JIMMA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND VETERINARY

MEDICINE

DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL SCIENCE

Course: Draught Animal Production

INDIVIDUAL ASSIGNMENT

Prepared by: MILKESSA TADESSE Ru3402/10

Submitted to: Abdo Mohammed (MSc)

JANUARY, 2019

JIMMA, ETHIOPIA
1. Briefly discuss the contribution of animal power in cropping system

Draft animal power was introduced in sub-Saharan Africa during the last 70 years and its use is spreading
(Panin and Ellis-Jones 1994; Starkey 1994). However, the contribution of draft animals to the power
requirements for agriculture is still limited in this area. Agricultural production in sub-Saharan Africa
continues to rely primarily on human power.

Draught animals continue to play an important role in agricultural production and transport in many tropical
countries. Although draught animal power has been superseded by tractors on many of the large commercial
farms in the tropics, it continues to be a relevant technology in small scale agriculture. This is on farms
where it is not economic or practical to use motorized forms of power. Draught animals are maintained
over a wide range of agro-ecological zones, but are particularly common on small mixed farms where rain-
fed crops are grown mainly for food production. In this paper recent research on the feeding and
management of animals used for work is dis-cussed in the light of the current needs of farmers and the
contribution that draught animals can make to crop production in rain fed systems.
1.1 The Contribution of animal power in Cropping Systems
1.1.1. Area cultivated
In semi-arid areas, farmers owning draught animals tend to have larger farms than those not owning
animals.
Animal power requires greater investment than is needed in manual labor, so making it less attractive to
farmers on the smaller farms (Reddy, 1988), and
Farmers with access to animal power increase the area they cultivate (Fran-cis, 1988; Panin and de Haen,
1989; Sum-berg and Gilbert, 1992). The implication is that there is a positive correlation between cultivated
area and use of animal power. Clearly, expansion is possible with ani-mal power in semi-arid areas that are
farmed extensively, if only because farmers take less time to prepare and plant land if they use animal
power than if they use manual tillage methods. When the use of animal power results in less suitable,
marginal land being taken into cultivation, then it can encourage soil erosion and land degradation as well
as poor crop yields.
1.1.2. Crop yields
Farmers with access to animal power tend to opt for more extensive production than those using hand-
tillage techniques (Francis, 1988), with a resulting lower yield per hectare. However, provided the area
cultivated is increased, output from the farm can increase.
Adoption of animal power in crop production is often associated with use of other inputs such as improved
seeds and fertilizers, and so it will be difficult to distinguish which one had maximum effect.

The use of animal power can improve-timeliness of planting (Shumba, 1984), and therefore, can optimize
yields per hectare in areas where growing seasons are short and time of planting is crucial to ensure a good
crop. However, in areas where weeds are a problem, and good weed control is essential to optimize crop
yields, use of animal power may result in lower yields per hectare. This can be due to two factors: (a) soil
inversion using an animal drawn implement (mouldboard plough or ridger for example) does not result in
as good a weed smother as when soil inversion is done by hand, and (b) increased area cultivated means
that weeding may be done less frequently after crop emergence, resulting in a lower yield per hectare.

In a comparison of manual labor and animal power, in the cultivation of rice and maize in an inland valley
region in central Nigeria, weed infestation was heavier and weeding took longer on the ox-cultivated plots
in both rice and maize. This did not significantly affect yields on the weeded plots, but when weeding was
not done, yields were almost halved for rice, and were almost non-existent for maize, whether animal power
or manual labor had been used for land preparation (Lawrence et al., 1997). The use of draught animals to
provide power in agricultural systems provides one of the most remarkable interactions between crops and
livestock. Draught animals need fuel in the form of chemical energy from crops and forages to work, but
in many areas in order to produce a crop successfully animal power is required. In fields which tractors
cannot reach, such as terraced hillsides or muddy river valleys and on farms where size and scale of
enterprise as well as finance rule out the purchase of tractors, then animal power is the only means that the
farmer has of cultivating his land, other than hand labour.

