REVIEW
2D-Material Photodetectors
Toward High-Performance Photodetectors Based on
2D Materials: Strategy on Methods
Faguang Yan, Zhongming Wei, Xia Wei, Quanshan Lv, Wenkai Zhu, and Kaiyou Wang*
Graphene and graphene-like 2D layered materials such as black phosphorus,
transition-metal dichalcogenides, oxides, chalcogenides, and so forth have
attracted tremendous attention due to their unique crystal structures,
mechanical, and physical properties, as well as their variable bandgaps that
range from 0 to 6 eV, which have offered their utilization in versatile devices.
Using these materials as the active channel, many novel electrical and
optoelectronic devices have been reported. Among the various important
devices applications, photodetectors based on 2D materials have been
extensively investigated with varied performance due to the different species
and detection mechanisms. Here, the methods to improve the performance
of 2D-material-based photodetectors are reviewed. There are five kinds of
strategies regarding methods, including surface plasmon enhancement,
charge-transfer assistance, optical-waveguide integration, graphene
sandwiched structures, and heterostructures directly grown by CVD, which
are developed and widely reported in recent years. For each method, the
device design, performance, and mechanism are introduced and discussed
systematically. Finally, a summary is provided to afford the principle to further
enhance the performance of photodetectors based on 2D materials, with a
perspective for their practical applications in the future.
1. Introduction
2D layered materials have attracted extensive attention in the
past decade due to their unique structures and their mechan-
ical and physical properties, since graphene was first success-
fully exfoliated from graphite in 2004.[1] The big family of 2D
materials is composed of monoelemental 2D atomic crystals
such as graphene and black phosphorus (BP), transition-metal
dichalcogenides (TMDCs), nitrides, oxides, chalcogenides,
thiophosphates, halides, and so forth.[2] In terms of unique
physical properties, many 2D materials exhibit layer-dependent
electronic band structures. For instance, the bandgap of typ-
ical TMDCs (such as MoS2, WS2, and so on) transforms from
Dr. F. Yan, Prof. Z. Wei, Dr. X. Wei, Dr. Q. Lv, Dr. W. Zhu, Prof. K. Wang
State Key Laboratory of Superlattices and Microstructures
Institute of Semiconductors
Chinese Academy of Sciences
Beijing 100083, China
E-mail: kywang@semi.ac.cn
Dr. F. Yan, Prof. Z. Wei, Dr. X. Wei, Dr. Q. Lv, Dr. W. Zhu, Prof. K. Wang
College of Materials Science and Opto-Electronic Technology
University of Chinese Academy of Science
Beijing 100049, China
DOI: 10.1002/smtd.201700349
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indirect to direct when bulk crystal
thins to monolayer structure,[3,4]
while GaSe and InSe remain direct-
gap semiconductors with thick-
nesses down to a few nanometers.[5,6]
Particularly, black phosphorus exhibits
direct bandgaps of ≈2 and ≈0.3 eV in the
monolayer and bulk forms, respectively.[7,8]
Furthermore, the type and density of
charge carriers in many 2D materials can
be effectively tuned by chemical doping or
electrostatic gating, which can meet the
demands of various applications. Each
layer of a 2D layered material consists of
a covalently bonded, dangling-bond-free
lattice and is weakly bound to neighboring
layers by van der Waals (vdW) interac-
tions. With the unique structure different
from traditional semiconductors, 2D lay-
ered materials are feasible to exfoliate
and create a wide range of vdW hetero-
structures without the limitation of lattice
matching. VdW heterostructures based on
2D materials provide a platform for con-
structing state-of-the-art multifunctional
devices that can combine the superiorities of multiple 2D lay-
ered materials. This novel structure and these novel properties
offer promising prospects of 2D layered materials in various
applications, such as solar cells, light-emitting diodes, biosen-
sors, photodetectors, and so on.[9–13] Another inherent advan-
tage of 2D materials is their potential as active channels of
field-effect-transistors (FETs) in digital circuits beyond silicon.
The characteristic length of a conventional FET is derived as
λ = (tstoxεs/εox)1/2, where λ is the characteristic length, ts and
εs are the thickness and dielectric constants of semiconducting
channel, and tox and εox are the thickness and dielectric con-
stants of oxidation dielectric layer, respectively.[14] Benefiting
from the atomic-scale thickness, 2D materials can provide a
thinner channel thickness than silicon and result in smaller
and faster FETs with shorter characteristic length, which ena-
bles further device miniaturization.
Photodetectors are a type of widely used optoelectronic
devices that can convert photons into an electrical signal, which
is at the heart of many technologies, and is broadly applied in
video imaging, optical communications, night-version, remote
sensing, biomedical imaging, etc. 2D-material-based photo­
detectors have been extensively investigated in the past few years
and exhibit varied performance, which is consistent with their
different structures and detection mechanisms.[15–21] The most
commonly adopted operating mechanisms of photodetection
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in 2D materials include the photovoltaic effect, photoconduc-

