Sir Syed Ahmad Khan

‘I am sure readers interested in Sir Syed Ahmad Khan’s life and work would
find Professor Shafey Kidwai’s work a mine of well-arranged information,

objectively and competently interpreted. For this we should all be grateful
to him.’
— Irfan Habib, Professor Emeritus, Aligarh Muslim University, India
‘By far the best biography written of Syed Ahmad Khan, this is a beautifully
detailed and nuanced account of one of the makers of modern India as well
as Islam.’
— Faisal Devji, Professor of History, University of Oxford, UK
‘Fresh perspectives on Sir Syed, especially as a reformist, have a definite

appeal in today’s context. The author puts his finger on the pulse of our times
in revitalizing the image of Sir Syed as someone who tried to awaken prag-
matic awareness rather than propagating authoritarian dictates. Kidwai’s
book can be seen as a call for that same spirit of renaissance via Sir Syed.’
— Sukrita Paul Kumar, Noted Scholar and Poet
‘Drawing upon a wide variety of primary and secondary sources, Kidwai

has been able to offer a probing study that would stay as a companion and
a guide to anyone interested in Sir Syed studies.’
— Anisur Rahman, Noted Scholar and Critic
‘Shafey Kidwai’s book adds to the conversation on Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, the
nineteenth century reformer of India. Kidwai’s book reiterates the story of Sir
Syed’s contributions to education, inter-faith understanding, anti-colonial
politics, and Muslim cosmopolitanism that improved the Muslim condition
in colonial India and continue to inspire Muslims in the postcolonial present.
This is a rare achievement accomplished by a single individual who struggled
against all odds, which Kidwai’s book documents and demonstrates.’
— Yasmin Saikia, Hardt-Nickachos Chair in Peace Studies and
Professor of History, Arizona State University, USA
‘Professor Shafey Kidwai has in his deeply thoughtful and analytical account
of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan opened a new vista for students of Modern Indian
History. A rationalist who attributed miracles of prophets to the plausible
realm of human psychology, to leader of an informed debate on social, cul-
tural, religious, and political dynamics of relationship between Hindus
Muslims and British, Sir Syed is presented by the author through the lens of
reason. His “anti-girls education” stand is not papered over by Professor
Shafey who has also dwelt on why his liberal values were interpreted as
communal by scholars in India and Pakistan. The book is a must read for
lay persons as well as specialists both for its content and candour.’
— Syeda Saiyidain Hameed, Noted author; Former Member,
Planning Commission of India; Former Chancellor, Maulana Azad
National Urdu University
SIR SYED AHMAD KHAN
This book presents a nuanced narrative on Sir Syed Ahmad Khan’s (1817–
1898) life and his invaluable contribution to the democratic consciousness
in India. Based on extensive archival research and a close study of his writ-
ings, speeches, and addresses, it explores the life and works of Sir Syed in
the broader context of socio-political debates in nineteenth-century India.
A seminal figure who shaped modern India, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan is
known as the pioneer of modern education among the Muslims in India.
Reconciling faith with demonstrable truths, he contributed immensely as a
member of the several apex bodies such as Vice-Regal Legislative Council,
Royal Public Service Commission, Royal Education Commission, and
Legislative Council of North West Provinces. The volume also explores the
reformer’s views on issues like colonial law and administration, the concept
of blasphemy, conversion, female education, religious beliefs, freedom of
press, emancipation of women, Hindu–Muslim unity, Urdu–Hindi contro-
versy, and reservation for Muslims.
Thoughtfully and incisively written, this volume will be of great interest
to scholars and researchers of modern India, Indian political thought, polit-
ical philosophy, education, political science, colonial history, Islamic Studies,
religious studies, Islamic law, biography, and South Asian studies.
Shafey Kidwai is a reputed scholar, well-known literary critic and colum-

nist, and recipient of India’s highest literary award, Sahitya Academy Award
for Urdu (2019). He is also the recipient of the prestigious literary award
Iqbal Samman (2017), Government of Madhya Pradesh and Amir Khusro
Award (2018), UP Urdu Academy.
