APPLIED CHEMISTRY

• Dr. Muhammad Talha Masood

• Lect 1
Course outcomes Program learning outcomes (PLO’s)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

CLO-1 X
CLO-2 X
CLO-3 X
CLO-4 X
CLO-5 X
Text & Material
• Lecture slides
• Lecture notes
• Text book: “Chemistry” 7th, 8th or 9th edition. By Steven Zumdahl &
Susan Zumdahl.
• Lab lectures and experiments
• Lab notebooks
 Week Topic CLO No. PLO No. Learning Domain Level of Learning
/Lecture

1 Structure and bonding (atoms, orbitals, bonding molecular orbitals) 1 1 Cognitive 2

1 Acids and bases 1 1 Cognitive 2
2 Chemistry of solutions (acid base theories, pH, buffer solutions) 1 1 Cognitive 2
3 Transition metals 1 1 Cognitive 2
3 Coordination chemistry (Theory and nomenclature, structural Cognitive
isomerism, stereo isomerism, coordination number and structure) 1 1 2

4 Electrochemistry (Oxidation reduction reactions, Introduction and Cognitive

1 1 2
theor)
5 Extraction of metal from ore (iron ore, alumina etc) e.g, Aluminum from Cognitive
alumina, Refinning of metals e.g. iron, copper etc 1 1 2

6,7 Introduction to organic molecules and functional groups, Alkanes, Cognitive

Alkenes, Alkynes, ethers and epoxides, Benzene and aromatic 1 1 2
compounds.
8 Aromatic hydrocarbons 1 1 Cognitive 2
9 Stereochemistry 1 1 Cognitive 2
9 Macromolecular reactions for LDPE, HDPE, PP; 1 1 Cognitive 2
10 Introduction to analytical chemistry and instrumental techniques / Cognitive
qualitative and quantitative analysis, Separation methods 2 2 3

11,12,13 Spectroscopic methods (Introduction to IR, UV/Vis, Mass and NMR 2 2 Cognitive 3
Spectroscopy)
14,15 Chromatography-Introduction and theory 2 2 Cognitive 3
Plane chromatography, Liquid-solid chromatography
Paper and thin layer chromatography
Column chromatography
16 Fuel Cells 2 2 Cognitive 3
17 End Semester Exam
Atoms and
Molecules
Atomic theory
• Democritus and Leucippus 400 B.C. Superficial discussion on
“Atomos”.
• No evidence experimental evidence for atom to exist till next 20
centuries. Antoine Lavoisier, John Dalton
• Many experiments carried out in the beginning of 20th century. Their
results could not be explained using classical physics developed by
Isaac Newton.
• A radical new theory was developed called “Quantum Mechanics” to
explain the behaviour of light and “atoms”. Very surprising for
humans who are used to the macroscopic world.
 Electromagnetic Radiations
• One of the ways in which energy travels through space EM radiations.
• Same kind of wave like behavior and they travel with the speed of light.
• Waves have three primary characteristics– speed, wavelength and frequency
Wavlength and frequency of wavelength
Energy and Matter
• What is the difference between energy and matter
• Are they same or distinct ?
• Distinct – Before 19th century

• Matter was thought to consist of particles (mass and position well-

defined) while energy in the form of waves (massless and
delocalized). XXXX Wrong!

• Experimental results in early 1900s suggested that this concept is

incorrect. Such as Max Plank (radiation profiles emitted by heated
solid bodies). – Matter can absorb or emit energy
• Energy was known to be continuous.’
• Energy in fact is quantized i.e. it exists in the forms of packets. Thus
energy seemed to possess particle like behavior.
Photoelectric effect and energy mass relationship
• Hence Light (energy) was found to carry particle (or matter) like
properties.

• But is the opposite true? Does matter exhibit wave like properties.
Yes! This was solved by Louis Debroglie.
Wavelength of electron is
still very small but
significant enough to be of
the same order as that of
interatomic spacing
X-Rays incident onto
a crystal gives
diffraction patterns
(which can only be
explained in terms of
waves)

Similar patterns were

observed by scientists
in Bell Laboratories
when an electron beam
was directed onto Ni
surface
• All waves exhibit both wave and particulate properties
• All matter exhibits both particulate and wave properties

• Energy and Mass are not distinct. Rather they are same!
The spectrum of
Hydrogen
Significance
• Only certain energies are allowed for the electron in Hydrogen atom
• In other words, the energy of electron in Hydrogen atom is
“quantized”.
• Changes in energy between discrete energy levels in Hydrogen atom
will produce only certain wavelengths of emitted light
• Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, Louis
De Broglie
• De Broglie and Schrödinger considered electron
bound to nucleus similar to standing wave

´This wavefunction is the orbital

More accurately we know about the momentum of the particle, less accurately we know about the
particle’s position and vice versa.

Important point to note: This limitation is very small for larger particles and it goes unnoticed.

But this is very important for smaller particles like electrons Means that we cannot know the exact
motion of the electron as it moves around the nucleas.

Thus it is not appropriate to assume that electrons are moving around

the nucleas in well defined orbits like in Bohr’s model
What is the physical meaning of wavefunction
of the electron What is atomic orbital
• No significant visualized meaning but its square has significant
meaning Square of the wavefunction indicates the probability of
finding an electron near a particular point in space.