1.2. Use of animal power in crop production and transport

In some West African dryland areas, draft animals, most commonly cattle, but also donkeys, horses, mules,
and even camels contribute to crop production through the provision of power to assist farmers in the
production, harvesting, processing, and marketing of crops. Many farmers using animal power initially
acquire a cart for transport (Dawson and Barwell, 1993) or equip-ment for primary tillage associated with
a cash crop. Carts for transport can significantly reduce labor requirements and workloads in both cropping
and house hold activities (Pearson et al., 1998: Zenebe and Fekade 1998) and help intensify production.

1.3. Animal power world-wide

Domestic work animals exist in all regions of the world. Animals assist in eliminating poverty, reducing
drudgery and creation of wealth. Animal traction is particularly important for food security in smallholder
farming systems. Animals can assist directly with crop production (ploughing, planting, and weeding). Food
production, distribution and rural trade are also assisted through animal-powered transport (on-farm,
marketing, riding, pack, transport). Animals save household (women and children) time and effort by
carrying water and fuel wood. Animal power can also be used for water-lifting, milling, logging and land
excavation and road construction. Many different types of animal are employed, particularly cattle (oxen,
bulls and cows), buffaloes, horses, mules, donkeys and camels.

1.4. Animals are complementary to other power sources

Manual, animal and engine power sources are all important in agricultural development. Animals and
engine powered machines help to reduce human drudgery and allow people to achieve more with their time.

Engine power, where available and affordable, can achieve the highest savings in time and labour. Many
smallholder farmers would like to benefit from tractor power, but such aspirations are often unrealistic.
Engine power tends to be appropriate for large-scale farming and long-distance transport. Animals are often
more affordable and appropriate for small-scale farming and local transport. Individual tractor ownership
is seldom possible for farmers with small areas of cultivation, unless they have high-value crops, irrigation
and/or multiple cropping (e.g., irrigated rice production). Tractor hire (public or private) is seldom viable
to smallholder farmers in rain-fed, food-production systems. Work animals and engine powered (tractors,
trucks and pick-ups) can coexist in the same area - even on the same farm. Tractors is better adapted for
power-intensive operations (e.g., ploughing) and for large areas of land. Animals may be more appropriate
and affordable for control intensive operations (e.g., weeding) and on small areas of land. Produce may be
transported from the fields with animals, and to the towns by trucks. The increased use of tractors and
motorized vehicles for transport can even be associated with an increased use of animals, as the overall
rural economy grows and diversifies.

2. Elaborate the feed resource and their management for draught animal
2.1. Feed resources

A more extensive use of concentrates and crop by products will be critical to increasing livestock
production. In the West African drylands however, the widespread feeding of grain involves ethical issues
of competition humans and livestock for food security. Feeding grain is currently limited to brief fattening
periods marketing livestock and slaughter during religious festivals. The feed supply from croplands can
be enhanced by incorporating forage legumes into cropping systems, through crop variety improvement
and management that enhance crop residue yield and quality while leaving sufficient residues in fields for
soil conservation and through a more widespread and integrated use of fertilizers and other nutrient sources.

2.2. Feed and Nutrition

Feed and nutrition of draught animals are generally inadequate; the deficit is estimated to be as
much as 50%. Therefore, draught animals tend to be in a poor state of health, which affects their efficiency.
Animals are forced to over-exert in order to perform normal work, and therefore quickly become fatigued.
Draught animals in most developing countries are fed on crop residues and left-over stubble from
agricultural land. There is no organized cultivation of fodder crops, nor is there adequate land for grazing.
These neglected animals are often let loose to find food for themselves and may then encroach on
common pasture and forests, degrading the environment. Farmers should feed concentrates to draught
animals, to provide energy for work. However, the common practice is to feed straw from paddy fields,
wheat or other cereal, or millet. These foods often affect the nutritional status of animals, since the
high oxalic acid content of straw removes calcium from the body. This is the commonly attributed
reason for the often emaciated condition of animals in countries where rice cultivation is dominant.
Policies concerning raw materials for concentrates may reduce the availability of commercial feed
for draught animals. Therefore, policies on the production of oil-seed and other raw materials needed
by the animal feed industry should be integrated, so that the animal feed sector does not suffer
unduly. During drought and famine, animals are usually the first casualty. Fodder banks should be
established in drought-prone areas.

