
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• What is meant by the statement that the main way of becoming a witch is to be accused
of being one? What are the implications for understanding the ways in which witchcraft
accusations function in a society?
• What do you think of the role of the church in the European witch craze? How has the
Catholic Church in more modern times dealt with such issues in its past as the Inquisition
and the Crusades? Does the modern church bear any responsibility for these past actions?
• In many cultures witches are equally male or female, but in Europe and America witches
are predominantly female. What was the underlying gender ideology that made this the
case? Do you think this is still true? If so, to what extent?

STUDENT PROJECTS

• Develop a simple survey to use in collecting information from a series of at least one
dozen individuals. Ask them questions about witchcraft and how witchcraft differs from
sorcery.
• Locate English translations of early documents that relate to the European Witchcraze,
such as Malleus Maleficarum (www.mallesmaleficarum.org). Take a selection, rewrite it
in modern English and discuss its meaning.

VIDEOS

Witchcraft Among the Azande. Filmakers Library. 52 min.

A classic examination of witchcraft beliefs among the Azande, including the case of witchcraft
among co-wives that is described in the textbook.

Witches. Insight Media. 1996, 50 min.

Looks at the witch craze and the Wiccan religion.

WEB SITES

www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/salem/SALEM.HTM Salem Witchcraft Trials of

1692.

www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/witches1.html Medieval Sourcebook: 15th Century Witch-

craft Documents.

www.malleusmaleficarum.org/ The text of the Malleus Maleficarum.

www.churchofsatan.com/ Church of Satan website.

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www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/salem/salem.htm Salem Witchcraft Trials 1692.

www.nationalgeographic.com/salem National Geographic Salem Witchcraft Hysteria

ADDITIONAL REFERENCES

Alan Dundes, editor. The Evil Eye: A Casebook. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1992.
Description of the evil eye in different cultures.

Peter Charles Hoffer. The Devil’s Disciples: Makers of the Salem Witchcraft Trials. Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996. A detailed analysis of the Salem witchcraft trails.

Alan Macfarlane. Witchcraft in Tudor and Stuart England: A Regional and Comparative Study.
Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, 1970. A study of British witchcraft beliefs.

Jeffrey Russell. The History of Witchcraft: Sorcerers, Heretics, and Pagans. London: Thames
and Hudson, 1980. A look at witchcraft in tribal societies, historical Europe and modern times.

Andrew Sanders. A Deed without a Name. Oxford: Berg Publishers, 1995. A detailed analysis of
tribal and Euro-American witchcraft.

TEST QUESTIONS

Multiple Choice Questions

1. In small-scale societies witches differ from sorcerers in that witches kill by:
a. using contagious magic
b. using poisons and other lethal devices
c. willing death to occur
d. creating dolls in the image of the victim
Answer: c pages 213-214

2. One of the universal characteristics of witchcraft is that:

a. witches are always female
b. witches achieve their evil ends through magical techniques
c. witches achieve their evil power through a pact or relationship with a supernatural pow-
er
d. none of the above
Answer: d pages 213-214

3. The term witchcraft has several meanings. Which of the following is not an example of
witchcraft?
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a. a sorcerer using evil magic to kill a member of his or her own community
b. a 17th century heretic being executed by the church for hearsay
c. a person accused of willing death in another person
d. all of the above are examples of witchcraft
Answer: c page 213

4. The study of witchcraft among the Azande of southern Sudan was conducted in the 1920s
by:
a. Bronislaw Malinowski b. Edward Tylor
c. James Frazer d. E. E. Evans-Pritchard
Answer: d page 214

5. All of the following are true about mangu, the cause of witchcraft among the Azande, ex-
cept:
a. it is a physical substance found within the body of a witch
b. it can be manipulated by shamans in healing rituals
c. it can be seen when autopsies are performed
d. it is inherited from the parent of the same sex
Answer: b pages 214-215