tive effect, and photo-thermoelectric effect. Compared with Faguang Yan received his
photodetectors based on traditional bulk semiconductors, B.S. from Jilin University
photodetectors based on 2D materials are sensitive over a (China) in 2013. He is now
wide range of the electromagnetic spectrum, benefiting from a Ph.D. student under Prof.
the variable bandgaps from 0 to 6 eV.[22] For instance, gra- Kaiyou Wang at the Institute
phene is well known, with its gapless and linear dispersion of Semiconductors, Chinese
near the Dirac point, which enables a broadband photodetec- Academy of Sciences. His
tion from the ultraviolet (UV) to the infrared (IR) and up to research is focused on
tera­hertz (THz).[23] BP exhibits a photoresponse from the electronic and optoelectronic
visible to near-infrared (NIR);[24] meanwhile, black AsxP1−x with devices based on 2D layered
a tunable bandgap of 0.15–0.3 eV have achieved mid-infrared materials and their van der
photodetection.[25,26] Additionally, UV to visible-light photo­­ Waals heterostructures.
detection based on GaSe has been observed.[5] Besides broadband
photodetection, excellent performance, such as high speed[27] Zhongming Wei received his
and high photoresponsivity,[28,29] has also been achieved in photo­­ B.S. from Wuhan University
detectors based on 2D materials. Moreover, the anisotropic (China) in 2005, and his
nature within the plane of the layers in some 2D materials, Ph.D. from Institute of
such as BP and ReS2, can introduce in-plane anisotropic elec- Chemistry, Chinese Academy
tric and optical properties,[30,31] which render them promising of Sciences in 2010 under the
candidates for polarization photodetection. Furthermore, the supervision of Prof. Daoben
atomic thickness of thin 2D materials leads to good mechanical Zhu and Prof. Wei Xu. From
flexibility, which allows novel device applications such as flex- August 2010 to January 2015,
ible, wearable, and portable electronics. he worked as a postdoctoral
Although there are many unique properties and advantages in fellow and then Assistant
photodetectors based on 2D materials, there are still some draw- Professor in Prof. Thomas
backs that prohibit the practical applications of these devices. Bjørnholm’s group at University of Copenhagen, Denmark.
Poor light absorption, especially in graphene, limits the photo­ Currently, he is working as a professor at the Institute
response of photodetectors based on 2D materials. The crystal- of Semiconductors, Chinese Academy of Sciences. His
line quality of synthesized 2D materials is generally inferior research interests include low-dimensional nanostructured
to exfoliated samples. Synthesis of large-area, high-quality 2D materials and their (opto)electronic devices.
materials, especially for heterostructures, remains a consider-
able challenge. In addition, there is still an issue in obtaining Kaiyou Wang received his
ultrahigh responsivity and ultrafast response speed simul- Ph.D. in 2005 from the
taneously. To overcome these obstacles, various approaches University of Nottingham,
and investigations have been attempted over the past decades. United Kingdom. After
Photodetectors based on 2D layered materials have already been working as a researcher at
reviewed in several papers. For example, Xie et al. presented a Hitachi Cambridge research
comprehensive review on photodetectors based on 2D-layered laboratory, he joined the
semiconductors in terms of photoconductors, phototransis- Institute of Semiconductors,
tors, and photodiodes, that were reported in the previous five Chinese Academy of Sciences
years.[32] Cui et al. gave a general overview of 2D photodetectors as a full professor in 2009.
based on single-component semiconductors, heterojunctions, Currently, he is the director
and device structure engineering, including the graphene– of State Key Laboratory of
semiconductor–graphene structure, the top-gated architecture, Superlattices and Microstructures. His main research
and designed plasmonic nanostructures.[33] However, a system- interests include spintronics devices and (opto)electronic
atic overview in terms of methods is necessary to comprehend devices of low-dimensional materials.
the advantages of each method comprehensively and further to
explore and extract the strategies for enhancement and optimi-
zation of 2D-material-based photodetectors, which could also be
important for their future practical and commercial application. mainly focused on phototransistors based on 2D layered semi-
Here, we briefly introduce the performance metrics of photo­ conductor corresponding to the mechanism of the photocon-
detectors, and then focus on discussing the recent progress on ductive effect, whereas the last two methods, graphene sand-
the methods to enhance the performance of photodetectors wiched and direct CVD growth, are mainly focused on photo-
based on 2D materials. Five different approaches are discussed, diodes based on 2D layered heterostructures corresponding to
including surface plasmon enhancement, charge-transfer assis- the mechanism of the photovoltaic effect. Finally, the reviewed
tance, optical-waveguide integration, graphene sandwiched methods are summarized and perspectives are provided to
structures, and heterostructures that are directly grown by further improve the performance of the 2D-material-based
chemical vapor deposition (CVD). The first three methods are photodetectors.

