UNIT3:DEVELOPMENT

TOPIC 1:CONTESTED MEANINGS OF DEVELOPMENT

DUCTION

-development isa sustained increase in the standard ofliving in a

society
↳i
debated because focused on issues faced by countries how to
developing bestpromoste well-
-

being and reduce ill-being

-often measured in terms of economic growth butcritics

say thatsocio-political factors are equally important in development.

-maslow's hierarchy of needs often referred to progression from human needs to

-

higher needs
↳
↳eg. basics like shelter & food ->
higher needs like relationships andself-estem
goal is self-actualisation-fulfilling a person's potential and wishes in life
-

pyramid structure:if bottom levels (ie. basic needs) are not secure, itwould be difficultto
achieve upper levels
↳criticism:all basic needs are
equally important

DEVELOPMENTI

-human development process ofenlarging peoples' freedoms &

-

opportunities and improving their well-being

↳is individual-focused, freedom ofordinary people whether

they have the capability

to ofvalue
pursue a life
o
eg. good health care, access to
education/knowledge,
control ofliving environment & freedom from conflict

-economic development -
refers growth ofeconomy.
to

increase
↳aim to and revenue
productivity
o
differentsectors
eg. establishing new industries, diversifying economy into
not for trade
being revianton one resource
-

socio-political development development ofnational political unity

through institutions and also trying to
-
-

improve well-being of every individual so they can achieve full potential

↳i access to education, democratic & corruption
improving responsible government, low
and an impartial legal system.
o
eg. political participation, education levels, gender equality, free elections
o
achievement ofsocio-political freedoms

I
RES OF DEVELOPMENTI

INCOME-BASED MEASURES

simplestmeasures ofdevelopmentis income-based eg. GDP, GNP, ginicoefficient

-

-GDP is
gross domestic product country's
-
income divided
by everyone in population-average salary if everbody
the same:ifGDP per increasing then there development
was
earning capita is is economic
 ↳ measure developmentbutdoesn't distribution ofwealth
simple way to look at in
very unequal societies,
-

GDP per capita can be

misleading, itrich are becoming richer, can show increase in GDP, butdoesn'ttell

us
anything aboutactual developmentit. Situation may nothave improved for the poor at all

ginicoefficientmeasures how equal unequal societies are:considers income distribution difference in income between
-

or +

the richest and the poorest, closer the ginicoefficient 0,

is to equal a society is
the more
↳>
compliment GDP per capita
used to -
is an indicator for development considering inequality
is bad

for development

-
GNP is
gross national product GDP+ foreign
:

investment, measures production ofa country improvementofliving

-

standards

-human development index looks at 3 variables GNlper capita, life

=

expectancy, expected average years ofschooling

vs.

for adults
age 25 -> a
country's achievements in three basic areas ofhuman development:health, knowledged
standard ofliving
↳i into
doesn't just look at
monetary/economic factors butalso doesn't take environmental
account factors,

human rights, etc.

·
doesn'treflecton inequalities, poverty, etc.

-genuine progress indicator measures economic growth cost of crime, ozone depletion -> nets the positive a negative
-

ofeconomic
results growth examine
to whether it has been beneficial or not

↳i approach thattakes account social d

better measure for
green and social economies holistic into
-

environmental factors

-happy planetindex expectancy,

for life
accounts
wellbeing satisfaction w/ lifeas measured by gallup world polls,
inequality (based on distribution oflife expectancy & well-beings carbon footprint:average years ofhappy life
+

produced by a given society, nation or group ofnations per unitof planetary resources consumed.
↳>reflects
the extent to which countries sucked in
achieving the goal ofhappy lives for their
citizens ecological efficiency ofdelivering human
well-being
-

-more complexmeasures ofdevelopment & economic measures ofdevelopment main debates ofdevelopment
-

because they capture aspects ofdevelopment other than thatofeconomic growth

AFFECTING
DEVELOPMENT
resumemangapartnerships internationationWrid**a k

ENVIRONMENTAL ↑ ↑ -

ac esandiose - INSTITUTIONArest↑ ↑
I burenwray&
program in Legal frameworks

↑
stability
migration

ETAL FORSI-POLITICAL governantamountability ->

ideologieL
generation-so & transparency
s
mmuneraditions
frames
I
ECONOMIC
infrastructure
↑
history & persistence
ofconflict

-
access to

apt
↓
rested interests - resources
resourcetraito
↓

aid & access to

foreign design capitalcredit
investment.
paradox ofplenty -
countries thatare rich in natural resources tend to
have more economic
growth & development
↳is with the resource curse' wherein this can sometimes inhibitdevelopments
paradoxcomes