2.3. Feed Resources and Their Management

One of the most common problems farmers are faced with, when keeping working animals, is the provision
of food of sufficient quantity and quality at the time when the animals are required to do most work. Intake
and digestibility of these poor quality diets can be low. In the case of ruminants this is often because poor
nitrogen content and low rumen degradable nitrogen levels limit the rate of microbial synthesis in the rumen
and thus the capacity for fiber digestion and intake. Oxen, buffalo and donkeys consuming high roughage
diets do not tend to increase their intake of food to match their increased energy demands on a working day.
When work occupies over 5-6 hours in the day, intake may even decrease, as the time available for eating
and ruminating decreases. Effects of work on digestibility of feed are inconclusive. In the long term, when
working animals are in regular work, some changes in intake may be seen. Over three months of regular
but intermittent work, a gradual increase in average weekly intake was seen in lactating cows, while steady
increases in intake over time on working days as animals adapt, have been seen in oxen and donkeys. Any
increase in rate of eating, or improvement in digestibility associated with work, is not sufficient to meet all
the additional energy requirements for most types of work. In practice most farmers expect their animals to
lose weight during the working season. They are generally reluctant to spend money on commercial feeds
or feed supplements. To be acceptable improvements in the diet have to make use of local foodstuffs and
require little extra labor input.

In grazing systems on semi-arid pastures, camels are able to avoid competition with cattle and sheep by
browsing larger bushes and trees in addition to grazing. They have the advantage of being able to select
medium and high quality plants, which are not used by cattle or equids. However, when camels are fed
exclusively on low quality, high fiber diets, they can improve digestion of fiber by increasing feed particle
retention time in the fore stomachs. Their ability to tolerate long periods without water, which enables them
to cover long distances and therefore use grazing areas inaccessible to other domestic livestock is a further
advantage in harsh environments.

2.3.1. Feeding Management Systems

The diversity of the agro-ecological zones in which draught animals are found and the- differences in
cropping patterns even within a small area make it difficult to make specific recommendations concerning
feeding practices. Accepting that considerable variation exists even between farmers in the same village.
The supply of satisfactory levels of draft animal power at the right time for crop production requires sound
management of draft animals throughout the year.
2.4. Food requirements of draught animals for work

2.4.1. A feeding system for draught animals

Despite the prevalence of draught ruminants in the world, and the fundamental requirement to provide them
with enough food at the times of the year when it is most needed, until relatively recently no feeding system
existed which could be easily and accurately applied to working ruminants.

Most of the food eaten by draught animal is used to provide energy. Requirements of working animals for
protein, vitamins and minerals other than for maintenance are negligible, unless of course the animal is also
growing or is pregnant or lactating. The net energy cost of the various activities which occur during work
– walking, carrying, pulling loads and walking uphill – have been measured for several of the species used
for draught purposes- cattle, buffalo, donkeys, camels.

2.4.2. A feeding system for draught equines

The last two decades have seen a surge of interest in the nutrition of the horse in the developed countries.
However, the feeding systems produced have the drawback of being based almost entirely on performance
and intakes of racehorses and sports horses receiving good quality, high density rations and the systems and
difficult to apply to the tropical draught horse or donkey on high roughage diets.

Are weight and body condition important?

Since many animals lose weight when working, particularly over a long season when the food available is
of low quality, it is not surprising that live weight and body condition become important issues in
determining the optimum management of draught animals. The larger the animal (regardless of body
condition) the more easily it will be able to carry out a particular task and the less stressed it will be when
doing this than a smaller animal.