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2. Performance Metrics of Photodetectors
Several figures of merit are used to evaluate the performance of
photodetectors, including photoresponsivity, external and internal
quantum efficiencies, detectivity, and response time, for example.
(i) Photoresponsivity (R) is the ratio of the photocurrent to the
incident light power on the effective area. It is defined by
R = Iph/Pin, where Iph is the photocurrent and Pin is the
incident light power.
(ii)  The external quantum efficiency (EQE) is equal to the
number of electron–hole pairs collected to generate pho-
tocurrent in unit time divided by the number of incident
photons in the same time: EQE = (Iph/q)/(Pin/Eph), where q
is the electron charge and Eph is the incident photon energy.
(iii) Internal quantum efficiency (IQE) is defined in a similar
way, except that the number of absorbed photons is consid-
ered instead of the number of incident photons as in EQE.
It is given by IQE = (Iph/q)/(AabsPin/Eph), where Aabs is the
ratio between the absorbed and incident light power at a
given wavelength.
(iv) Detectivity (D*) can be expressed as D* = R/(2qJd)1/2, where
Jd is the dark current density when the dark current is dom-
inated by the shot noise. The unit is Jones, or cm Hz1/2 W−1.
(v)  Operating speed commonly characterizes ability of a
photodetector to detect a signal at certain rate. In the time
domain, the response time is used and defined as the time
required for a transient output signal to reach 0.63 of its
steady-state change, when the input light changes abruptly.
For most systems, the response speeds are separately speci-
fied by rise time and fall time with the light pulse switched
on and off. The rise time and fall time are defined as the
time interval required by the photodetector output signal
to rise from 10% to 90% of its final value, or fall from 90%
to 10% of its start value, respectively. In frequency domain,
the speed features (3 dB) bandwidth of a photodetector,
which is always defined by the frequency at which respon-
sivity is reduced to 0.707 of its maximum value.[34]
3. Strategies for Enhancing the Performance
of Photodetectors
3.1. Surface-Plasmon-Enhanced Photodetection
Plasmonic nanostructures can act as a subwavelength scat-
tering source and greatly enhance the strength of the optical-
frequency electric field, benefiting from the incident light that
can be efficiently converted into plasmonic oscillations. Previ-
ously reported phototransistors based on 2D materials such as
graphene and TMDC (MoS2, WS2, WSe2, for example) always
exhibit low photoresponsivity mainly due to the limitation of
the poor light-absorption properties for mono- to few-layer 2D
materials.[27,35–37] Recently, it has been possible to overcome
this limitation and enhance the performance of photodetection
by the integration of plasmonic nanostructures and 2D-material
photodetectors.[38–40]
High-speed graphene-based photodetectors have been achieved,
but have shown low photoresponsivity.[41,42] To enhance the
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photoresponsivity and external quantum efficiency and achieve
spectral selectivity, Liu et al. fabricated highly sensitive multicolor
photodetectors by integrating graphene with gold nanoparticles as
the plasmonic nanostructures.[43] To fabricate the device, as shown
in Figure 1a, gold-nanoparticle-array structures were obtained by
sputtering a thin gold film on a Si/SiO2 substrate, followed by
thermal annealing, and then they were transferred to back-gated
graphene transistors prefabricated on a Si/SiO2 substrate with
CVD-grown graphene. Damage to graphene during the sputtering
and thermal annealing process can be avoided by this strategy.
The maximum photoresponsivity of a graphene device with Au
nanoparticles can reach 6.1 mA W−1 at 514 nm with an EQE of
≈1.5%, which is enhanced by up to 1500%. Multicolor photode-
tectors can also be constructed by coupling graphene with plas-
monic nanostructures through controlling the nanoparticle size,
shape, and periodicity. Figure 1b shows a graphene photodetector
coupled with a surface plasmon polariton (SPP) grating. With
this type of structure, a 400% enhancement of responsivity and
a 1000% increase on the photoactive length were demonstrated
and interference between SPPs and the incident wave enables a
tailored design of the photodetector’s spectral response.[44] The
performance enhancement can be mainly attributed to two
aspects. On the one hand, the grating contact can achieve SPPs
originating from the coupling of light with the metal’s free elec-
trons and deliver the collected photons to the metal–graphene
region which will enhance the overall absorption. On the other
hand, in contrast to normal unpatterned contacts which always
play a passive role for light absorption, the design of grating con-
tacts enables the increase of the photoactive area by utilizing the
normally passive contacts as a light-collecting region. In addi-
tion, the mirror symmetry between the contacts can be broken by
utilizing different contact grating structures instead of applying a
source–drain bias, which would result in a large dark current.
Besides graphene, MoS2-based photodetector can also be
enhanced by plasmonic nanostructures. Wang et al. reported
the first hot-electron-injection-based near-infrared photode-
tection of bilayer MoS2 integrated with a plasmonic antenna
array,[45] as shown in Figure 1c. With excitation of near-infrared
light, the surface plasmon resonance in the designed nano-
structure will generate hot electrons with an energy larger than
the Schottky barrier between MoS2 and Au. Thus, hot electrons
can be injected into MoS2 for generating a photocurrent. To
verify the presence of hot-electron injection, both the photo-
thermoelectrical effect and the photovoltaic effect were excluded
in the study. A photogain of 105 was obtained, benefiting from
trap-induced photoamplification, and the photo­ responsivity
was 5.2 A W−1 at 1070 nm, which is larger than the value of
silicon-based hot-electron photodetectors.[46,47] In Figure 1d, an
avenue to improve the photoresponse of few-layer MoS2 photo­
transistors is exhibited by coupling Au plasmonic nanostruc-
tures with MoS2.[48] A twofold increase of the photocurrent was
obtained in the device, where a 4 nm thick film based on Au
nanoparticles was directly deposited onto few-layer MoS2
phototransistor by the thermal evaporation. Moreover, a three-
fold enhancement of photocurrent was achieved in the few-
layer phototransistor with periodic Au nanoarrays (160 nm
wide, 180 nm length, 50 nm height, and 300 nm period) and
a 1 nm HfO2 passivation layer between the few-layer MoS2 and
the periodic Au nanoarrays.
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Figure 1. a) Schematic illustration of the fabrication process to integrate plasmonic nanoparticles with graphene. Reproduced with permission.[43]
Copyright 2011, Nature Publishing Group. b) Surface plasmon polariton graphene photodetectors. Reproduced with permission.[44] Copyright 2016,
American Chemical Society. c) Hot-electron-based near-infrared photodetection using bilayer MoS2. Reproduced with permission.[45] Copyright 2015,
American Chemical Society. d) Surface-plasmon-enhanced photodetection in a few-layer MoS2 phototransistor with Au nanostructure arrays. Repro-
duced with permission.[48] Copyright 2015, Wiley-VCH.

3.2. Charge-Transfer-Assisted Photodetection The photodetection performance of colloidal-quantum-dot

To improved performance of the 2D-materials-based photo­
detectors, hybrid systems which are formed by high-mobility, 2D,
layered materials as the channel and covered with active compo-
nents layer as the photon-absorbing materials (such as 2D semi-
conductors, quantum dots, or organic molecules), can be another
effective method. In these hybrid systems, the photoresponsivity
and EQE are obviously higher than those of the pristine device,
which can be attributed to two aspects. First, electron–hole
pairs are generated in the active components layer under light
illumination, and one type of carrier can be transferred to the
channel layer, driven by a built-in electrical field at the interface,
and circulate through the channel, resulting in an enhancement
of the photocurrent. Second, benefiting from charge transfer
to channel layer, the opposite carriers reside in the layer of the
active components, reduce the recombination rate, and increase
the carrier lifetime τlifetime. Meanwhile, the high carrier mobility
in the channel results in a carrier transit time τtransit orders
of magnitude shorter than the carrier lifetime τlifetime. Thus,
these devices have very high photoconductive gains given by
G =τlifetime/τtransit.[49] It is worth noting that the photoresponse
speed is sacrificed during the enhancement of the photorespon-
sivity due to the long carrier lifetime in this method.[50,51]
(CQD) films is limited by the relatively poor carrier mobility
(1 × 10−3 to 1 cm2 V−1 s−1), but they are suitable to be used
as a photon-absorbing material.[52–54] Konstantatos et al.
reported a novel hybrid graphene–PbS-quantum-dot photo­
transistor that consists of exfoliated monolayer or bilayer
graphene covered with a thin film of PbS quantum dots,
as shown in Figure 2a. The photogenerated carriers in the
PbS-quantum-dot layer can be transferred onto the gra-
phene, while the oppositely charger carriers trapped in the
quantum-dot layer lead to a photogating effect by changing
the conductance of the graphene sheet through capacitive
coupling (Figure 2b). The high mobility of the graphene
and the recirculation of the charge carriers in the channel
during the long carrier lifetime guarantee an ultrahigh gain
of 108 and a photoresponsivity of 107 A W−1.[55] Another
similar hybrid structure based on CVD-grown graphene and
PbS quantum dots exhibits ultrasensitive NIR photodetec-
tion with a photoresponsivity up to 107 A W−1 at 895 nm.[50]
Turyanska et al. investigated the properties of a single-layer-
graphene device functionalized with PbS quantum dots capped
with a ligand layer. A very high photoresponsivity of up to
109 A W−1 is achieved by selecting the length of the capping
ligands and by preserving their integrity.[56] In addition, a