↳
in

conflict distribution of resources

linked to +

poor
->
economic
growth increased
-

risk ofconflict
has three dimensions:links between wealth in resources &
resource curse theory socio-political issues

and conflicts
1.
paul collier theorises that some countries are more
weak institutions:economist

prone to conflicts than other:economic prospects that

for conflict, e.g. large deposits
teeter towards corruption & undemocratic
may cause already weak institutions to
the hands offew who have no incentive to
practices because in concentrates power into
neinvesttheir wealth into developmentor democratic institutions more likely to use it
-

as a
means to
stay in power
2. context ofconflict: having large deposite ofnatural resources available youtable' and can -

prolong hostilities because itprovides rebel groups the revenue tocontinue their military
campaigns:political economy ofwar, conflicts can devastatea
country's institutions eg.
social, economic, political, prolongation ofconflict-less likely to
etc. progress in development.
3. Over-reliance on resources:can cause countries to
neglectother oftheir economy
aspects
like agriculture a manufacturing:no diversity in economy, this vulnerable to fluctuations
in commodity prices 'dutch disease 'wherein country
->
becomes over dependenton
resource exports

postcolonial criticism commodity determinism, the structure ofa wuntry's social, cultural, and political development
-
-

economy i.e. in the contextofpostcolonial theory, this can be examined through the
is deeply influenced by its
remnantsofcolonial authority in a
given country
↳icolonisers exploitresources & labour ofcolonised populations for their own economic benefit

↳ -developmentofeconomies dependenton extraction and exportofthese resources lack of

investment in other sectors ofthe economy like manufacturing or service industries

paradox ofplenty
ignores the structural & historical factors that limitdevelopment
->

by focusing
on
justlocal actors esp. in global south & african countries
ECTIVES
ON DEVELOPMENT I

view-basically rostow's modernisation

orthodox
theory, explain process
used to modernisation
of in societies
-

referring toa model ofprogressive transition from pre-modern/traditional' to 'modern' society

(1900)
L
grounds ofdevelopment are completely economic high mass wasumption & thriving
->

↳ enomy,developedsocietynations,
↳ capitalism
five stages from low high
to development:
grounded in economic neo-liberalism free-mark the

I traditional societies:subsistence farming, low levels oftechnology,

pre-scientific values

2. pre-conditions for take-off:introduction ofmoney a

banking new class
+

of
entrepreneurs with scientific values

3. take-off:growth ofeconomic sectors now common, widespread growth of

values growth
encouraging economic

4. drive
maturity:diversification ofeconomy + producing large varietyofgoods
to

-standards rise and poverty

decreases
 I 5.

and
high mass
widespread.

o
measure
means to
o

criticised
measured
consumption:wealth mass

as a

culture to
be
characterises
poverty

uni-faceted

replaced
&

view

with
ignores
-
-

opportunities (human & socio-economic development) neo-marxists

non-western societies as
a
:
consumption ofmodern

ofneo-liberalism
inequality popularised with
measured by distribution ofincome)
using ginicoefficient (inequity

other indicators

disagree
frank & Wallerstein criticism:this model requires destruction ofindigenous
westernised one to

primitive or unevolved
=
rise

ofdevelopment
society social equality

become 'modernised
->
consumer

in
goods

inferior ifdon't
-
=

have living standards

same as the west.

dependency theory critism insinuates LEDCs mustimitate

MEDCs in order
o -

catch
to
up

holistic view dependency/world systems theory (structural & global view ofmarxism core a periphery countries,
-
- =

the premise is that underdeveloped or newly independent states are stuck in an unequal
basically of
system
global trade where
they are exploited by countries in the 'cone', who profitmore the cost
at ofperiphery
countries

1
Li

I
I
core countries were former colonial powers industrioused western countries;periphery
+

countries were former colonies

·can be marxism:bourgeoisie (cone) becoming rich
compared to by exploiting
the proletariat
maintaining unequal relationship
=

in the interest of
maintaining dominance
helps to explain ofdevelopment
lack in post-colonial countries after
gaining independence
and tried
gain self-sufficiency
to
·
placed high tariffs imported goods to
on
protectdomestic industriel
o
overvalued make importing production imports cheaper
currencies to

in thesubsidisedindustriesespecial yagriculturepromoteselfsufficeformer colonial power the

but
typicallyledtoadverseefferthey they go into deten
a +

involvement
corruption money wasted because ofstate in economic

regulations
pressure from western
yous. & international financial institutions
a

change their
to development strategies because affects global economy.
eg. ghana, tried to
raise tariffs to
prevent dumping, led pressure to
0
to

