Research Methodology

Subject Code – BBA N405

Unit I
Mr. Vir Pratap Singh
Assistant Professor, SMS Varanasi
 Unit 1

▪ Research design:
▪ Concept,
▪ Features of a good research design,
▪ Use of a good research design;
▪ Classification of Research Design
▪ Exploratory Research Design
▪ Descriptive Research Design

Mr. Vir Pratap Singh, SMS Varanasi. 5/31/2022 2

Research design: Concept

 Research design is a set of advance decisions that makeup the

master plan specifying the methods and procedures for
collecting and analyzing the needed information.

Mr. Vir Pratap Singh, SMS Varanasi. 5/31/2022 3

Research design: Concept

 Green et al. (2008) defines research designs as ‘the specification of

methods and procedures for acquiring the information needed. It is
the overall operational pattern or framework of the project that
stipulates what information is to be collected from which sources by
what procedures. If it is a good design, it will insure that the
information obtained is relevant to the research questions and that it
was collected by objective and economical procedures.’

Mr. Vir Pratap Singh, SMS Varanasi. 5/31/2022 4

Research design: Concept

 The essential requirement of the design is thus to provide a

framework and direction to the investigation in the most
efficient manner.
 Sellitz et al. (1962) states that ‘A research design is the
arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of
data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the
research purpose with economy in procedure

Mr. Vir Pratap Singh, SMS Varanasi. 5/31/2022 5

Features of a good research design

▪ Convert the research question and the stated

assumptions/hypotheses into operational variables that can
be measured.
▪ Specify the process that would be followed to complete the
above task, as efficiently and economically as possible.
▪ Specify the ‘control mechanism(s)’ that would be used to
ensure that the effect of other variables that could impact
the outcome of the study have been controlled.
Mr. Vir Pratap Singh, SMS Varanasi. 5/31/2022 6
Use of a good research design;

▪ It defines the purpose of the research

▪ It gives an idea about techniques to be implemented for
collecting and analyzing research
▪ It tell us about the method applied for analyzing collected
details
▪ It gives idea about the type of research methodology is to be
used in the research.

Mr. Vir Pratap Singh, SMS Varanasi. 5/31/2022 7

Use of a good research design;

▪ It gives insight about the probable objections for research

▪ It also gives idea about the settings for the research study

▪ If fixes timeline for the Research. &

▪ Gives exact idea about measurement tools used for data

analysis.

Mr. Vir Pratap Singh, SMS Varanasi. 5/31/2022 8

Classification of Research Design

Research Design
Exploratory R.D. Conclusive R.D.

Descriptive R.D. Causal R.D.

Cross-Sectional R.D. Longitudinal R.D.

Single Cross- Multiple Cross-

Sectional Sectional
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Concept – Exploratory Research Design

▪ Exploratory designs are the simplest and most loosely

structured designs.
▪ As the name suggests, the basic objective of the study is to
explore and obtain clarity about the problem situation.
▪ It is flexible in its approach and it mostly involves a qualitative
investigation.
▪ The sample size is not strictly representative and at times it
might only involve unstructured interviews with a couple of
subject experts.
Mr. Vir Pratap Singh, SMS Varanasi. 5/31/2022 10
Concept – Exploratory Research Design
▪ The essential purpose of the study is to:
▪ Define and conceptualize the research problem to be investigated
▪ Explore and evaluate the diverse and multiple research
opportunities
▪ Assist in the development and formulation of the research
hypotheses
▪ Operationalize and define the variables and constructs under study
▪ Identify the possible nature of relationships that might exist
between the variables under study
▪ Explore the external factors and variables that might impact the
research
Mr. Vir Pratap Singh, SMS Varanasi. 5/31/2022 11
Types: Tools to conduct Exploratory Research.
Secondary Resource Analysis.
Comprehensive case method.
Expert opinion survey.
Focus group discussions.
Depth Interview.
Projective Technique
▪ Most often the best point to start
research from is to study the
previous research conducted in
this area.
▪ It gives insight about the topic
▪ For example if we want to conduct
a research on customer satisfaction
parameter related to one product
then studies done in the same
field may help the purpose
Types: Tools to conduct Exploratory Research.

