MODERN ANALYSIS

MODERN ANALYSIS Topology of Metric Spaces

Topology of Metric Spaces
is an introductory text aimed at graduate and Contents

MODERN
postgraduate students of mathematics. This book • Introduction
deals with the fundamental concepts of metric • Open and Closed Sets in
spaces with connectedness, compactness, Real Numbers
continuity and homeomor phism. Some • Metric Spaces
advanced topics covered in this book include • Open and Closed Sets in
Metric Space

ANALYSIS
Cantor's theorem of real numbers, functions from
• Complete Metric Space
R2 to R, uniform and pointwise convergence in
• Continuous Functions
metric spaces, etc. Majority of questions and
theorems in this book have been designed to • Connectedness in Metric
Spaces
access the readers understanding of the subject.
• Compactness in Metric
The readers friendly systematic approach and Spaces
presentation give the readers an idea about the
model questions and help them to focused. Those
• The Metric Space C[a, B]:
Uniform and Pointwise
Topology of Metric Spaces
preparing for competitive examinations like NET, Convergence
GATE etc will also find this book useful. Besides, a • Functions from R2 To R
lot of objective questions are given at the end of • Cantor's Theory of Real
each chapter. Numbers
Useful for
Sudhir Kumar Pundir PhD
is currently Associate Professor and Head, Department of Mathematics, SD
■ Undergraduate and Postgraduate Students of
(PG) College, Muzaffarnagar (UP). Formerly, he was Head, Department of Mathematics of all Indian Universities.
Mathematics, Government (PG) College, Rishikesh (UK). Dr Pundir has been a
recipient of JRF and SRF of CSIR, New Delhi, during his research work. He has
■ Many Competitive Examinations like NET,
been teaching UG and PG classes for well over two decades. He also GATE, JAM, etc.

Sudhir Kumar Pundir

organized and attended a number of national and international conferences. Six
students have been awarded PhD degree under his supervision. He has to his credit
more than 100 books for undergraduate, postgraduate and engineering students which
are widely used by the students of various universities.
Dedicated to Education

ISBN: 978-93-54660-10-8
Sudhir Kumar Pundir
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Although all efforts have been made to ensure
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inadvertent errors, omissions or inaccuracies.

MODERN ANALYSIS
(Topology of Metric Spaces)