lessen these used as a dumping

ground for products like tomatoes or
->

onions from ell, china, usa, local productscan't compete

with cheap prices
=no
protectionism:china exports like 60 million tonnes a
year
->
exploitation
cost of
at
periphery countries
impoverished while rich states
poor states are enriched by the
way these poor states are

integrated intothe world system

reaction to modernisation theory which basically said thatall societies progress atsimilar
stages ofdevelopment:need tohelp them to accelerate
progress becoming modernised to

investing in agriculture, technology, etc. china in africa, gifted the AU

->

headquarters $23 billion in infrastructure:modern day colonialism exploited

+ -

with debt traps

-

neo-liberalism -

replaced dependency theory in 80s, regards free markets efficient

as the most and fair way
foster
to economic development:policies privatise,
growth and to free trade, reduce governmentinterference
+
spending ofthe private
increase
to sector
role

!
↳
negative consequences economic
theory says governmentintervention always leads to

↳
-

growth doesn'tlastand corruptofficials have a lotofopportunities for themselves

illegally
need to
intervene possible creates healthy competition strongestcompanies
as little as
- +

survive so thatthere is sustainable economic growth

long term development
-

·development should grow from foreign directinvestment state spending on public

+

services should be reduced eg. health care a pensions so that

people are more

work harder and contribute

motivated to to
country's economy
criticism:removed state
from development process:social cost ofreducing government services
ofprivate groups eg.
-responsibility charities, NGOs butalso would lead paying private
to

companies for services once provided by the government -> lead

beginning ofprivatisation
to

argued that healthy competition between social welfare providers less corruption
· -

& also argued for trickle down economics as rich

getricher spend more
- ->

produce more consumer goods

helps more industries employ more people to
->

o truth is that outin the richesttax bracket economic growth,

only accumulates
-goes towards stocks or
savings, comparison to in middle class sectors
tax not are

main drivers ofeconomy (1% increase in wealth for 20% of

low income sectors -

0.38%
growth in GDP) more effective ifthey gotthe tax cut
=

led to
structural adjustment programmes (SAPs) help lowering & eventually removing to
=

trade barriers eg. import tariffs, devaluation ofcurrencies,

cutting public spending and
privatisation didn't benefitall countries, some fell into cycle ofstagnation & inflation
-> =

harsh policies, pressured because if not, likely not toget loans and / or aid in future is

SURROUNDING
DEVELOPMENTI

GLOBALISATION

process ofinteracting and integration:occurs between peoples,

trading entities and
governmentsofdifferent nations
-

-economic
globalisation
-
increase in
integration and interdependence ofglobal economies
cross-border movements
↳is ofservices, products, money a technology
BRI helped expand trade, increase investment
eg. a reduce
foreign poverty
·

-created 300,000 local jobs

political globalisation -

increase of global governance beyond the nation state -> rise in influence ofgroups like

NGOs and tackle

IGOs specific aims to
=

global problems
↳>
lowering migration, movement ofgoods & services, agreementson
barriers to common standards
for labour, intellectual property, and environmental protection
o the EU, interdependence each other within the bloc for
eg. on economic
growth
and political goals: settle
agreeing on economic + less
likely resort
to towar to
cooperate was
conflicts &Prote forces states
onissues
to
raised by
increased global
IGOs:
and interactions
political
-
cultural globalisation -
increased sharing ofmeanings, ideas, and values across the world - > cross-border flow of
cultural norms, values, and media products eg. films, music, etc.
↳is
eg. influence ofhollywood, global human rights increased
-

use of the
english language
 I
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

-migration-influxofmigrants:larger workforce for -dependency theory-states develop slower because

unskilled labour some develop
rapidly:exploitative nature ofcore and
periphery country
relationships
↳
neo-liberalism large scale advances for
society as a eg. china in africa
-
-

whole means everyone benefits, those attop earning

more:those bottom trickle post-colonial theory colonisation (socio-political d
at
earning more too
-
-
->

down economics economic

globalisation) as rootofcorruption and
↳>criticism:trickle down economic doesn't claim it's
so some post-colonialists acceptable for
some
work, middle & lower classes rarely see countries
neglecthuman rightsand environmental
to

improvement/change in standard ofliving, gains sustainability

in order to catch up
wealthy
go to
migration-brain drain, isolation & marginalisation
-