Professor Kidwai has been teaching communication studies for more
than 35 years at the Aligarh Muslim University, India. His fortnightly col-
umn on Urdu literature, culture and media appears in the Friday Review,
The Hindu, and his articles frequently appear in reputed Urdu journals and
periodicals. He has published 13 books in Urdu and English, and his book
Urdu Literature and Journalism: Critical Perspectives, published in 2014,
has received wide critical acclaim.
iii
SIR SYED AHMAD KHAN
Reason, Religion and Nation
Shafey Kidwai
First published 2021
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa
business
© 2021 Shafey Kidwai
The right of Shafey Kidwai to be identified as author of this work
has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of
the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,
or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks
or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record has been requested for this book
ISBN: 978-0-367-54149-1 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-13202-8 (ebk)
Typeset in Sabon
by SPi Global, India
Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817–1898).
Image courtesy of Public Relations Office, Aligarh Muslim University
Dedicated to
Siddiqa Khatoon, Abdul Rehman Alvi, Abdul Rafey Kidwai and Abdul
Nafey Kidwai, who departed too early
CONTENTS
Foreword xii
Preface xvi
Introduction 1
1 Biographical narrative 13
2 Administrative receptivity 57
3 Unravelling Sir Syed 85
4 Female education 127
5 A dialogic affair 164
6 Intellectual awakening through periodicals 197
Bibliography 225
Index 232
xi
FOREWORD
Irfan Habib
Professor Emeritus, Aligarh Muslim University
Both admirers and critics of Syed Ahmad Khan, the nineteenth-century
modernist, educationist, intellectual, and historian, have so far relied heav-
ily for the hard facts in Altaf Husain Hali’s voluminous quasi-official biog-
raphy, the Hayat-i-Jawed. Now, Professor Shafey Kidwai in his Sir Syed
Ahmad Khan: Reason, Religion and Nation tells us that there are quite a
number of inaccuracies in that standard source, and also that there is much
to be added. There have been few individuals whose ideas and beliefs took
so much time to evolve and reach their final form as in the case of Sir Syed.
Before his entry into employment under the British in 1837 (not 1838, as
Professor Kidwai tells us, correcting Hali), he had a thoroughly orthodox
(‘Wahabi’) upbringing. As late as 1848, he wrote a tract arguing against the
notion of the earth’s rotation! Professor Kidwai lets us trace how his views
altered in various fields, such as content and medium of instruction, the
secularity of education, and where the views remained firm, e.g. in respect
of loyalty to the British, and opposition to democracy. Professor Kidwai
devotes a whole chapter to his attitude to women and women’s education.
How far his abstention from support to women’s education on modern
lines stemmed from his own conservatism or from merely tactical motives
may perhaps never be established. Professor Kidwai offers an informative
discussion of Syed Ahmad Khan’s rather shifting concepts of watan and
qaum, which may be loosely taken to stand respectively for ‘nation’ and
‘community’. We also have a clear account here of Syed Ahmad Khan’s
opposition to the Indian National Congress, established in 1885. The
author is fair in pointing out that Sir Syed remained thoroughly opposed to
any demand that Government take punitive action against Congress lead-
ers, despite the fact that he had just been awarded knighthood (1888) for
loyal services!
One very interesting field that one misses in Professor Kidwai’s excellent
study is the theological one, where Syed Ahmad Khan was at his boldest,
and held his ground despite bitter theological opposition. Perhaps it has
xii
FOREWORD
been felt that since Christian W. Troll has already covered them in a schol-
arly monograph, a fresh survey was not needed.
I am sure readers interested in Sir Syed Ahmad Khan’s life and work
would find Professor Shafey Kidwai’s work a mine of well-arranged infor-
mation, objectively and competently interpreted. For this we should all be
grateful to him.
xiii
FOREWORD
Sukrita Paul Kumar

Noted scholar and poet
Perceptions of reality presented through historical documents need to be
constantly reviewed and examined if only towards setting the records right.