▪ Analyzing select cases also helps

Secondary Resource Analysis. achieve the objectives of exploratory
research.
Comprehensive case method.
▪ By doing an in-depth analysis of elect
Expert opinion survey. cases related to the topic one can reach
his objectives.
Focus group discussions.
▪ For example: we want to know the
process of reducing cost of storage for a
Depth Interview. paint company then we can use a case
study of Asian Paints.
Projective Technique
 Types: Tools to conduct Exploratory Research.

▪ There might be a situation at times when the

Secondary Resource Analysis.
Comprehensive case method.
Expert opinion survey.
Focus group discussions.
▪ For example, the evaluation of the merit of
Depth Interview.
Projective Technique
topic of a research is such that there is no
previous information available on it. Thus, in
these cases, it is advisable to seek help from
the experts who might be able to provide
some valuable insights based upon their
experience in the field or with the concept.
marketing organic food products in the
domestic Indian market cannot be done with
the help of secondary data as no such
structured data sources exist. In this case the
following can be contacted
 Types: Tools to conduct Exploratory Research.
Secondary Resource Analysis.
Comprehensive case method.
Expert opinion survey.
Focus group discussions.
Depth Interview.
Projective Technique
▪ In a typical focus group, there is a carefully
selected small set of individuals
representative of the larger respondent
population under study.
▪ For Example: Organic Food Product
viability can be adjudged through these kind
of discussions in different metro cities.
 Types: Tools to conduct Exploratory Research.

▪ In-depth interviewing is a qualitative research

Secondary Resource Analysis.
Comprehensive case method.
Expert opinion survey.
Focus group discussions.
Depth Interview.
Projective Technique
▪ Example: Consensus building exercise of luxury item
technique that involves conducting intensive
individual interviews with a small number of
respondents to explore their perspectives on a
particular idea, program, or situation.
▪ Face to face
▪ Emphasis on Body language
▪ Listen rather than talk
▪ Guided conversation
▪ Is conducted using a discussion guide
▪ Projective techniques can be incorporated into the
interview too.
purchase.
Types: Tools to conduct Exploratory Research.

Secondary Resource Analysis.
Comprehensive case method.
Expert opinion survey.
Focus group discussions.
Depth Interview.
Projective Technique
▪ Word association
▪ Sentence completion
▪ Story telling
▪ Role playing or the third
person technique
▪ Other Pictorial Techniques.
Descriptive Research Design:

▪ As the name implies, the objective of these studies is to provide a comprehensive

and detailed explanation of the phenomena under study. Or simply we can say
that it is a comprehensive study which deals with the state of affairs exists as it
is. The intended objective might be to
▪ Give a detailed sketch or profile of the respondent population being studied
▪ There might be a temporal component to this design
▪ The studies are also carried out to measure the simultaneous occurrence of
certain phenomena or variables
Descriptive Research Design:

▪ Conducting descriptive research

▪ Descriptive research, is a framework used for a conclusive research.
It, however, lacks the precision and accuracy of experimental
designs, yet it lends itself to a wide spectrum of situations and is more
frequently used in business research. Based on the temporal
collection of the research information.
▪ This can’t play with the variable, so less control is there.
▪ But it is more structured than Exploratory research.
Descriptive Research Design: ways

▪ Observational, defined as a method of viewing and

recording the participants
▪ Case study, defined as an in-depth study of an
individual or group of individuals
▪ Survey, defined as a brief interview or discussion with
an individual about a specific topic.
Types

▪ Cross-sectional and
▪ Longitudinal
 Types - Cross Sectional

As the name suggests, one takes a current

subdivision of the population and studies
the nature of the relevant variables being
investigated.
It focuses on to consider a sample and give
observation about some parameter at the
same time.
Types - Cross Sectional
▪ There are two essential characteristics of cross-sectional
studies:
▪ The cross-sectional study is carried out at a single
moment in time and thus the applicability is most
relevant for a specific period.
▪ For example, a cross-sectional study on the attitude of
Americans towards Asian- Americans, pre- and post-9/11,
was vastly different and a study done in 2011 would
reveal a different attitude and behavior towards the
population which might not be absolutely in line with
that found earlier.
Types - Cross Sectional
▪ Secondly, these studies are carried out on a
section of respondents from the population units
under study (e.g., organizational employees,
voters, consumers, industry sectors). This sample is
under consideration and under investigation only
for the time coordinate of the study.
▪ For example: Employee satisfaction at certain
point of time can be adjudged through a survey
done on small sample of employees at a particular
time period.
Types - Longitudinal
▪ There are certain distinguishing features of the longitudinal
studies:
▪ The study involves the selection of a representative panel, or a
group of individuals that typically represent the population under
study.