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Figure 2. a) Schematic of a graphene–quantum-dot hybrid phototransistor, in which a graphene flake is deposited onto a Si/SiO2 substrate and
coated with PbS quantum dots. b) Energy-level diagram of the graphene/quantum-dot interface. A built-in field is formed at the interface, as shown
in the top panel. Electrons trapped in the PbS quantum dots lower the Fermi energy of the graphene, as shown in the bottom panel. Reproduced with
permission.[55] Copyright 2012, Nature Publishing Group. c) Schematic illustration of a photodetector based on the graphene/MoS2 heterostructure,
where the channel is formed in between the comb-shaped metal electrodes. d) Schematic illustration of the photoelectron transfer process on the
graphene/MoS2 bilayer. Reproduced with permission.[61] Copyright 2014, Nature Publishing Group. e) Schematic of a graphene/Bi2Te3 heterostucture
phototransistor device. f) Energy-band diagram of the graphene/Bi2Te3 heterojunction. Reproduced with permission.[62] Copyright 2015, American
Chemical Society. g) Schematic diagram of single-layer MoS2 photodetectors treated with rhodamine 6G (R6G) organic-dye molecules and the chemical
structure of the R6G dye. h) Schematic band diagram of the R6G-sensitized MoS2 photodetector under illumination. Reproduced with permission.[68]
Copyright 2014, American Chemical Society.

hybrid TMDC–QD phototransistor consisting of few-layer
MoS2 and PbS quantum dots has also been reported, where a
very high responsivity on the order of 105 – 106 A W−1 and NIR
detection was achieved.[51] In addition, Hu et al. fabricated a
hybrid photodetector based on p-type WSe2 and PbS quantum
dots, and demonstrated a responsivity of 2 × 105 A W−1
and a specific detectivity up to 7 × 1013 Jones.[57]
In order to combine the merits and complement the weak-
nesses of 2D materials, hybrid phototransistors based on
2D materials have been achieved with unprecedented
performance.[58–60] Zhang et al. constructed a hybrid photo-
detector based on a graphene-on-MoS2 heterostructure, with
CVD-monolayer MoS2 as a sensitizer to absorb light and
CVD-monolayer graphene as the channel for carrier transport
(Figure 2c). Electron–hole pairs were produced in the MoS2
layer and electrons were injected into the graphene due to the
perpendicular effective electric field determined by the built-
in electric field, applied electrostatic field, and external electric
field caused by charge impurities on the surface of graphene
and MoS2, as shown in Figure 2d. A high photoresponsivity of
up to 107 A W−1 and a photogain of about 108 at a wavelength of
650 nm were obtained at room temperature.[61] Figure 2e shows
the growth of the graphene/Bi2Te3 heterostructure, where
the Bi2Te3 nanocrystals were epitaxially grown on monolayer
graphene by physical vapor deposition.[62] The heterostructure
presents effective broadband photodetection, which is mainly
attributed to small bandgap of Bi2Te3.[63–65] Benefiting from the
effective photocarrier generation and transfer under the built-
in electrical field at the interface between the graphene and
the Bi2Te3, the photocurrent of the device can be effectively
increased without sacrificing the detection spectral width
(Figure 2f). The photodetector has a high photoconductive gain
around 83 and a photoresponsivity of 35 A W−1 at 532 nm.
This photoresponsivity is 1000 times higher than the devices
based on pure monolayer graphene. It should be noted that the
detection wavelength is further expanded to the near-infrared
(980 nm) and telecommunication band (1550 nm) with
comparable performance at a visible wavelength (532 nm). In
addition, the performance of multilayer-MoS2-based phototran-
sistors has been enhanced by covering with graphene quantum
dots (GQDs) to form an n–n heterostructure. The device exhib-
ited a photoresponsivity of 1.6 × 104 A W−1 and a photogain of
2.4 × 107 due to the effective charge transfer.[66]
Organic molecules can also be used as photon-absorbing
materials.[67] As shown in Figure 2g, a dye-sensitized MoS2
photo­­detector has been reported, which consists of monolayer
MoS2 treated with rhodamine 6G (R6G) organic-dye molecules
with an optical bandgap of 2.38 eV. Due to the effective charge
transfer of the photoexcited electrons from R6G molecules to the
MoS2 layer (Figure 2h), the performance of the proposed photo­
detector was obviously enhanced with a maximum photorespon-
sivity of 1.17 A W−1, a photodetectivity of 1.5 × 107 Jones, and
an EQE of 280% at 520 nm. More importantly, the photodetec-
tion response is extended to the near-infrared at 980 nm, which
is not the case for pristine MoS2 photodetectors, originating
from the photoinduced electron transfer from the highest
occupied molecular orbital of the R6G to the bottom of the
conduction band of the MoS2, as shown in Figure 2h.[68] Simi-
larly, Pak et al. reported hybrid photodetectors based on MoS2
treated with copper phthalocyanine (CuPc). The performance