-environmental impacts -
allows work together
for states to when poorly integrated, labour rights violations for fear

creates treaties, conventions

to & address
legislation to ofextortion because
they legal documents
lack
environmental issues eg. montreal protrol 1987
-

environmental impacts -

global trade a
migration runs
mainly on fossil fuels -

may contribute
to over-exploitation
ofnatural resources
eg. deforestation, mining

erosion ofstate authority -

althusser's theory ofthe state,
wherein ideology maintain social order
is used to by the

ruling class globalisation increases ewnomic, cultural d

-

political interdependence, econpower more & more in the

hands ofMNCs, less ability
to regulate

THEORIES ON GLOBALISATION

-liberal globalisation theory -

developed by John riggie, grobalisation is driven by liberal economic principles

-

encourages a more interconnected, peaceful a

prosperous world
↳
also known as liberal internationalism, emphasises role ofeconomic interdependence a
global
governance to peace &
promote prosperity among states ->
globalisation is a positive force that
leads greater cooperation &
integration amongststates economic
growth & development
-

·
theorists eg. robert Keonade & Joseph aye

hyperglobalisation theory suggests thatglobalisation is a transformative force w/ significantconsequences sovereignty

on state
-
-

+international politics, proponents ofthis are thomas friedman and martin wolf
↳ more than an increase in international trade

↳
just & investment:
now an all encompassing force
that can change societies, economies, and political systems
globcuisation means to
as a reduce
global (Wolf)
inequality ->
increase in economic
growth, spread
ofdemocratic improve their economica
values, creates opportunities for individuals a nations to
social well-being
criticism:overlooksnegative consequences ofglobalisation cultural erosion, reduction
o -

in
sovereignty, environmental degradation
state assumes globalisation is -> a

win-win situation for all actors

· also oversimplified:assumes globalisation is a uniform process driven by economic
and
technological factors, ignores political, social a cultural dimensions
 -realist -

globalisation is a multifaceted
by shifting balance ofpower between states, dependent
process shaped an

relative power ofdifferentactors in international driven

by economic & technological developments,
system
->

emergence ofa single global market where

goods, services, and capital flow freely across borders:increased
economic interdependence
↳is powerful ofthe global system, unequal distribution

↳
shape rules
states are able to and norms

ofpower a conflictover resources

globalisation is driven by interests:states

state being primary actors in the international

system means their behaviour is driven by desire to

maximise power a security
·
importance ofnon-state
neglects actors eg. international/intergovernmental
organisations eg. IMFOR WTO shape global economy
which also help

through encouraging monetary cooperation policies:increasingly important

+

role in global politics

o alsoignores interdependence benefits:reduces globalisation to
a zero
+

sum game -> can contribute

toincreased equality economic growth in
from globalisation.
some cases & economic interdependence:seek benefits

constructivist -

globalisation is a social & cultural process:shaped by ideas, norms & identities:emphasises role

played by non-state actors in shaping global economies but notjustbased on economic and technological developments
-
emphasises role ofnotonly states butalso non-stateactors individuals -

spread ofmarket-oriented policies and practices butalso the spread of

↳is
not justaboutthe economic

↳ cultural values,

democratic values

highlights identity
social norms

and social networks in shaping

political ideologies eg.
-

global
spread ofhuman rights norms

economic relations:influences behaviour

and

and preferences ofactors global system eg.

in diaspora communities and transnational activists
who can influence flow ofcapital, goods and ideas across borders
o criticised for emphasis on norms and ideas:overlooks material factors such as

technology, resources, and power:economic interests are more important

than ideas

whengenarannons
also idealisticassumes utopian cooperationa harmony, reality
is thatthereare

power struggles & incentives thatdrive economic relations

I
LINEQUALITY ·

-nancy birdsall- american economist, globalisation increases risks ofincreasing in equality

in LEDCs where inequality

ofpoor economy
is already an issue especially in cases where there is institutional weakness as a result
↳i
provides incentives for mobility a rewards high productivity, destructive
constructive inequality
undermines
inequality economic growth and efficiency reduces incentives
-

individuals
for work
to

marorms.
->
-trade liberalisation, where restrictions or barriers on trade are reduced or removed e.g. tariffs, duties, surcharges
new
:generate jobs, raise incomes, reduction costs
for consumption, etc. -> more competitive economy
↳is
butcan also had increased wage gap, increased inequality
especially in rural areas where