▪ The second feature involves the repeated measurement of the

group over fixed intervals of time. This measurement is specifically
made for the variables under study.

▪ A distinguishing and mandatory feature of the design is that once

the sample is selected, it needs to stay constant over the period of
the study.
 Types - Longitudinal

▪ A single sample of the identified population that is

studied over a stretched period of time is termed as
a longitudinal study design.

▪ Example : We can check impact of tuition on a

selected sample of student at different time
intervals.
Uses

▪ Descriptive research aims to accurately and systematically describe

a population, situation or phenomenon.

▪ It can answer what, when, where, when and how questions, but not
why questions.

▪ A descriptive research design can use a wide variety of quantitative

and qualitative methods to investigate one or more variables
Uses

▪ It is useful when not much is known yet about

the topic or problem.

▪ Before you can research why something

happens, you need to understand how, when
and where it happens.
Experimental Design

▪ An experiment is generally used to infer a causality. In an

experiment, a researcher actively manipulates one or more
causal variables and measures their effects on the dependent
variables of interest.
▪ It is virtually impossible to prove a causality. One can only
infer a cause-and-effect relationship.
▪ Sales Training Sales Force Sales Performance
Independent Test Unit Dependent
Concept of Causality

▪ Sales Training Sales Force Sales Performance

Independent Test Unit Dependent

• Sales training is a causal variable and increased sales is an effect variable

• Other factors may also influence the same.
• Reduction in price
• Strike at competitors plant
• Increase in the price of competitors product
• Reduction in the quality of Product of competitors.
 Concept of Independent & Dependent
variables, Extraneous Variable, Treatment

▪ Independent variables:
Independent variables are also
known as explanatory variables
or treatments. The levels of
these variables are Sales Sales
Sales Force
manipulated (changed) by Training Performance
researchers to measure their
effects on the dependent Independent Test Unit Dependent
variable.
▪ Dependent variables: These
variables measure the effect of
treatments (independent Experiment
variable) on the test units.
 Concept of Independent & Dependent
variables, Extraneous Variable, Treatment

▪ Test units: Test units are those entities

on which treatments are applied.
Extraneous Variable

▪ Extraneous variables: These are the • store size

variables other than the independent • advertising efforts of
variables which influence the response of
test units to treatments.
competitors
• government policies
▪ Treatment: In this case Sales training is
the treatment which we are providing to • Temperature
the sales force.
• food intake
• geographical location
 Concomitant variable, Control group.

▪ Concomitant variation: Concomitant variation is the extent to which a cause X and

effect Y occur together or vary together. This means that there has to be a strong
association between the training programme and increased sales. Moreover, both of
them need to occur together. However, a strong association between the two does not
imply causality. The high association between these two variables could be due to the
influence of other extraneous factors which may be influencing both the variables or it
may be the of result of random variations.
Concomitant variable, Control group.

▪ Time order of occurrence of variables: This condition means that the

causal variable must occur prior to or simultaneously with the effect
variable. This means that sales training must have taken place either
before or simultaneously with the increased sales. However, just because
sales training took place prior to an increase in sales will not help in
inferring causality. It might have been due to a mere coincidence and
thus, cannot help in inferring causality.
Concomitant variable, Control group.

▪ The control group is defined as the group in an

experiment or study that does not receive
treatment by the researchers and is then used as a
benchmark to measure how the other tested
subjects do.
Experimental Design

▪ A blueprint of the procedure that enables the researcher to

maintain control over all factors that may affect the result
of an experiment.
▪ In doing this, the researcher attempts to determine or
predict what may occur.
▪ Experimental research is often used where there is time
priority in a causal relationship (cause precedes effect),
there is consistency in a causal relationship (a cause will
always lead to the same effect), and the magnitude of the
correlation is great.
What do these studies tell you?