Draft animal power has been harnessed for agricultural purposes for thousands of years. Although
tractors have superseded draft animals for farming in the developed world during the last 50 years, draft
animal technology remains a relevant farm technology in many parts of the developing world
mainly for economic and agro-ecological reasons. These factors confer a comparative advantage on
draft animal technology, which is less expensive than tractor power for small-scale farmers who
make up the majority of rural communities. Adequate feeding to meet the nutrient requirements of
draft animals is a major constraint facing farmers using animal power in semi-arid areas. Livestock
productivity in these areas is greatly influenced by the seasonal variation in the availability and the quality
of naturally occurring feed resources and of crop residues. Reasonable levels of animal productivity can
be expected from natural pastures during the rainy season. However, during the long dry season
feed resources become increasingly scarce and their nutrient content is low. The resulting feed
shortage causes dramatic losses of live weight in draft oxen. These animals are therefore in poor
condition at the start of the cultivation season when the energy demand for cropping is at its peak.
This is often thought to be the single most important technical factor constraining the adequate supply of
draft animal power to cropping operations in semi-arid areas. In addition, nutrient supply to draft animals
for work may be constrained by the limited time available for these animals to eat and comminute
feeds. This may adversely affect the intake and digestibility of feeds. The logical solution to the problems
of feed deficit and nutrient deficiencies is to supplement the diet of draft animals with high quality
feeds. However, many farmers who keep draft animals in semi-arid areas do not have easy access to
good quality feeds because such feeds are scarce and expensive. Farmers generally prefer to exploit
the cycles of nutrient deposition and mobilization in the management of their draft animals. Cattle in
semi-arid areas have adapted to the seasonality in feed supply by building up body reserves during periods
of plentiful food. These reserves are drawn upon during periods of feed deficit for work, fetal growth
and calf feeding. The identification of feeding and management strategies for draft animals in a
farming system requires information on the availability and the nutritive value of existing feed
resources over the year, knowledge of the utilization of these feeds by draft animals and information
on the nutrient requirements of draft animals for work. There is little information on the energy
requirements of draft oxen working on sandy soils under hot conditions in semi-arid areas. Neither
have the patterns of nutrient supply to draft oxen for maintenance and work through intake of feeds and
through the mobilization of body reserves and the relationship between these factors and work output
been investigated in the semi-arid areas in West Africa.

3. Discuss clearly the essential component of animal draught and equipment.

3.1. Essential components of animal draught and the equipment

Anything drawn by animals has 5 essential components:
• The animal/s (power source)
• The harness (what is on the animals to enable them to pull)
• The hitch (connection between harness and implement)
• The implement (includes carts)
• The work (in the case of carts, this is the load they take).
Each one of these has an effect on the functioning of the others.
Bad design in one can have an adverse effect on the efficiency of every other component.
 3.1.1. The animals
• Designing animals may not be a job for humans, but humans can at least choose the optimum available.
• Donkeys are pretty optimal because:
- They are cheap to buy and have a long life (~ 50 years)
- Kilogramme-for-kilogramme, they produce more work than oxen
- Kilogramme-for-kilogramme, they eat and drink much less than oxen, and eat particularly low
quality vegetation.
- They are outstandingly easy to train and handle.
- They have a fairly low centre of gravity and pull from a point not too high from the ground.
- Their hoofs, being without points, do minimal damage to soils.

3.1.2. The harness (what is on the animal’s body)

 Must be comfortable for the animal (or animal will not work so well)
- Allowing easy breathing
- Allowing easy movement
- Not restricting blood circulation
 Must not be able to move against animal’s skin (or will cause sores)
 Must be in a position to transmit force directly (or will break)
- Forces must be properly directed with respect to the animal
- must be compatible with hitching system
 Must be strongest where force is exerted (or will break)
 Must be easy for handler:
- Basic
 - Adjustable
- Easy to put on and take off the animal
- Easy to make
- Easy to repair
 Must be inexpensive

3.1.3. The hitch (how the animal is attached to the implement or cart)
 Must be strong enough to take the forces
 Must direct and concentrate force where required on animal/s and on implement
 Must avoid adverse forces:
- One animal must not pull against another
- Downward force must not be exerted on weakest part of animal
- Braking or backing force must not be exerted on weakest part of animal
 Must be compatible with harness
 Must be easy to connect and to disconnect

3.1.4. The implement (cart)

 Must be able to carry required load
 Must facilitate good balance of load
 Must exert least pulling/horizontal resistance (wheel bearings in good condition)
 Must enable optimum hitching (hitching points well placed)
 Must avoid converting ground irregularities into movement (should have springs)