Shafey Kidwai’s book Sir Syed Ahmad Khan: Reason, Religion and Nation
is a welcome intervention in that direction. The keen researcher that he is,
he keeps the resilient spirit of Sir Syed under a scanner that is not framed by
the prejudices and temper of the times within which he had been evaluated
earlier. With his firm grip on the scholarship already available on this first
Muslim ideologue, the author of the book embarks upon the journey of
establishing Sir Syed as one of the significant architects of modern India
whose contribution is not just confined to the Aligarh Movement. Not
merely a founder of educational institutions, Sir Syed is presented here as a
visionary who championed ‘reason’ through his life and works.
In a climate when obscurantist beliefs in religion spread far and wide
constantly, Shafey Kidwai does well in holding up Sir Syed’s rationalism. He
views him as an indigenous model of modernist thinking, one who actually
emulated secular nationalism. It is pertinent that Sir Syed’s relevance gets
convincingly established in contemporary times through his espousal of
interfaith dialogues that reconcile Islamic tenets with Christianity, Judaism,
and other Semitic religions. Kidwai provides a discourse that spells out a
new orientation to the understanding of Islam as laid out by Sir Syed, the
protagonist of the book.
Fresh perspectives on Sir Syed, especially as a reformist, have a definite
appeal in today’s context. The author puts his finger on the pulse of our
times in revitalising the image of Sir Syed as someone who tried to awaken
pragmatic awareness rather than propagating authoritarian dictates.
Kidwai’s book can be seen as a call for that same spirit of renaissance via
Sir Syed.
xiv
FOREWORD
Professor Anisur Rahman

Noted scholar and critic
Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817–1898), a forerunner of socio-cultural transfor-
mations in the Muslim community, distinguished himself as one who could
amicably negotiate with the colonial powers and policies in the late nine-
teenth century. He knew that while the impact of the West had to be
acknowledged, there was also a need to critically negotiate with it and
develop a liberal view to bring about consequential changes in the lives of
the natives. He excelled in many ways as an educationist, social reformer,
religious commentator, historian, biographer, political visionary, and insti-
tution maker, and made it possible for the literati of his times to realise the
importance of political changes occurring then. He could visualise their
impact on society and think of the possible ways that could be adopted to
create a better socio-cultural condition. Apart from many others, three of
his contributions—the creation of Aligarh Scientific Society in 1864, the
launching of a journal, Tehzeebul Akhlaq in 1870 and the establishment of
Mohammedan Anglo Oriental College on the pattern of Oxford and
Cambridge in 1877—made way for liberal thinking in the field of educa-
tion. He emphasised Western scientific knowledge, promoted translations
of Western literatures into Urdu, and reflected on issues relating to culture,
society, manners, and morals.
Shafey Kidwai engages critically with these issues in broad terms and
dwells particularly on Sir Syed’s contribution to the collective life of India,
his secular vocabulary, his iconoclasm, his vision of a civil society, and his
indigenous model of modernism in contrast to colonial modernism. Writing
yet another book on Sir Syed today, with a huge amount of scholarship
already available in several languages, must be an act of great courage and
confidence. Like a curious scholar, Kidwai has accomplished a task that Sir
Syed scholars would surely appreciate. Drawing upon a wide variety of
primary and secondary sources, Kidwai has been able to offer a probing
study that would stay as a companion and a guide to anyone interested in
Sir Syed studies.
xv
PREFACE
Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817–1898) stands against repression and subjuga-
tion unleashed by the alien rule and strives for freezing out the dogmatic
beliefs and superstitions by creating a bulwark in the form of the civil soci-
ety. With a slew of sweeping reforms and espousal of modern education, he
empowered his impoverished fellow citizens by creating public spheres for
the propagation of discourse of empowerment. How Sir Syed explored the
new opportunities for engaging people in self-assurance discourse still
requires a detailed and dispassionate appraisal.