ISBN: 978-93-5466-010-8

First Edition: 2021

Copyright © Author & Publisher

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
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Preface
The book entitled “MODERN ANALYSIS” meet the needs of UG and PG
students of Mathematics and many competitive examinations like NET, GATE,
JAM etc. Besides, it will also be very useful for students preparing for various
competitive examinations.
The contents of this book are derived from the curricula offered by various
universities across the country. This book consists of eleven chapters. In each
chapter of the book, an ample amount of theory is given which is supported by
solved examples followed by exercises along with their answers. The text is
organized around mathematical problems, with each chapter devoted to a
single type of problem.
I express my gratitude to the authors and publishers of various books I
consulted during the preparation of the book.
I wish to sincerely thank Sh S.K. Jain and Sh Varun Jain, Managing Director,
CBS Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi for encouragement and help in
bringing out this publication in a present nice form.
My special thanks to Sh. Y.N. Arjuna, Senior director publishing, editorial
and publicity and Smt. Ritu Chawla, publishing head, CBS Publishers and
Distributors, New Delhi whose encouragement and unstinted support enabled
me to complete the book. I also take this opportunity to express my sincere
gratitude to Sh. Sunil Dutt, CBS Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi who
gave me the inspiration throughout the preparation of the book. Sh. Suresh
Sharma, Sh. Ramakant Jha, Sh. Anil Rawat and Sh. Anurag Singh, CBS, New
Delhi deserve special mention for their kind support and help in this endeavour
and unstinted support enabled me to complete my book. Mr. Jitesh Ahalawat,
M/s Tech Yuva Infostat also deserve special mention for nice type setting..
I must also record my appreciation due to my wife Dr. Rimple, daughter
Rijuta and son Shrish for their understanding and love during the long period
that I have taken to complete this book.
Above all I am thankful to The Almighty God, without whose grace nothing is
possible for any one.
Readers are welcomed to point out errors, if any and send their valuable
suggestions for improving the quality of the book.
Dr. Sudhir Kumar Pundir
email : skpundir05@yahoo.co.in
 Contents
1. Introduction 1-39
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Concept of Sets 1
1.3 Set of Numbers 3
1.4 Cartesian Product of Sets 4
1.5 Relation 5
1.6 Function 7
1.7 Boundedness of a Subset of Real Numbers R 10
1.8 Sequences 15
1.9 Countable Set 18
1.10 Algebraic Numbers 21
1.11 Cardinally Equivalent Sets 22
1.12 Cardinal Number of a Set 23
1.13 Transcendental Number 28
1.14 Continuum Hypothesis 36
2. Open and Closed sets in Real Numbers 39-72
2.1 Introduction 39
2.2 Neighbourhood of a Point 39
2.3 Interior of a Set 43
2.4 Limit Point of a Set 45
2.5 Theorems on Closed and Derived Sets 49
2.6 Interior, Exterior and Boundary of a Set 59
2.7 Dense and Perfect Sets 61
2.8 Sets of First and Second Category 62
2.9 Compactness of a Set 64
2.10 Heine-Borel Theorem 65
2.11 Cantor Ternary Set 67
3. Metric Spaces 73-100
3.1 Introduction 73
3.2 Metric Space 73
3.3 Distance Between Two Sets and Diameter of a Set 78
3.4 Some Inequalities 81
4. Open and Closed sets in Metric Space 101-148
4.1 Introduction 101
 4.2 Open and Closed Spheres in a Metric Space 101
4.3 Neighbourhood 110
4.4 Equivalent Metrics 114
4.5 Closure of a Set 122
4.6 Interior Point and Interior of a Set 125
4.7 Exterior Points and Exterior of a Set 127
4.8 Frontier Points and Frontier of a Set 127
4.9 Boundary Points and Boundary of a Set 127
4.10 Separable Spaces 136
5. Complete Metric Space 149-178
5.1 Introduction 149
5.2 Sequence 149
5.3 Complete Metric Space 155
5.4 Properties of Complete Metric Space 157
5.5 Metric Spaces of First and Second Category 160
5.6 Completion of a Metric Spaces 164
6. Continuous Functions 179-196
6.1 Continuity at a Point (Local Continuity) 179
6.2 Homeomorphism 179
6.3 Uniform Continuity in a Metric Space 180
6.4 Isomorphism 180
7. Connectedness in Metric Spaces 197-230
7.1 Introduction 197
7.2 Separated Sets 197
7.3 Connected and Disconnected Sets 202
7.4 Continuity and Connectedness 213
7.5 Characterisation of Connected Subsets of The Real Line 214
7.6 Connectedness of Unions 216
7.7 Connectedness of Products 220
7.8 Components 221
7.9 Totally Disconnected Spaces 223
7.10 Locally Connected Spaces 224
8. Compactness in Metric Spaces 231-258
8.1 Introduction 231
8.2 Compact Metric Space 231
8.3 Equivalent characterisations for Compactness 234
8.4 Compact Subsets of The Real Line 236
8.5 Compact Subset in Rn 237
8.6 Countably Compactness 238
8.7 Sequential Compactness 240
8.8 Total Boundedness 242
 8.9 Compactness and Continuity 249
8.10 Locally Compact Spaces 251
8.11 Lindelof Spaces 252
8.12 Product of Two Compact Metric Spaces 253
9. The Metric Space C[a, b]: Uniform and Pointwise Convergence 259-296
9.1 Introduction 259
9.2 Pointwise Convergence 259
9.3 Uniform Convergence of Sequences 260
9.4 Uniform Convergence of a Series of Functions 262
9.5 Cauchy’s General Principle of Uniform Convergence 262
9.6 Dini’s Criterion for Uniform Convergence of a Sequence of Continuous
Functions 263
9.7 Tests for Uniform Convergence 264
9.8 Uniform Convergence and Continuity 281
9.9 Equicontinuous Family of Functions 286
9.10 Weirstrass’s Approximation Theorem 288
10. Functions from R2 to R 297-384
10.1 Introduction 297
10.2 Limit 297
10.3 Continuity of a Function of Two Variables 304
10.4 Partial Differentiation of Function of Two Variables 312
10.5 Differentiability of Function of Two Variables 320
10.6 Directional Derivatives of a Function of Two Variables 328
10.7 Composite Functions 329
10.8 Mean Value Theorem for Two Variables 330
10.9 Taylor’s Theorem for Function of Two Variables 330
10.10 Schwarz’s Theorem 334
10.11 Young’s Theorem 335
10.12 Invertible Function 339
10.13 Linear Transformation 339
10.14 Implicit Function 344
10.15 Implicit Function Theorem 344
10.16 Maxima and Minima of a Function of Several Independent Variables 349
10.17 Necessary Condition for The Existence of Maxima Or Minima 349
10.18 Necessary Condition for Maxima Or Minima 351
10.19 Sufficient Condition for Maxima Or Minima: The Lagrange’s Condition 352
10.20 Maxima and Minima of The Function of Three Independent Variables 365
10.21 Maxima and Minima for a Function of Three Independent Variables:
The Lagrange’s Condition 366
10.22 Lagrange’s Method of Undetermined Multipliers 371
11. Cantor's Theory of Real Numbers 385-396
11.1 Introduction 385
11.2 Cauchy Sequence of Rational Numbers 385
11.3 A Necessary Condition for Convergence 386
11.4 Cantor's Numbers 386
11.5 Algebra of Cantor's Numbers 387
11.6 Order in Rc 388
11.7 Cantor Rational and Irrational Numbers 391
11.8 Convergence of Cantor Numbers 393
11.9 Order Completeness of Cantor Number System 394
Appendix 397-398
Index 399-402