↳
to

people rely on
agriculture or manufacturing:cheaper imports means small businesses struggle
more

criticalperspective eg. david harvey or saskia sassen: negative ofglobalisation,

impacts
concentration of
wealth and power in those who are in a
actually take
position to
advantage ofglobalisation:the rich

the bottom
-race to competition seeking to
-
when countries,
attractinvestment, offers lower wages, weaker environmental
acceptlower wages and standards ofliving less job security
protection & less regulation-workers have to in order
remain competitive in global
to
economy
 1
↳ danirodrik, international economist, the
race to bottom when
-

countries compete
to lower their

labour & environmental standards to

attractforeign investment and increase exports, driven by
ofMNC and investors:significantnegative impacton economic
incentives & interests development
and social welfare -> exploitation ofworkers a damage to
the environment
in order reduce costs
to

which can lead looser environmental

to
regulations that cause pollution
creates winners and losers within a between countries:benefits ofglobalisation are unequally
distributed MNCs and investors benefitfrom low wages and poor regulation, so LEDCs are
=

disadvantaged by the factthat they lack the resources and infrastructure tocompete
on the basis

ofquality & innovation

o criticisms:only focuses on negative ofglobalisation, lack ofa balanced
aspects
view on costs and of globalisation
benefits
o
also disregards agency oflocal actors, eg. workers, consumers a civil society
view culture &
constructivist can also shape
groups, identity economic policies
:

and outcomes in contextofglobalisation

-concentration ofwealth & power-enables MNCs to

expand operations increase power and influence, ability
-
to
influence and shape policies and regulations totheir advantage atthe detriment ofsmaller businesses and workers
-increased influence ofinternational institutions, eg. IMF
& wiO who can use their economic policies influence
to

policy-making to their favour

Lis loans like cutting public spending,
measures in exchange for
eg. imposing harsh austerity

↳ reducing wages and benefits for workers promoting policies that benefitwealthy countries
and MNCs like
reducing barriers to
-

expense ofworking class LEDCs

trade at

theory:capitalism is an inherently exploitative system, globalisation has

marxist
+

UNCs to workers in LEDCs and increase their influence in policy-making

exploit
their
to
advantage IMF and WTO are tools of
->
capitalistexploitation e.g. david
harvey:neoliberal policies like deregulation and priritisation benefitswealthy atthe
expense ofpoor and
working class
·critcised for
recognise the significanteconomic progress made
failing to
globalisation doesn't accountfor other factors such as
by LEDCs after +

culture and
history which can equally affect inequality

NABILITY

three pillars ofsustainability (scot cato, 2009) the

economy and society's
- -

development should be constrained within the environment

ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY

reduce factors thatcan threaten economic well-being eg. establishing sustainable

transportation and infrastructure, investing in education/technology, increasing
Jobsand incomes
↳i
through business development, reducing corruption
globalisation can affectthis:introducing new ideas thatimprove well-being
ofbusinesses creating new opportunities/markets reducing import tariffs toease
+ +

monetary flow & markets

access to

SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY

-reduce factors thatcould threaten human well-being

eg. empowerment ofwomen, improved education health
↳i
care, addressing poverty,
+

reducing corruption
ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY

reduce
aims to factors threatening environmental well-being:land use, atmosphere, food production energy
+

use.

-north-south divide -
economic & political divide between the countries in the northern hemisphere a
southern hemisphere
Li north characterised by technology, manufacture-based economies, low birth

↳
global urban a
& death rate, empowermentofwomen low population density
south characterised by agravian-based high birth death rates,
global economies, low empowerment
-

ofwomen, high population density, economic political dependence on

global north
·countries in the
global south are
very dependenton the
global north:
obey
rules set by them -> inhibits development

-economies of the
global north
grown significantly atthe expense ofthe environment global south wants
copy
to

this
growth -> tensions w/ global north now introduce environmental
want to protection measures

↳is south,
nota priority
for
global global north is more
economically a politically powerful
so theycan impose restrictions on economies ofcountries thatdamage the economy.

-adams & fannenaud (geographer international environmentalist)

-
as economies
grow, environment
-

degrades --
central conflict ofenvironmental protection & economic development

-for global south, priorities alleviating poverty & environmental problems we directimpacton
countries in -

populations eg. food security devertification;global north emphasises environmental protection problems
- +

global
are of
that concern
eg. ozone depletion
↳i because difference
gridlock in international environmental negotiations in priorities

-exacerbated by globalisation:IMF and WB neoliberal trade policies made

+
and inequality
poverty worse-enforced
the global south's
environmentally & economically disadvantageous dependence on the global north
spread ofcultural values lifestyle ofthe north, high consumption -> civilisations thatdon't
↳is +

adopt this is backwards and needs be

to modernised
·continued exploitation ofearth's resources especially ofthe global south, fored
continue exporting primary commodities
to

·exacerbates inequalities between global not a south -> concept ofendless economic

growth failure ofinternational

-
address this divide.
environmental law to