The book seeks not to rephrase or eulogise Sir Syed’s intervention in edu-
cation and socio-religious reforms, but it tries to tell how he crystallised the
collective life of India. He launched bilingual publications, set up societies
for the dissemination of modern education and translations of Western
works into the vernacular, built organisations, delivered public lectures, and
initiated public debates to cultivate social refinement and stimulate quest
for knowledge. His accomplishments still require a thoughtful exploration,
and a simplistic historiographical work cannot portray his multi-layered
story conclusively.
Sir Syed’s writings reveal an aversion to blind adherence, and seek to
analyse all that matters from the standpoint of reason. He is undoubtedly
more than the founder of the Mohammedan Anglo Oriental College (1875)
that grew into Aligarh Muslim University (1920). This book aims to supple-
ment existing scholarship on Sir Syed through a revision of biographies that
hardly go beyond the admiration of his actions and orientations. With a
conceptual and empirical research design, the book intends to locate Sir
Syed in the context of the daunting questions that surfaced repeatedly in the
nineteenth-century India.
Sir Syed is one of the few Muslim thinkers who employ reason as the
basic postulates to validate the cardinal principle of faith. He does not
regurgitate long-established knowledge, or cite centuries-old religious tenets
as true explanations of phenomena; he stands behind the new concept of
knowledge instead. His eurocentrism is still the subject of scorn, but his
efforts betray a new form of rapprochement with the British. He articulates
xvi
PREFACE
a new hope at a dark time in the history of India, which this book tries to
explore objectively.
My sincere thanks are due to several scholars, friends, and family mem-
bers who encouraged me in more ways than one. They include Professor
Irfan Habib, Professor Shirin Moosvi, Professor David Lelyveld, Professor
Faisal Devji, Professor Gopi Chand Narang, Professor Harish Trivedi,
Professor Tehsin Firaqi, Professor Tahir Masood, Dr Nasir Abbas Nayyar,
Professor A. R. Kidwai, ProfesorAthar Siddiqi, Professor Iftikhar Alam,
Professor Zillur Rehman Professor Asim Siddiqui, Professor Aftab Alam
Mr Zia us Salam, Mr Anuj Kumar, Professor Mohammad Sajjad, Rashid
Faridi, Qamar Faridi, Abdul Ali Kidwai, Rishad Faridi, Fazeel Faridi, and
Maimoona Khatoon. I am thankful to Mr M. Shamimuzzaman, Assistant
Public Relations Officer, AMU, for his valuable help in preparing the
manuscript.
The columnist and author Atul K. Thakur with invaluable input was
instrumental in giving the shape to the manuscript, and his help is much
appreciated.
I feel greatly indebted to Routledge for accepting my manuscript for
publication.
I owe a debt of gratitude to my wife, Shaista Faridi, for her immense sup-
port and encouragement whenever I was about to succumb to impatience
or irritability. Her remarkable diligence keeps me away from all sorts of
trouble. My sons, Sharif Kidwai (now settled in Houston after completing
MTech, Electrical Eng. from Texas A&M University USA) and Shaghil
Kidwai (studying in class 12), have shown forbearance towards my inatten-
tion to them. The completion of the book owes much to my late parents, Mr
Habib Ahmad Kidwai and Humaira Khatoon, who enkindled in me a quest
for knowledge.
Shafey Kidwai
Professor and Head
Department of Mass Communication
Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh
xvii
INTRODUCTION
Polymaths are no strangers to India, and the nineteenth century is no excep-

tion, but only a few of them confronting the questions of faith, spirituality,
morality, polity, education, subjugation, empowerment, social customs, cul-
tural practices, caste, and language resolved the conflicts on the side of
reason. Sir Syed (1817–1898) uses reason as the cognitive postulate to
apprehend the fundamental truths. During the polemics ascendancy period,
he argues that odious flare-up is not a substitute for argument. His emotion
avoidance-prone adumbrations concerning religion, alien rule, nation and
social reforms still evoke admiration and retribution with almost equal
intensity. This intriguing discrepancy still sums up his appraisal even after
many decades he departed.