6. Which of the following is true about Zande witchcraft beliefs?

a. witches normally depend upon magic rituals to attain their evil ends
b. witchcraft is a substance found within the body of the witch
c. some witches can use their power for beneficial ends
d. all of the above
Answer: b pages 214-215

7. Among the Azande, people accused of being witches are usually people who:
a. are unknown enemies living in nearby villages
b. have been initiated as witches by joining a witching society
c. are known to the victims with whom there have particular social relationships
d. hold high office, such as chief
Answer: c pages 214-215

8. A case of witchcraft among the Azande is confirmed by the:

a. prince b. shaman
c. poison oracle d. priest
Answer: c page 215

9. Which of the following is an oracle used by the Azande to discover the identity of witches?
a. the rubbing board oracle
b. spirit possession by a medium
c. throwing of shells on a mat and reading the pattern formed
d. studying the internal organs of a sacrificed chicken
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Answer: a page 215

10. Which of the following is true about benge, the poison oracle?
a. poison may be given directly to the accused witch
b. poison is given to young pigs who either die or survive
c. sticks are dipped in poison and then placed in termite mounds
d. the poison is seldom strong enough to actually kill an animal
Answer: a pages 215-216

11. Which of the following event occurred in the case of the Zande co-wives?
a. The younger wife was identified as the witch by an ordeal.
b. The younger wife was beaten until she confessed.
c. The younger wife cooled her witchcraft by spitting water.
d. The husband was forced to divorce his younger wife because of witchcraft.
Answer: c page 216

12. Witchcraft beliefs among the Azande:

a. provides an explanation for unfortunate events
b. provides stereotyped behavioral patterns in crisis situations
c. eliminates deviant behavior from the society
d. all of the above
Answer: d page 216

13. Witchcraft among the Azande functions to:

a. cause seriously disruptive suspicions and accusations between individuals
b. reinforce and sanction accepted morality
c. provide a means of curbing the power of the ruling class
d. none of the above
Answer: b page 216

14. Which of the following is true about Navaho witchcraft?

a. Navaho witches are born with witchcraft substance within their bodies
b. witchcraft is a common factor in Navaho life that is freely talked about
c. witchcraft is learned from a close relative and requires initiation
d. witches participate in healing rituals
Answer: c page 217

15. Which of the following is true about Navaho witchcraft?

a. witches use materials taken from corpses such as corpse powder
b. witches can turn themselves in animals at will
c. witches will kill a close relative as part of the process of becoming a witch
d. all of the above are true statements
Answer: d page 217

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16. In contrast to the Gwari of West Africa, Nupe witches are always female. It appears to be
due to the fact that:
a. Nupe wives engage in activities that their husbands cannot control
b. political power is vested in female chiefs who rule through their husbands and brothers
c. women sexuality and fertility is viewed as dangerous and powerful
d. the Nupe were influenced by Christian missionaries at the time of Witchcraze in Europe
Answer: a pages 217-218

17. The spread of AIDS in small-scale societies is often attributed to witchcraft and sorcery be-
cause:
a. AIDS is a poorly understood disease of which there is no clear cause in the minds of the
people
b. modern medicine is relatively ineffective in treating AIDS
c. AIDS appears to strike random, especially among the poor
d. all of the above
Answer: d pages 218-219

18. In contrast with tribal beliefs, Euro-American witchcraft beliefs are characterized by:
a. witches were usually female
b. the power of witches was derived from a pact with the Devil
c. witchcraft was a crime against God and witches could be publicly executed
d. all of the above
Answer: d pages 219-220

19. The Witchcraze:

a. took place in Europe during the 15th through 17th centuries
b. refers to witchcraft activity in New England during the 16th and 17th centuries
c. is the term used by E. E. Evans-Pritchard to refer to certain witchcraft activities found
in African tribal societies
d. refers to Neo-Pagan rituals in the 20th century
Answer: a pages 219-222