3.1.5. The load

• Must be suitable for cart
• Must not exceed cart’s capacity
• Must be balanced evenly over axle and wheel

Components Requirements
 • Forces properly directed on donkey
Harnessing • Compatible with hitching
(What is on the • Simple
donkey’s body) • Adjustable
• Comfortable for donkey:
- allowing easy breathing and
movement, and
blood circulation
• Easy to put onto a donkey
• Easy to take off a donkey
Easy to make
• Easy to repair
• Inexpensive

Forces properly directed on cart or

Hitching implement
(How the donkey is • Compatible with harness
attached • Easy to connect
to the cart or • Easy to disconnect
implement)

3.1.6. Yokes, harnesses and in-spanning

o Cattle are yoked in pairs using wooden yokes, yoke-pins, strops, riems and trences. Longer yokes
are necessary for planting and weeding. Trek chains are attached between the yokes and the
implement to be pulled.
o Oxen are strong enough to be harnessed and trained when they reach the age of two to three years.
o Horses, mules and donkeys pull best from their chest and shoulders, so a breast-strap or a collar
harness should be used.
3.2. Care of harness
After use, the regardless of the material, the harness should be cleaned to remove sweat, dust and dirt. This
should be done with a stiff brush followed by a cloth and water. Soaking a harness in water can make it
stiff and rough so it should be washed using a wet brush and/or a wet cloth, not soaked. Warm water gets
rid of sweat and dirt more easily than cold water. The bit should be washed to keep it clean.

If a leather harness is used, which is relatively expensive, care should taken to ensure that it lasts longer.
The harness should therefore be kept soft and oiled regularly. The use of animal fat to soften the harness is
one of the traditional methods used by horse, mule and donkey owners. Clean cooking oil can be used if
animal fat is not available.

Harnesses should be cleaned and checked for worn-out parts regularly, preferably each day following use.
When not on the animals, the harness should be stored on a hook (away from rodents or dogs) in a dry,
clean and safe place.

4. Explain steps needs to be followed in buying and training of draught animals

4.1. Buying Draught Animals

 Buy draught animals in the district where you live as they are used to the local environment, the weather
and will be resistant to local diseases.
 Be careful when you buy animals—people often sell animals in a poor condition.
 Try to find out why the person is selling the animal.
 Examine the animals to make sure that they are healthy. If the animal’s coat is dull, it might be sick.
Check for lameness.
 A skin disease is often an indication that the animal has not received proper care.
 Check the animal’s breathing and conformation (shape) to ensure that it is strong and suitable for
draught work.

4.2. Training Draught Animals

 Animals kept for draught purposes can be easily trained if the correct procedures are followed. Animals
to be trained should be properly selected and should not be younger than two years.
 If animals are treated with kindness and patience and are firmly disciplined they are easy to train and
use. People training animals should really like animals. They should never be afraid of them, as their
fear will be sensed immediately by then animal and satisfactory training might then be impossible.
 Young animals are more easily trained with older ones that have already been trained.
 Each animal should be given a simple, clear-sounding name and should be fed by hand so that it gets
used to people, in particular its handler.
 Animals should be taught one thing at a time so that they do not get confused.
 They should be trained for short periods at a time but on a regular daily basis.
 In the first week of training the animal should get used to the harness by walking around with it for
about one hour in the morning and one hour in the afternoon.
 When used to the harness it can be given commands. Soft but firm words and gentle whistles are the
best commands. Beating animals should be avoided at all costs and one should never lose one’s temper
with an animal.

Ploughing is the most difficult task, so once the animals can plough it is easy to train them for other tasks.
Start with shallow ploughing and gradually go deeper.

Teach the animals to walk in furrows so that the whole land is ploughed evenly.