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of the devices exhibits a dependence on the CuPc layer
thickness, where devices with a relatively thinner CuPc layer
present a better photodetection performance.[69] In addition,
photodetectors with an organic-perovskite/2D-material hetero-
structure have also been extensively investigated recently.[70–72]
The first hybrid CH3NH3PbI3-nanowire/graphene photodetector
was fabricated by Spina et al. Under light illumination, elec-
tron–hole pairs were generated in the CH3NH3PbI3 nanowire
and holes were injected into the graphene by the internal elec-
tric field; a photoresponsivity of 2.6 × 106 A W−1 was achieved
at a wavelength of 633 nm.[73] In addition, Ma et al. fabricated
and characterized photodetectors consisting of CH3NH3PbI3-
perovskite films and WS2 monolayers, for the first time. Owing
to efficient electron transfer from the perovskite to the WS2,
the bilayer heterostructure exhibited a photoresponsivity of
17 A W−1 and a detectivity of 2 × 1012 Jones at a wavelength of
505 nm.[74] Furthermore, Wang et al. studied solution-processed
hybrid photodetectors based on chemically exfoliated 2D MoS2
nanosheets and CH3NH3PbI3, where the photogenerated car-
riers were transferred from the perovskites into MoS2. A photo­
responsivity of 3096 A W−1 and an EQE of 7.7 × 105% were
obtained in a hybrid photodetector consisting of 1T MoS2 inte-
grated with perovskites, but the metallic nature of the 1T phase
leads to an impractical on/off ratio. In contrast, a semicon-
ducting 2H-phase hybrid photodetector exhibited a responsivity
of 142 A W−1 and an EQE of 3.5 × 104% with an on/off ratio
about 300.[75]
3.3. Optical-Waveguide-Integrated Photodetectors
The performance of photodetectors based on 2D materials is
mainly studied with free-space illumination using a normal-
incidence configuration, where the light beam is perpendicular
to the channels. However, the interaction length between the 2D
material and the optical field is limited to the thickness of the
material, resulting in poor optical absorption, especially in the
cases of monolayers or bilayers. The optical absorption can be
improved by integrating the 2D layered material with an optical
waveguide, which is compatible with complementary metal-
oxide semiconductor (CMOS) technology. In this configuration,
the evanescent field is confined and guided by the waveguide
and propagates along the 2D material sheet; meanwhile, light
interacts with the 2D material during its traveling in the wave-
guide. The longer the interaction length between the 2D material
and the optical-waveguide modes is, higher optical absorption
up to 100% is achieved, which is only determined by the length
of the device rather than the 2D material’s thickness.[76–78]
Taking the advantages of waveguides, the photoresponsivity can
be enhanced without sacrificing the high speed, distinguishing
them from charge-transfer-assisted photodetectors.
Photodetectors based on silicon-waveguide-integrated gra-
phene have been reported, with high responsivity, high speed,
and broad spectral bandwidth. Pospischil et al. fabricated a silicon-
waveguide-integrated graphene photodetector with one entire
electrode on the waveguide, as shown in Figure 3a. With a 53 µm

Figure 3. a) Colored scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image of a waveguide-integrated graphene photodetector. The inset shows a cross-section of
the device. The graphene sheet coats both the top surface and the sidewall of the waveguide. A thin SiO2 layer prevents electrical contact between the
graphene and the silicon waveguide. b) Wavelength dependence of the photodetector. A flat response is obtained across all optical telecommunication
windows. Reproduced with permission.[76] Copyright 2013, Nature Publishing Group. c) Schematic of the hBN/SLG/hBN photodetector on a buried
silicon waveguide. d) The high response of the graphene photodetector. The red dashed line shows the fitting to the experimental results with an RC
low-pass filter model. The extracted 3 dB cutoff frequency is at 42 GHz. Reproduced with permission.[82] Copyright 2015, American Chemical Society.
e) 3D illustration of the BP photodetector integrated in a silicon photonic waveguide, featuring a few-layer graphene top-gate. f) The response of the
BP photodetector is measured when the BP is gated to low and high doping. At low doping, the response is broadband with a cutoff frequency of
3 GHz. The inset shows the receiver eye diagram at a data rate of 3 Gbit s−1 measured with the BP photodetector. Scale bar: 100 ps. Reproduced with
permission.[86] Copyright 2015, Nature Publishing Group.