20. The book Malleus Maleficarum was:

a. written in the 15th century and set forth European witchcraft beliefs of the time
b. a 17th century description of witchcraft beliefs in northern Africa
c. a late 18th century anthropological study of European witchcraft
d. was written by Gerald Gardner and became the basis of much Neo-Pagan belief
Answer: a pages 221-222

21. The book Malleus Maleficarum stated that witches:

a. could shift shapes, and fly through the air
b. were more likely to be women than men
c. must be arrested, convicted, and executed
d. all of the above
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Answer: d page 222

22. A series of witchcraft trials and executions took place in the late 17th century in the United
States, in the town of:
a. Lancaster b. Salem
c. Concord d. Springfield
Answer: b page 223

23. Arthur Miller’s play The Crucible used the Salem trials as an allegory for:
a. illegal immigration
b. McCarthyism
c. the use of alcohol during Prohibition
d. the breakup for the traditional family
Answer: b pages 225-226

24. Which of the following is true about the concept of the evil eye?
a. a person can cause misfortune by looking at a person
b. it is bad form to say something complementary about a child
c. spitting and particular hand gestures can be used to protect one against the evil eye
d. all of the above
Answer: d page 224

25. Hedonism and the symbol of a goat’s head within an inverted pentagram refer to:
a. Wicca b. Asatru
c. Satanism d. Druidism
Answer: c page 226

True-False Questions

26. Witches in small-scale societies derived their power from the knowledge and use of spells.
Answer: F page 213

27. Among the Azande witchcraft is basically evil, but it is good when it is directed at enemies.
Answer: F pages 214-215

28. An Azande is a witch because of the inheritance of mangu or witchcraft substance.

Answer: T page 214

29. The Azande confirm the identity of a witch through autopsy after the witch has died or
through autopsy of a blood relative of the same sex.
Answer: T page 214

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30. Among the Azande, witchcraft accusations are most likely to occur between people with
strong social ties.
Answer: T page 214

31. Among the Azande, the diagnosis of an illness is confirmed by a medium through spirit pos-
session.
Answer: F pages 214-216

32. A granary has collapsed seriously injuring a man who was working underneath it. An
Azande would be most like to blame the injury upon sorcery.
Answer: F page 216

33 . Like Zande witches, Navaho witches are born with a physical substance within their bodies
that are responsible for their witchcraft.
Answer: F page 217

34. Since the Navaho witch is a personification of evil, witchcraft serves to culturally define
immoral and antisocial behavior.
Answer: T page 217

35. In many parts of Africa today, AIDS is being blamed on the activity of witchcraft.
Answer: T pages 218-219

36. Euro-American witches in the 15th century obtained their evil power through contact with
the Devil.
Answer: T pages 222-223

37. The Witchcraze is a Neo-Pagan religion found in Europe and the United States.
Answer: F page 221

Essay Questions

38. Explain the differences between witchcraft and sorcery. (page 213)

39. In what ways is Navaho witchcraft beliefs different from Zande witchcraft beliefs? (pages
214-215)

40. How do the Azande explain the existence of witchcraft in Zande society? (pages 214-215)

41. If Zande divination techniques can only give a yes/no answer, how are they used to identify
the witch? How does this influence the behavior traits that are associated with witches?
(pages 215-216)

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42. How does a belief in witchcraft among the Azande regulate human conduct? (pages 215-
216)

43. In the case of the falling granary, termite infestation was clearly the primary cause of the
collapse of the granary. However, witchcraft is the more socially relevant cause. Explain.
(page 216)

44. How are beliefs in sorcery and witchcraft used to explain the presence of AIDS in many
third-world societies? (pages 218-219)

45. What were the bases of witchcraft accusations during the Witchcraze in Europe? (pages 220-
222)

46. What were some of the causes that have been proposed for the witchcraft accusations in Sa-
lem in 1692? (page 223)

47. Why were women the primary targets for witchcraft accusations during the Witchcraze?
(page 225)

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