His espousal of modern education leading to the setting up of the MAO
College University gets widespread admiration but his allegiance to British
occasionally bordering on servility is seen as a deliberate attempt to cut a
deal with British, or an effort to express solidarity with the Raj (Lelyveld,
1978).1 His insistence on reason, non-conformism and conciliatory political
overtones infuriated numerous clerics and politicians who stood against the
foreign rule.
Despite having formal training in Muslim theology and a Sufistic upbring-
ing, Sir Syed reckons reason as the final arbiter of both immortal and
ephemeral world. He relentlessly ponders over the unsettling queries related
to religion, ethics, polity, education, patriotism, nationalism, human rights,
Western civilisation, and modern sciences. These topics frequently appear in
his wide-ranging writing corpus that continues to have a lasting impact.
However, the enthusiastic adoration of his educational and social reform
movement makes it less known to the general readers.
How does he grapple with human predicament reflected in many arrays
of disciplines, especially in the matter of faith and human aspiration in the
forms of the nation? It calls for a close study of his writings, speeches, and
addresses. His cerebral deliberations deflate the myth that sentimental love
for one’s religion, or country or language is to be excluded from rational
scrutiny. Sir Syed lived at a time when discrimination and patriarchy-bred
beliefs were ubiquitous, and superstitions were taken as religion. The blind
1
INTRODUCTION
adherence to ancestral beliefs looked gratifying, and people sought succour

from the pseudo religiosity.
For Sir Syed, religion is not an assemblage of sacred pronouncements and
divine truths, but a set of principles accessible through rational scrutiny. He
makes it clear that the reason is the purest form of human intelligence, which
could be exercised upon faith. Its use can resolve the misconception and
suspicions about the existence of God, human destiny, vice, virtue, divine
attributes, ethics, morality, and social norms. For him, belief in God is not a
simple act of assent, but it owes much to human reasoning reflected in the
laws of nature.2 Here, Sir Syed has a lot in common with Immanuel Kant
(1724–1804) whose fundamental theory of human autonomy claims that
religious beliefs, scientific knowledge, and morality are mutually consistent.
With inter-religious reasoning, Sir Syed zeroes in on three primary texts, the
Jewish Hebrew Bible, the Christian New Testament and the Quran. He
holds religious prejudice as the worst human trait and traces the shared
legacy of monotheistic traditions. Perhaps Sir Syed remains the only Muslim
scholar who attempted a commentary on the Bible, which published in three
parts from 1860 to 1865. The exegesis titled, Tabin al-al-kalam Fi tafsir al-
tawrat Wa ‘I-injil’ala millat al Islam (Elucidation of the World in Commentary
of the Torah and Gospel According to the Religion of Islam) seeks to turn
attention on the organic connection between faith and reason together, and
the scriptures authenticate it. Proceeding from Moses Maimonides (1138–
1204), the reputed Torah scholar, who tried to resolve the conflict between
divine knowledge and modern knowledge, Sir Syed asserts that both the
word of God and the work of God make things intelligible. He provides an
alternative interpretation clothed in naturalist rationalism for the divine
truths that defy common sense. Christ’s existence (a human being or son of
God), finds Islam and Christianity at loggerheads. However, Sir Syed tries to
bury the hatchet with his elucidation of the antithetical dilemma:
The person who saw his (Christ or Messiah) visible form (Surat)
would know for certain that he is a human being and the son of
Mary. Yet, when someone would reflect [upon the fact] that his
birth was not by normal (Zahiri) means, then he would be certain
that he was the spirit and [think that] the visible human form came
about only because God’s angel Gabriel had come in human form
to bring God’s message to Mary. If (Gabriel) had come in any other
form, then certainly Honourable Jesus would have been born in
that very form instead. And, when a person saw the working of
(Jesus) miraculous power that raised the dead- which is the work of
God-they called them God, and God’s true son. Therefore, the per-
son who regards his external form would know him as merely
human. Moreover, one who ponders the source of his human form
recognises him only as of the spirit. In addition, the one who sees
his miracles recognises him as Allah and Ibne Allah. And, the one
2
INTRODUCTION
who looks upon them all recognises him as the messenger of God,
Word of God, and spirit of God, and knows that all these things
come from the one God, and so he accepts all as one, just as Hazrat
Muhi al-din (Ibne Arabi 1165–1240) declared.3
Here non-rational or transrational aspects of faith encased in the meta-

phorical language are responded logically. Sir Syed seems unwilling to
accept that Christ was born without a biological father as it defies the oper-
ational promise of God (Nature) and refers to the Quran, which did not
mention that Mary was not married. Some scholars point out a discrepancy
in his stand as he does not question the birth of Adam without a father.
