3.

Plant Embryogenesis

• In angiosperms after fertilization process, the zygote goes through

various cellular differentiations and divisions in order to produce a
mature embryo.
• This growth and developmental process is termed embryogenesis
• This process may occur naturally in the plant as a result of sexual
fertilization (zygotic embryo) or asexual process that forms new
plants (somatic embryo)
• In plant tissue culture plant cells and tissues are triggered to form
embros which are called somatic embryos
• Somatic embryos follow similar developmental patterns to
their zygotic embryos
• The morphogenic events that occur during zygotic embryogenesis
are as follow:
 Embryogenesis cont’d

1. Two cell stage

• Following fertilization, the zygote and endosperm are present
within the ovule. Then the zygote undergoes an asymmetric
transverse cell division that gives rise to two cells - a small apical
cell resting above a large basal cell. These two cells are very
different, and give rise to different structures, establishing polarity
in the embryo.
• i. The apical cell
• The small apical cell is on the top and contains most of
the cytoplasm, the aqueous substance found within cells, from the
original zygote It gives rise to the hypocotyl, shoot apical meristem,
and cotyledons.
• ii. The basal cell
• The large basal cell is on the bottom and consists of a
large vacuole and gives rise to the hypophysis and the suspensor .
 Embryogenesis cont’d

2. Eight cell stage

• After two rounds of longitudinal division (anticlinal), and one round
of transverse division (periclinal), an eight-celled embryo is formed.
• There are four distinct areas during the eight cell stage.
• The first two areas contribute to the develop embryo . The apical
embryo domain, gives rise to the shoot apical meristem and
cotyledons.
• The second area, the central embryo part, gives rise to the
hypocotyl, root apical meristem, and parts of the cotyledons. The
third area, the basal embryo domain, contains the hypophysis.
• The hypophysis will later give rise to the radicle and the root cap.
• The last area, the suspensor, is the region at the very bottom, which
connects the embryo to the endosperm for nutritional purposes.
 Embryogenesis cont’d

3. Sixteen cell stage

• Additional cell divisions occur, which leads to the
sixteen cell stage. The four areas are still present, but
they are more defined with the presence of more cells.
• The important aspect of this stage is the development
of the protoderm, which is meristematic tissue that will
give rise to the epidermis.
• The protoderm is the outermost layer of cells in the
embryo proper.
 Embryogenesis cont’d

4. Globular stage
• The name of this stage is indicative of the embryo's appearance at
this point in embryogenesis; it is spherical or globular.
• The important component of the globular phase is the
development of the rest of the primary meristematic tissue.
• The protoderm was already introduced during the sixteen cell
stage.
• According to Evert and Eichhorn, the ground meristem and
procambium are initiated during the globular stage.The ground
meristem will go on to form the ground tissue, which includes the
pith and cortex. The procambium will eventually form the vascular
tissue, which includes the xylem and phloem.
 Embryogenesis cont’d

• 5. Heart stage
• According to Evert and Eichhorn, the heart stage
is a transition period where the cotyledons finally
start to form and elongate.
• It is given this name, heart stage, in eudicots
because most plants from this group have two
cotyledons, giving the embryo a heart shaped
appearance.
• The shoot apical meristem is between the
cotyledons.
 Embryogenesis cont’d

6. Torpedo/Pro embryo stage

• This stage is defined by the continued growth of the cotyledons and

axis elongation.
• In addition, programmed cell death must occur during this stage.
• This is carried out throughout the entire growth process, like any
other development.
• However, in the torpedo stage of development, parts of the
suspensor complex must be terminated.
• The suspensor complex is shortened because at this point in
development most of the nutrition from the endosperm has been
utilized, and there must be space for the mature embryo
• After the suspensor complex is gone, the embryo is fully
developed.
 Embryogenesis cont’d

7. Cotyledonary/Maturation

• The second phase, or postembryonic development,

involves the maturation of cells.
• During the maturation of cells, there is cell growth and
the storage of macromolecules (such as oils, starches
and proteins) in the cotyledon.
• These reserved or stored macromolecules are required
as a food and energy supply for the embryo
during germination and seedling growth.
 Embryogenesis cont’d

8. Descication and Dormancy stage

• During early growth, the level of organization in the zygote is essentially

zero compared to a high level in the fully developed and matured embryo
• At the end of embryogenesis there is an arrested development and a stop
in growth.
• The water and growth promoting hormones levels within the seed drop to
a minimal level.
• Level of Hormones such as abscisic acid (ABA), initial called “Dormin”
increases, being of varying quantity in different species, this results in
what is called dormancy.
• Dormancy is a period in which a seed cannot germinate, even under
optimal environmental conditions, until the species’ seed requirement is
supplied to it.
 4. The Angiosperms seed