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long waveguide, a maximum photoresponsivity of 0.05 A W−1
was obtained at a wavelength of 1550 nm and the 3 dB band-
width is about 18 GHz.[76] In addition, the wavelength depend-
ence of the photoresponse was measured from 1310 to 1650 nm
and the responsivity was flat across all optical telecommunica-
tion bands (Figure 3b). Later, Youngblood et al. demonstrated
a device consisting of two layers of CVD graphene separated
by a 100 nm thick Al2O3 dielectric layer, where the bottom layer
was integrated on a planarized silicon waveguide acting as the
channel to absorb optical and collect photogenerated carriers,
while the top layer acted as a transparent gate electrode. Not
only can the device be operated as a photodetector, but also as an
optical modulator, which can be tuned by gating the graphene.
The photoresponsivity at 1550 nm reaches 0.057 A W−1 and the
3 dB bandwidth is 3 GHz.[79] Benefiting from the ultrahigh mobility
of graphene, higher response speeds of photodetectors based on
a silicon waveguide integrated with graphene have been dem-
onstrated. Gan et al. reported response rates exceeding 20 GHz
and demonstrated a clear open-eye diagram at 12 Gbit s−1.[80]
Moreover, Schall et al. fabricated photodetectors based on CVD-
grown graphene on silicon waveguides and showed a 3 dB
bandwidth of 41 GHz and a data rate of up to 50 Gbit s−1.[81] To
achieve a photodetector with both high speed and high photore-
sponse, a 2D heterostructure consisting of single-layer graphene
encapsulated by hexagonal boron nitride (hBN) was proposed and
integrated on a silicon waveguide, as shown in Figure 3c. The
graphene channel spans 40 µm of the waveguide and the distance
between the waveguide and drain electrode is only 200 nm to
guarantee a p–n junction that formed near the optical mode. A
maximum responsivity of 0.36 A W−1 at a wavelength of 1550 nm
and a 3 dB cutoff frequency of 42 GHz (Figure 3d) were achieved,
where the detector response can be further improved by using bi
or trilayer graphene instead of single-layer graphene (SLG).[82] A
similar, high photoresponse of 0.37 A W−1 at 1550 nm was also
obtained in a metal/graphene/Si Schottky photodetector due to
avalanche multiplication, and in a graphene-integrated silicon-slot
waveguide-integrated graphene photodetector with 0.273 A W−1
in the telecommunication band.[83,84] Besides silicon waveguides,
photodetectors based on silicon nitride (Si3N4)-waveguide-inte-
grated graphene were also studied by Wang et al. In this kind
of photodetector, they demonstrated a maximum responsivity of
0.126 A W−1 with dynamic response of 1 kHz in the telecommu-
nication band.[85] Due to the large transparent window of Si3N4
with a bandgap of ≈5 eV, the graphene-on-Si3N4 photodetector
can exhibit broadband-absorption and wide-bandwidth operation,
compared with graphene-on-silicon devices.
Unlike gapless graphene resulting in a high dark current
in the photoconductive mode, BP has narrow direct bandgap
and can operate under bias with a very low dark current and a
low noise level. In consideration of the layer-tunable bandgap
covering the visible to mid-infrared spectral range and its excel-
lent electrical properties, BP was proposed for integration with
a silicon photonic circuit for telecom-wavelengths detection.
Youngblood et al. fabricated a photodetector consisting of a BP
FET on a silicon photonic waveguide with few-layer graphene
as the top gate, as shown in Figure 3e. Photodetectors based
on BP with different thickness were investigated and photo­
responsivities of up to 0.135 and 0.657 A W−1 in 11.5 and 100 nm,
respectively, were achieved at a wavelength of 1550 nm. In
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addition, the devices exhibited a high response bandwidth
exceeding 3 GHz and could operate at a data rate above 3 Gbit s−1
with very low dark current; the clear open eye is shown in
Figure 3f.[86] The performance of graphene- and BP-based opto-
electronic devices in the telecommunication band indicates
that 2D materials have a large potential for integrated opto­
electronic applications and the realization of a complete optical
communication link.
3.4. Graphene Sandwiched Photodetectors
VdW heterostructures assembled by stacking different 2D
materials can combine and exploit the properties in one device
and create multifunctional optoelectronic systems with supe-
rior performance. An effective method to achieve such versa-
tile devices is therefore to sandwich a 2D material layer or the
heterojunction between two graphene sheets, acting as charge-
extraction contacts. Due to the lack of dangling bonds on the
surfaces of vdW materials, vertical heterostructures can be
fabricated with high-quality heterointerfaces without the con-
sideration of lattice mismatch and Fermi-level pinning that
often occurs at the metal and semiconductor interface.[12,87–90]
In contrast to lateral heterostructures,[91–95] benefiting from
the near-perfect optical transparency and the unique electronic
properties of graphene, such vertical vdW heterostructures can
realize a large, scalable active area and a short, atomically thin
charge-extraction channel, potentially achieving both efficient
and fast photodetection. It is interesting to mention that this
method can meet the challenge of developing photodetectors
simultaneously possessing a large active area, a high internal
efficiency, and a fast response time. This method can afford
new routes to miniaturized optoelectronics beyond the cur-
rently used 2D semiconductor materials and technologies.
Several studies on photodetectors based on graphene sand-
wiched 2D semiconductors (such as InSe and TMDCs) have
been reported. Mudd et al. fabricated a graphene/InSe/gra-
phene vertical heterostructure photodetector with a thick InSe
flake (>20 nm) and an active area of 16 µm2. A stable and repro-
ducible photoresponsivity up to 105 A W−1 at 633 nm, with a
corresponding EQE of about 105, and a response speed at milli-
second time scales were obtained.[96] Figure 4a shows a vertical
heterostructure device based on a graphene/MoS2/graphene
stack with a 50 nm thick MoS2 flake. The underlying Si/SiO2
substrate functions as a back gate to modulate the charge-trans-
port process. With the finite density of states in graphene and a
weak electrostatic screening effect, the Fermi level of MoS2 can
be tuned by an external field applied through the back gate elec-
trode. Thus, the bottom graphene–MoS2 Schottky barrier height
and the photocurrent in the vertical stack can be effectively
modulated. A maximum EQE of ≈27% (Figure 4b) and a rapid
temporal response beyond the experimental time resolution of
50 µs were observed.[97] To achieve a photodetector with an ultra-
fast response speed comparable to that of graphene, Massicotte
et al. fabricated a photodetector based on a high-quality gra-
phene/WSe2/graphene vdW heterostructure encapsulated in
hBN and investigated the time-resolved photocurrent proper-
ties of devices with different thickness of WSe2 (monolayer
and multilayers from 2.2 to 40 nm), as shown in Figure 4c. A
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Figure 4. a) Schematic illustration of a side view of the device, with the semiconducting multilayer MoS2 sandwiched between the GrT and GrB elec-
trodes. The red and blue colors indicate electrons and holes, respectively. b) EQE of the vertical heterostructure device as a function of back-gate voltage
under 80 µW, 514 nm laser excitation. Inset: EQE of the device as a function of excitation laser power at VBG = −60 V. Reproduced with permission.[97]
Copyright 2013, Nature Publishing Group. c) Schematic representation of photoexcited charge-carrier dynamics in a hBN/G/WSe2/G/hBN hetero-
structure. Graphene and hBN layers are colored black and green, respectively, and W and Se atoms are blue and orange. d) Photocurrent as a function
of time delay between two pulses (illustrated above the plot) with P = 300 µW, at VB = 1.2 V (blue dots). The photocurrent is normalized by the value
of the photocurrent saturating at long Δt. The solid black line is a fit to the data, yielding a time constant τ = 5.5 ± 0.1 ps. Inset: Schematic of the
photoresponse time in a G/WSe2/G heterostructure, here represented by a band diagram with a bias voltage VB applied between the graphene layers.
c,d) Reproduced with permission.[98] Copyright 2015, Nature Publishing Group.

fast photoresponse time of 5.5 ps was demonstrated in the gra-
phene/2.2 nm WSe2/graphene vertical heterostructure using
time-resolved photocurrent measurements (Figure 4d), and the
IQE of the device was above 70%.[98] Later, a very similar ver-
tical stack based on a graphene/MoTe2/graphene heterostruc-
ture was studied by Zhang et al. The photodetector exhibited
a broadband photoresponse from the visible to the NIR wave-
length range with a superior performance, including a high
photoresponsivity of 0.11 A W−1, a high EQE of 12.9%, and a
fast response time of 24 µs at a wavelength of 1064 nm.[99]
2D layered materials with different bandgaps and work func-
tions allow tunable bandgap engineering of vdW heterostruc-
tures. Sandwiching a vdW heterojunction between graphene
layers enables the collection of the photoexcited carriers, and
is a potential method to achieve multifunctional optoelectronic
devices with excellent performance. Lee et al. reported the char-
acterization of the optoelectronic properties of the graphene/
MoS2/WSe2/graphene vertical heterostructure consisting of
monolayer MoS2 and WSe2. The observed photoresponsivity
of 10 mA W−1 at Vds = 0 V is obviously larger than the value
of the lateral MoS2/WSe2 heterojunction, indicating that the
graphene layers effectively increase the collection rate of
the photogenerated carriers with lower interlayer recombina-
tion losses.[100] It is important to note that the graphene layers
in all the above vertical heterostructures are positioned by a
dry transfer process. However, it is wastage of graphene mate-
rial to construct a single functional microdevice by transfer-
printing macroscale graphene. In addition, it is difficult to meet
site- and shape-specific requirements during device fabrica-
tion. Therefore, it is highly desirable to find a cheap and effi-
cient method to site-specific transfer of individual, high-quality
graphene microscale sheets to arbitrary substrates. Bie et al.
developed a new method based on CVD-grown graphene, as
shown in Figure 5, in which a typical poly(methyl methacrylate)
PMMA/graphene microstamp suspended on a copper mesh
was obtained and can be transferred and printed using a glass
fiber controlled by a micromanipulator under a microscope.[101]
Recently, our group fabricated PMMA/graphene microstamps
(10 µm wide and 40 µm length) using a very similar method;
the difference is that we transferred CVD-grown graphene onto
a Si/SiO2 substrate before the electron-beam lithography pro-
cess. We have fabricated graphene sandwiched p-GaSe/n-InSe
vertical heterostructures as shown in the Figure 6a.[102] A good
p–n diode was formed within the atomically thin GaSe/InSe