They tend to forget that Adam was not born in a world constricted by the
laws of nature. The birth took place in heaven by the will of God; hence, it
is not a miracle. Sir Syed interprets the sacred texts in the backdrop of
human compassion, and, for him, God’s presence is necessary for the fulfil-
ment of human aspiration. His talks about how God empowers humans
and his explanation has surprising resemblances with Emile Durkheim’s
(1858–1917) concept of ‘true human emancipation’.
Sir Syed comes in for derision for being a slave to reason and Western
knowledge as he reconciles faith with demonstrable truths. However, it
does not impress Christian W. Troll:
His writings have a distinctively Sufi tone which is overshadowed

in his later work. It is noteworthy that our author is a mature man
of about forty years of age when he composed this work. So it can-
not be said that this was merely the residue of a traditional upbring-
ing. Throughout part three, Khan presents a Muslim Christology
that is shaped by his Sufi upbringing. Jesus Christ is described in
Sufi terms, as an exalted spiritual master of the highest order
(Darja). Sayyid Ahmad’s comments also present a developed theol-
ogy of light, a phenomenon perceptible to the spiritually attuned,
where again this Sufi influence can be inferred. And, finally, there is
the repeated appeal to Sufi thinkers Al-Ghazali and Ibn al-Arabi
being the most prominent. This is a facet of Sayyid Ahmad’s life
that has been largely overlooked and, yet it is central to his open-
ness and initial approach to the Bible.4
For Sir Syed, the episodic and transient world draws its sustenance from
two divine promises; the verbal promise (revealed through the scriptures)
and the operative or empirical promise (the material world converged upon
the law of nature). Taking a cue from the philosophical discourse initiated
by Ibne Rushd (Averroes 1138–1204), Al-Ghazal (1056–1111) and other
Muta’zilites (the rationalist thinkers of Islamic theology who lived in Basra
and Baghdad during the eighth to tenth centuries) coupled with sketchy
acquaintance with Western thinkers, Sir Syed fashions a non-conventional
3
INTRODUCTION
interpretation of the Quran. In 1877, he started putting together his reflec-

tive reading of the sacred book; the first volume appeared in 1880, and the
last volume came forth in 1904, six years after his death. Wrapped in the
rational idiom, the commentary analyses 16 Paras (parts) and 13 surahs
(chapters) though the Quran runs into 114 surahs. A stakeholder in the
dialogue of reason, Sir Syed explains that nothing exists in the world with-
out a cause and he provides a tangible explanation for supernatural or
paranormal. His incomplete commentary expounds on Wahi (revelation),
Mojiza (miracle), Quranic stories of Abraham and Moses, Angels, Paradise,
Hell, nature and scope of Jihad (Holy War), and Nabuwaat (prophethood)
in terms of natural causation. He lays down 15 prescripts for explicating
the Quranic text truths and his detailed article ‘Tahrir fi Usool al-Tafsir’ (A
Note on the Principles of Commentary) is included in the first volume. The
underpinnings of his exegetical text harmonise the overriding concerns of
reason, natural law, and faith, and produce a deduction-induced interpreta-
tion. In one of the principles, Sir Syed takes a radical position regarding
how the Quran was sent out to the Prophet. Muslims believe that the angel
Gabriel transmitted the word of God verbatim to the Prophet, but Sir Syed
deduces that the divine revelation was let fall directly upon the heart of the
Prophet. For him, prophethood does not require an emissary between God
and the human recipient. It is the ingrained faculty of prophethood that is
known as Gabriel in exegetical literature; it is a vibrant habitus that stays