❖ In the two classes of angiosperm, the monocot and dicots the

seed develops from the ovule
❖ At maturity it normally has the following components:
I. The embryo developed from the oospore/zygote- this is an xis
that bear the radicle or root meristem at one end and the
plumule or shoot meristem at the other end. During the seed
germination, the radicle forms the root primordial and the
plumule, the primordial leaves
II. The endosperm which is variable in different species or
consumed to form cotyledon in non endospermic seeds
III. The seed coat (testa) formed from the integument(s) of the
embryo sac
 The Angiosperms seed cont’d

IV. The micropyle may be closed up or remain as an

occluded (blocked) pore.
V. The hilum which is scar made where the seed as been
attached to the funicle
VI. Cotyledonary node, this is the point of attachment of
the cotyledon and the embryonic axis
VII. Hypocotyl, this is the portion between the
cotyledonary node and the radicle
VIII. Epicotyl, this is the portion between the
cotyledonary node and the plumule
The Angiosperms seed cont’d
Diagram of a dicot seed
3. The Angiosperms seed cont’d
 The Angiosperms seed cont’d
Similarities between monocot seeds and dicot seeds
1. Both seeds possess an embryonic axis at one end of
which is the radicle and the other end the plumule
2. The plumule and radicle in both types ofseed give rise
to the first shoot and root respectively
3. Both store food materials for later use by the
developing embryo
4. They both possess the seed leaf or cotyledons.
5. Cotyledons reserves content vary from one species to
the other. That is amongst the monocots or dicots,
there are starchy, proteinous or fatty seeds depending
on which type of food reserve is stored in highest
quantity (percentage in the species.
 Class Activities

1. Draw and label the different stages of plant

embryogenesis
2. What roles do auxins, cytokinins and gibberellins play
during plant embryogenesis
3. On a table give the differences between the seed of
Zea mays (a monocot ) and Vigna unguiculata (a
dicot)
4. Give three examples each of a starchy, proteins and
oil seeds
5. List the different seed dispersal methods eg zoochory
(epizoochory and endozoochory) - dispersal by
animals
 Seed germination

• Seed germination refers to the emergence of

the radicle when a seed is supplied with
adequate water, temperature and oxygen.
• There two types of germination, epigeal and
hypogeal germination
• During epigeal germination the cotyledons are
brought above the soil eg in beans but during
hypogeal germination the cotyledon remains
below eg in maize
Seed germination cont’d
 Seed germination cont’d
Summary of seed germination metabolism
1. Water imbibition, oxygen uptake and respiration
2. Production/ stimulation of hormones and enzymes
synthesis
3. Break down of insoluble compound stored
food/macro molecules in the cotyledon /endosperm
to soluble simple forms by enzymes
4. Mobilization of these simple molecules from the
cotyledon to the embryo to aid its growth and
development
5. Development of the embryonic axis and the
emergence of the radicle, at this point germination is
said to have occured
Factors affecting seed germination
• Environmental factors such as temperature,
light, pH, and soil moisture are known
to affect seed germination
• Genetic and innate factors such as
morphology and physiology of the seed and
age of the mother plant
• Depth of sowing the seed also affects seed
germination and seedling emergence.
 5. The Angiosperm fruit
• . The fruit may be described as the mature ovary
• Pollination, fertilization and the subsequent development of the
embryo and seed also stimulate changes in the ovary
• Types of fruits, include
i. True fruits - these are fruits that develop from the ovary alone
e.g. mango
ii. False fruits – in some cases a fruit may develop from sterile or
accessory parts along with the ovary e.g. cashew
iii. Simple fruits - fruits produced by a unicarpellate or a syncarpous
(fused) ovary pistil e.g. peas
iv. Aggregate fruits – they are a collection of simple fruits formed by
apocarpous (free) ovary pistil eg rose
v. Multiple fruits - fruits developed from from a collection of
flowers on an inflorescence
 The Angiosperm fruit cont’d
• Simple fruits could be dry or fleshy at maturity
• Dry fruits can be grouped into dehiscent and
indehiscent
• Types of dry dehiscent fruits include, capsule,
follicle, legume, schizocarp and siliqua
• Types of dry indehiscent fruits include,
achene, caryopsis, cypsela, nut and samara
• Fleshy fruit types include, berry, drupe, pepo,
pome and hesperidium
 The Angiosperm fruit cont’d

• Components of a fruit
1. Pericarp – this is the fruit wall. It develops
from the ovary wall. It may be thin or thick
• in fleshy fruits the pericarp is well divided into
three parts the exocarp, mesocarp and
endocarp
2. Seeds – these like the fruit itself also vary in
content , size and arrangement
 Class Activities

1. Look around the science complex, both old and

new, list ten plants that bear fruits
2. Give the type of fruits that are borne on the
plants
3. Briefly describe each fruit types mentioned in
your notes
4. To which fruit types do these common fruits
belong. Also give their botanical names.
5. African star apple, banana, cashew, cucumber,
coconut, dates, mango, maize(corn), melon,
orange, pineapple, plantain