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Figure 5. Transfer-print processes for graphene microsheets. Parts (1) to (4) illustrate how to produce arrays of suspended and patterned PMMA/
graphene microstamps. Parts (5) and (6) show the deployment of the prepared graphene sheets to construct a device. Reproduced with permission.[101]
Copyright 2011, Wiley-VCH.
heterojunction with a type-II band alignment. This large-area
(≈50 µm2) vertical heterostructure exhibited a strong self-driven
photoresponse ranging from the UV to NIR due to the built-
in potential and the distinctive bandgap energies of the GaSe
and InSe sheets (Figure 6a). A fast response time down to
2 µs (Figure 6b), significantly faster than that reported recently
for vdW diode-like photodetectors[91,93,96,103] and Si-based het-
erojunction photodetectors.[104,105] In addition, we investigated
graphene/WSe2/GaSe/graphene vertical heterostructures with
a Si/SiO2 substrate functioning as a back gate (Figure 6c). Gate-
tunable rectification inversion was observed due to the bipolar
property of WSe2, as shown in Figure 6d. Excellent perfor-
mance was also observed with a photoresponsivity of 6.2 A W−1,
an EQE of 1490%, and a fast response time of 30 µs.[106]
3.5. Photodetectors Based on Direct-CVD-Grown
2D Heterostructures
In the early investigation stage of 2D heterostructure photo-
detectors, the transfer method for fabricating 2D heterostruc-
ture was generally utilized due to the simplicity, flexibility,
and convenience. However, issues still exist in this method:
on the one hand, the twist angle between the components of
the obtained vertical heterojunctions is random and difficult
to control; on the other hand, contaminants are introduced
from the environment and contact between the samples and
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the transfer media is unavoidable, and the samples more
or less will be damaged during the transfer process. At the
same time, the transfer method is also very time consuming
with low production efficiency. To overcome these disadvan-
tages, as well as to meet the challenges of further application
of 2D heterostructures, such as large-scale, controllability,
repeatability, and high quality, direct CVD growth without an
obvious transport process is proposed to fabricate 2D hetero-
junctions. Direct CVD growth is a down-top strategy to form
a sharp interface of the component 2D layer materials via a
spontaneous preferential growth process. This strategy can
improve the performance and develop novel characteristics
of 2D heterojunctions by providing a more intense coupling
between the heterogeneous layers and avoiding the introduc-
tion of contaminants in the contiguous interface of the com-
ponents. Up to now, both vertical heterojunctions[107–112] and
in-plane lateral heterojunctions[113–118] have been achieved
by direct CVD growth. Very recently, Zhang et al. designed a
modified step-by-step thermal CVD process, which has suc-
cessfully realized the ready preparation of a wide range of 2D
heterostructures such as WS2/WSe2 and WS2/MoSe2, multi-
heterostructures such as WS2/WSe2/MoS2 and WS2/MoSe2/
WSe2, and superlattices such as WS2/WSe2/WS2/WSe2/
WS2.[119] As a natural bottom-to-top method, the direct CVD
growth strategy is a potential pathway toward large-area, con-
trollable, mass-production, and industrialized realization of
2D heterostructures.
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Figure 6. a) Room-temperature photoresponsivity and external quantum efficiency as a function of illumination wavelength at different Vds (Vds = 0 V
and Vds = −2 V) and illumination intensity P = 1 mW cm−2. The inset shows a schematic diagram of the graphene/p-GaSe/n-InSe/graphene vertical
heterostructure. b) Temporal dependence of the photocurrent and times τr and τd at Vds = −2 V at room temperature. The red solid lines are fits to the
data. a,b) Reproduced with permission.[102] Copyright 2017, IOP Publishing. c) Schematic illustration of the graphene sandwich WSe2/GaSe hetero-
junction device. d) The Ids–Vds curves of the sandwiched WSe2/GaSe heterojunction device under different back gate voltages Vg. c,d) Reproduced with
permission.[106] Copyright 2017, The Royal Society of Chemistry.

Photodetectors based on direct-CVD-grown heterojunctions
have been demonstrated.[120] By direct vapor-phase growth, Li
et al. fabricated epitaxial vertical SnS2/MoS2 heterostructures
with a sharp interface and type-II band alignment with an
extremely large band offset. In the heterostructure, the bottom
MoS2 layer was triangular, while the top SnS2 layer showed hexa­
gonal shapes, as shown in Figure 7a. With laser illumination at
638 nm, a maximum photoresponsivity of 1.36 A W−1 and an
EQE of 264% were obtained, which is larger than the reported
values of CVD-grown MoS2 and SnS2 samples.[121] Xue et al.
developed two-step CVD growth of large-scale, periodic-array
MoS2/WS2 vertical heterojunctions, and photodetectors device
arrays were further fabricated (Figure 7b). A photoresponsivity of
2.3 A W−1 was achieved for this MoS2/WS2 vertical heterojunc-
tion photodetector, which could also operate as a self-driven
device. Moreover, flexible MoS2/WS2 vertical heterojunction
device arrays were also fabricated with reasonable photodetection
performance.[122] Unlike MX2/MX2 heterostructures with sim-
ilar lattice structures and constants, the MX/MX2 heterostructure
with misfit lattices is also very attractive, where unusual physical
properties may arise from the unique structural modulations
between the different component layers.[123,124] Li et al. achieved
a GaSe/MoSe2 heterojunction through a two-step growth pro-
cess and fabricated a photodetector by patterning a source–
drain contact on a monolayer MoSe2 flake partially covered by
monolayer GaSe domains, as shown in Figure 7c. Under
white-light illumination, the device exhibited a stable photo­
response with an ON/OFF ratio up to 215 and a reproduc-
ible photoresponsivity of ≈30 mA W−1.[125] Besides direct CVD
growth vertical heterojunctions, in-plane heterojunctions have
also been investigated by Duan et al., as shown in Figure 7d.
They fabricated a photodetector based on a WS2/WSe2 lateral
heterojunction and demonstrated obvious p–n diode properties.
Optoelectrical measurements showed a rapid temporal response
beyond 100 µs and an EQE value of ≈9.9%. In addition, a clear
photovoltaic effect was obtained, with an open-circuit voltage of
≈0.47 V and a short-circuit current of ≈1.2 nA.[126]
4. Conclusion and Perspective
In summary, effective photodetection over a wide range of the
electromagnetic spectrum, from the UV to the IR and even
THz, has been achieved in 2D-material photodetectors. In
order to optimize the performance of 2D-material photodetec-
tors, various methods have been systematically investigated
by many research groups. Among them, plasmon enhance-
ment can effectively increase the photoresponsivity and EQE
of a 2D-material photodetector. We can also achieve spectral
selectivity by utilizing the designed plasmonic nanostructures.