 Always try to end each session on a good note and reward good performance with a small quantity of
food
4.2.1. Training stages
Step 1: Roping and walking

This creates a friendly relationship be- tween the animal and the trainer;
  It should take around 2-4 hours per day for 3-5 days depending on the speed of learning.
The timing of the training should be maintained and should not change;
 The rope should be placed at the base of the 2 horns;
 The bull (this also goes for donkeys) should learn such commands as walk, stop and turn;
 To tie the animals, make a simple halter with 2 nodes (diagram), put the central loop on
the mount of the animals and tie the string behind the ear;
 Use a nose-punched animal for the hal- ter. Nose-punched animals must be giv- en at least
2 weeks to recover before be- ing used for traction. The punching must be done by an
expert.

Step 2: Harnessing (yoking) and walking the animals

Yoking is done in the kraal and then the animals are moved to the field. Normally the bulls are
still nervous at this stage; hence care should be taken;

d control the bulls through commands such as walk, stop and turn;

-4 hours per day for a period of 5-10 days;

- side of the animals.

Step 3: Pulling (dragging loads)

This step is meant to train the muscles of the animals and increase their strength to pull heavy loads.
Various loads are introduced systematically, (e.g. 20, then 30, then 40, then 50 kg per log).

 At this stage the bulls learn the com- mand to follow straight lines

Step 4: Pulling implements

Pulled implements such as ploughs, weeders, harrows, planters, rippers, etc. are introduced at this
stage. The animals are trained to pull them and commands are given by the trainer for specific tasks
as required. This can be done for 3-4 hours per day every 3 days over a total period of two weeks.

5. Write in detail current status and future prospects of animal traction in Ethiopia.
5.1. Historical Importance of Draught Animal Power
Freed from manual labour, man attained leisure for cultural pursuits. The transportation of goods and people
in animal-drawn carts, and riding on horses and camels, enabled human communities in different parts of
the world to interact. Mobility helped to spread knowledge and culture to hitherto isolated parts of the
world. Draught animals thus contributed significantly to physical mobility and the spread of knowledge and
culture, thus paving the way for the globalisation of humanity.

Thus, mankind owes a great deal to the contribution of draught animals over the past 3,000 years. Advanced
countries no longer need draught animal power; however, such countries can help developing countries
which still depend on this power source. Over fifty developing countries still use draught animals for
agriculture and small-scale transport, and this situation will continue for many years to come. Therefore,
draught animal welfare is important even in this era of high technology, where advanced countries can
assist with technology to improve the welfare and efficiency of draught animals.

In Ethiopia animal traction has been an integral part of agricultural production for centuries. Pairs of oxen
have been employed to pull an ard plough ('maresha') for seedbed preparation. But there has been little
adoption by farmers of the new implements developed.

The failure of tractorization programs to achieve projected increases in agricultural production in

developing countries has created a renewed interest in the utilization of animals as a source of power on
smallholder farms, particularly in Africa. International aid agencies and national governments are
promoting the use of draft animals as a development strategy for increasing food production and labor
efficiency at the traditional level. Unfortunately, national policies relating to the use of draught animal
power are often undefined. Different ministries are responsible for livestock and animal health, agricultural
engineering and agronomy or socio-economic development. These ministries are in turn divided into
several departments, thereby making it difficult to charge a single authority with establishing and
coordinating the various research, training and development activities required to properly implement this
technology. Additionally, cooperation, liaison and information exchange between external donor agencies,
nongovernmental organizations and international centers involved in development and research on animal
traction has been minimal or lacking. If draft animal power is to effectively contribute to an increase in
agricultural production at the smallholder level, then it is crucial that communication and cooperation
between and within relevant groups at both the national and international level be improved.

5.2. The Future of Animal Traction

Both tractors and draught animals can be used in agriculture. They can either be used on their own or
combined to complement each other. Commercial farmers will continue to use mainly tractor power on
large farms.For small commercial and emerging farmers the use of draught animals to complement tractors
may improve the economic viability of the farm. Animal traction is generally the best option for small-
farmers as it is affordable, sustainable, profitable and environmentally friendly in most areas.

For animal power to be effective it is important that:

There is, however, a need for greater Government support in terms of a definite animal traction policy as
well as training, research, development and extension in animal traction.
• An infrastructure providing input supplies and backup services should be established.
• The concept should be included in the curricula of schools, colleges of agricultural and universities.
• Government policy should provide for animal traction training, research and extension throughout the
country.