▪ Experimental research allows the researcher to control the situation.

In doing so, it allows researchers to answer the question, “What
causes something to occur?”
▪ Permits the researcher to identify cause and effect relationships.
▪ Experimental research designs support the ability to limit
alternative explanations and to infer direct causal relationships in
the study.
▪ Approach provides the highest level of evidence for single studies.
What these studies don't tell you?

▪ The design is artificial, and results may not be generalize well to the real
world.
▪ The artificial settings of experiments may alter the behaviors or responses
of participants.
▪ Experimental designs can be costly if special equipment or facilities are
needed.
▪ Some research problems cannot be studied using an experiment because of
ethical or technical reasons.
▪ Difficult to apply ethnographic and other qualitative methods to
experimentally designed studies.
Experimental Design

▪ An experiment is generally used to infer a

causality. In experiment, a researcher actively
manipulates one or more causal variables and
measures their effects on dependent variables.
▪ Causality:
▪ Sales Training  Workforce  Increased Sales Performance.
Necessary conditions for Making Causal
Inferences

▪ Concomitant Variation: It is the extent to which a cause X

and effect Y occur together or vary together.
▪ Time order of occurrence of Variables: This condition
means that the causal variable must occur prior to or
simultaneously with the effect variable.
▪ Absence of other possible causal factors: The objective of
an experiment is to measure the influence of the
independent variable on a dependent variable while
keeping the effect of other extraneous variables constant.
 Concept Used in Experiments
Sales Training

Independent Variable: explanatory variable -

treatment

Sales force
Test Units: Test Units are those entities on which
treatments are applied

Dependent Variable: These variables measure Sales

the effect of treatments(independent Variable) Performance
on the test units

Competitors factory
Extraneous Variable: Variables other than the lockdown,
independent variables which influence the Government policy,
response of test units to treatments. Competitors price hike,
Seasonal Change
 Validity in Experimentation
It deals with only
independent and
dependent variable
relationship and avoid other
To Draw valid conclusions about the effect of
treatments(independent variables) on the factors
dependent variables – Internal Validity. influence(Extraneous
Variable).

To make generalizations about the results to a

wider population – External Validity The result can be
generalized for the larger
population
 Factors affecting Internal Validity
Higher the difference between observation, higher
History would be the effect.
it is concerned with the changes in a test unit
Maturation occurring with the passage of time.
It is concerned with the possible effect on the
experiment of taking a measurement on the
Testing dependent variable before presentation of the
treatment.
It refers to the effect caused by the changes in
Measuring Instrument measuring instrument used for taking an
observation
The effect of statistical regression occurs when the test
units with extreme scores (either extremely favourable or
Statistical Regression extremely unfavourable) are chosen for exposure to the
treatment
This refers to the improper assignments of test units to
Selection Bias treatments
Some of the test units might drop out from the
experiment while it is in progress or some may refuse to
Test Unit Mortality continue with the experiment
 Factors affecting External Validity
The environment at the time of
test may be different from the
environment
Environmental Change of the Population used for
real world where these
experimentation of the test may
results are to be generalized
not be similar to
Population Change the population where the results
of the experiments are to be
Results obtained in a 5–6 week
applied.
test may not hold in an
Duration Problem application of 12
months
Treatment at the time of the test
may be different from the
Treatment change. treatment of the
real world
Definition and Symbols

▪ X – the exposure of a test group to an experimental treatment whose

effect is to be measured.
▪ O – The measurement or observation of the dependent variable.
▪ R – The random assignment of test units or groups to separate
treatments.
▪ The movement from left to right indicates the time sequence of events
▪ All symbols in one row indicate that the subject belongs to that specific treatment
group
▪ Vertical arrangement of the symbols means that these symbols refers to the events
or activities that occur simultaneously.
Thank you…
virpratap@smsvaranasi.com

Mr. Vir Pratap Singh, SMS Varanasi. 5/31/2022 46