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Figure 7. a) Atomic force microscopy (AFM) image of the heterostructure and the corresponding height profile along the black line (top left) and an
optical image of a typical heterostructure device (top right). Photoresponsivity as function of light power (wavelength, 638 nm) with Vsd of 4 V (bottom).
Reproduced with permission.[121] Copyright 2016, Wiley-VCH. b) MoS2/WS2 vertical heterojunction device arrays on a SiO2/Si substrate (top left);
schematic of a MoS2/WS2 vertical heterojunction phototransistor (top right); time-dependent photocurrent of the MoS2/WS2 vertical heterostructure
with different incident power on the SiO2/Si substrate (bottom left); and dependence of photocurrent and photoresponsivity on incident light power
(at 405 nm): The green and black dots correspond to original data (bottom right). Reproduced with permission.[122] Copyright 2016, American Chemical
Society. c) SEM image of a device made on monolayer MoSe2 partially covered by monolayer GaSe domains; the inset shows the corresponding optical
microscopy image (top). Ids–Vbg curve (with Vds fixed at 5 V) of the vdW heterostructure as a whole, measured using electrodes 1 and 2 (without illumi-
nation). The inset shows the time-resolved photoresponse of the vdW heterostructure at Vbg = 0 V and Vds = 5 V using a white-light source. Reproduced
with permission.[125] Copyright 2016, American Association for the Advancement of Science. d) Schematic of lateral epitaxial growth of WS2/WSe2 and
MoS2/MoSe2 heterostructures (top). Gate-tunable output of a lateral WSe2/WS2 heterojunction p–n diode. Inset: Optical image of a heterojunction
p–n diode device, the orange dashed line outlines the triangular heterostructure domain and the white dashed rectangle outlines the 50 nm Al2O3
deposited on WSe2 to insulate the WS2 contact electrodes (bottom left). Experimental output characteristics of the lateral WSe2/WS2 heterojunction
p–n diode in the dark (black line) and under illumination (red line; wavelength, 514 nm). Inset: Temporal photocurrent response under periodic on/off
laser illumination through a mechanical chopper (bottom right). Reproduced with permission.[126] Copyright 2014, Nature Publishing Group.

An ultrahigh photoconductive gain and photoresponsivity can
be realized in the charge-transfer-assisted method, but with
the sacrifice of the response speed due to the long carrier life-
time. In contrast, the optical-waveguide-integration method
can achieve a high phtoresponsivity with an ultrafast response
speed. For the graphene sandwiched structures, a broadband
photoresponse with a fast response speed can be obtained
benefiting from the bandgap engineering of vdW heterostruc-
tures and the atomically thin charge extraction channel of the
vertical heterostructure. In addition, the direct-CVD-growth
strategy can improve the performance of photodetectors by
providing a more intense coupling between the heteroge-
neous layers and avoiding contaminants in the contiguous
interface. Specially, this method can obtain an in-plane

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www.advancedsciencenews.com
heterostructure, which is unavailable in other methods.
2D-material photodetectors with performance optimized by
the above methods offer the potential for practical and com-
mercial application.
Although great progress has been achieved in performance
improvement of photodetectors based on 2D materials over
the past few years, many new challenges and opportunities
still remain, in order to further improve the performance and
exploit the distinct advantages of 2D materials and their supe-
rior devices in the future. Herein, we try to propose several
potential directions for further development of 2D-material
photodetectors. First, new contact models should be adopted to
reduce the contact resistance in devices. For instance, in the
edge-contact geometry, the carrier injection is limited only to
the 1D atomic edge of the 2D material sheet and the contact
resistance is remarkably low. Another advantage is that the
edge-contact geometry allows a complete separation of the
layer assembly and contact metallization process, which avoids
damage to the 2D material sheet.[127] In addition, due to its
unique electrical properties and 2D nature, a graphene contact
is also a model to be considerable, as we mentioned relating to
graphene sandwiched photodetectors. Second, the integration
of different types of methods may offer a platform to enhance
the performance, such as the integration approach combining
a silicon waveguide and metallic nanoplasmonic structures in
BP photodetectors, which has been reported very recently.[128]
Third, novel 2D materials with very high mobility and environ-
mental stability should be synthesized and utilized in devices
to meet specific requirements. The technology for preparing
controllable, high-quality, and large-scale 2D heterojunctions
should be explored to meet their utilization in future inte-
grating circuits.
For future practical and commercial application, the envi-
ronmental stability of 2D materials still needs to be improved.
To solve this problem, encapsulating 2D materials with
h-BN before device fabrication supplies an effective method.
In addition to the performance of 2D-material photodetec-
tors, the prospects for commercialization also depend on
the ability to establish large-scale integration with existing
photonic and microelectronic platforms, such as CMOS
technologies. In general, we are expecting the development
of high-performance 2D-material photodetectors, and are
looking forward to future comprehensive applications of 2D
materials.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the National Key R&D Program of China,
Grant No. 2017YFA0303400, the “973 Program” No. 2014CB643903,
the NSFC Grant No. 61774144, and by the Strategic Priority Research
Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Grant No. XDPB06.
The Project was also sponsored by the K. C. Wong Education
Foundation.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Small Methods 2018, 2, 1700349 1700349 (12 of 14)
www.small-methods.com
Keywords
2D materials, methods, photodetectors, van der Waals heterostructures
Received: November 2, 2017
Revised: December 25, 2017
Published online: March 26, 2018
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