• Explanation in terms of axis

• Probability distribution of electron is the square of wavefunction

1s orbital: Maximum
radial probability of
Hydrogen atom (i.e.
the distance at which
electron spends its
maximum time
Occurs at 5.29 x 10 -2
nm. 0.529 Å

Most probable
distance
Orbital
• Although the probability does not comes down to zero but comes to a
very minimum value at some point. thus no distinct size of 1s orbital

• Definition of 1s orbital: Radius of the sphere that encloses 90% of the

total electron probability. (i.e. the 90% of the time, the electrons
spends in that sphere
Quantum numbers
• Solving Schrödinger’s equation results in several analytical solutions of
wavefunctions, i.e., several wavefunctions exist and therefore several
orbitals exist

• Each orbital is characterized by “Quantum numbers”

1. Principle Quantum Number: n= 1, 2, 3, ………. (size and energy)
2. Angular momentum quantum number: l goes from 0 to n-1 (shape)
3. Magnetic quantum number (orientation of orbital in space)
-l< ml < l
4. Spin quantum number:
The wavefunction is positive everywhere
In 3D space for s orbitals
 The Orbitals with same principle quantum number
in a Hydrogen atom are degenerate (i.e. same energy)

Hydrogen’s single electron can

With increase in principle occupy any of its orbitals.
Quantum number (n), the shapes lowest energy state os the
Of the orbitals remain same but ground state, the electron
The sizes of their lobes increase. resides in 1s orbital. If energy
is supplied to the atom, the
electron can be transferred to
a high energy orbital (i.e. an
exited state).
Spin quantum number
and Pauli exclusion principle
Electrostatic repulsion between electrons comes into play

Electron pathways are unknown and thus the electron repulsion cannot be exactly calculated and
this is called the electron correlation problem.
Electron is shielded or screened from nucleus by repulsion of other electrons

For polyelectronic atoms, the shape of orbitals is same but size and energies are different
(this is because if the interplay between nuclear attraction and electron repulsion)
The orbitals with same principle quantum number
in a polyelectronic atom are not degenerate ulike Hydrogen atom
Order of filling up these orbitals with electrons

The more effectively an orbital allows its electrons to penetrate the shielding electrons to be closer to the nuclear
Charge, the lower is the energy of that orbital
Order of filling up these orbitals with electrons
Periodic Table
• As protons are added one by one to the nucleus to build up the elements,
electrons are similarly added to these hydrogen-like orbitals Aufbau
Principle
 Hund’s rule
The lowest energy configuration for an atom is the one having the maximum
number of unpaired electrons allowed by the Pauli’s principle in a particular
set of degenerate orbitals

There are three degenerate 2P orbitals, the mutually repulsive electrons will occupy
separate 2P orbitals

Lowest energy configuration of

atom is one having maximum
Number of unpaired electroms
Valence electrons
• Valence electrons are the electrons in the outermost principle
quantum level of an atom.
Note: This definition is applicable to main group elements only. It
is not applicable to the transition (d-block) elements and the rare
earth (f-block) elements.
• Inner electrons are called the core electrons
• Valence electrons are the most important electrons for the chemists
because they are involved in bonding.
• Elements in the same group have same valence electron
configuration.
From Potassium onwards
• Principally the next electron should go to 3d orbitals
• But chemistry of K is similar to that of Li and Na. Which means that
the last electron should occupy 4s orbital instead of 3d this has
been confirmed by many experiments
• First ionization energy is the energy required to remove the highest
energy electron of an atom. E.g. Al atom,
• Second ionization energy is higher than the first one. Bcz….
“First electron being removed from a neutral atom while second
electron being removed from an ion. Thus the successive ionization
energies keep on increasing in magnitude.”
“The largest jump in the ionization energies occurs when it is turn to
remove the core electron.” E.g. 4th ionization energy of Al
Trends in ionization energies along the
periodic table
General trend 1st IE along the same period
and when moving on to the next period
• The ionization energy tends to increase along the same period. Bcz
the electrons added in the same quantum number do not completely
shield the increasing nuclear charge caused by added protons. Thus
electrons in the same PQN are generally more strongly bonded as we
move to the right of the periodic table.
• Moving on to the next period or moving along the same group, the
ionization energy tends to decrease because the electrons being
removed are further away from the nucleas. Or electrons added in
the next PQN. The electrons in lower PQN orbitals tend to shield the
electrons being added in the highest PQN.
• Be to B: Electrons already filled in the 2s orbital provide some
shielding effect to the electrons in 2p orbital.

• N to O: Extra electron repulsions in the doubly occupied oxygen 2p

orbital
 C- ion is stable due to singly occupied orbital

N- ion is unstable bcz of unstable doubly occupied orbitals

• What about oxide ions?
• Trends along the group and period
• In the same group EA tends to become more positive or less negative.
Because the electron is added at increasing distance from the
nucleas.
• In the same period, the EA tends to become more negative
• Reason?
In the same period, the decreasing atomic size is due
to Increasing effective neuclear charge along the
period (with Lower shielding effect)

In the same group, the increasing atomic size is due to

Increase in orbital sizes with increase PQN.