with the Prophet.5
Muslim exegetes, theologians, and Mutazila take miracles as gospel
truths. However, Sir Syed adheres to his interpretation and, for him, the
world is a divine promise that unfailingly operates within the confines of
the law of nature. Miracles or events that defy cause and effect are against
the elemental mechanism of creation. God does not breach his rules. Sir
Syed points out that the Quran does not associate prophethood with the
miracles and Shah Waliullah (1703–1762) also opines that God has not
referred to the miracles in his book. For Sir Syed, the law of nature is the
irreversible divine practice, and he alludes to two events related to Moses’
crossing over the sea and the drowning of Pharaoh and Abraha’s abortive
attack on the Kaaba that are generally taken as miracles. Trans-mundane
occurrences related to the Prophets do not prevail upon him and he exem-
plifies the miracles attributed to Moses in the plausible terms of human
psychology, oceanography, history and interscriptural understanding. Sir
Syed points out the Quran metaphorically mentions how Moses’ stick
changed into a serpent in the presence of the Pharaoh and it reflects the use
of unseen energy stored inside a person. It was a hypnotic illusion for the
spectators.6 It was some sort of autosuggestion by trained will power, and
it created an extreme sense of presence about things, which simply do not
exist. The powers will have magical effects as it makes us believe about
things when they are absent. The miracles performed by Moses and
Pharaoh’s magic are the manifestation of human will power.7
4
INTRODUCTION
The Quran mentions that Moses went across the Red Sea and many
Quranic verses such as Surah ‘Aale-e-Imran’, ‘Ta-Ha’ and ‘Shu’araa’ provide
details about the whole event. The Quran narrates that the sea was split
into two and a dry path emerged as Moses on divine inspiration banged the
water with his stick. With a discreet awareness about oceanography and
history, Sir Syed does not take it as a miracle and for him it owes to high
and low tide of the Red Sea. Unravelling it, Sir Syed asserts that Moses was
fully aware of the ebb and tide pattern of the Red Sea, and he crossed it at
the ebb. Moreover, the sea had more than 30 islands, and its depth was not
vast at that time.8
To lend credibility to his interpretation, Sir Syed produces the map of the
Red Sea and a list of 30 islands. Alluding to the Book of Exodus and
Chambers and the Biblical encyclopaedia he pins down the place where
Moses crossed the sea and it was the Gulf of Eden surrounded by
mountains.
Here Sir Syed does have a point, but why was awareness about the tide
restricted to Moses? Why were the king and his army caught napping on
this count? Sir Syed hardly offers any explanation.
Similarly, he produces an uncustomary exposition of a brief verse of the
Quran ‘Al-Fil’, which speaks about an unsuccessful onslaught on Kaaba in
570 AD by a Christian ruler of Yemen, Abraha. Arabs, knocked over by the
invincible army, ran along the mountains but the God circumvented the
attack by sending pebble-carrying birds. The little but deadly stones tram-
pled the army, and the birds, ordained by God, protected the Kaaba. Sir
Syed finds it difficult to conciliate it with the law of nature, and referring to
historical shreds of evidence he claims that Abraha’s army was infected with
chickenpox when it bottled up the area. He quotes several old exegetical
texts produced by Ibn-ul-Hisham, Al-Waqidi, Fakharuddin Raazi, Al
Zamakashri, Shaykh Tabarsi, Mohsin Fayaz Kashani. Together with orien-
talists Edward Gibbon and William Smith, they concur that the chickenpox
had come forth as an epidemic at that time.9
Contrary to popular perception about the angels as invisible winged
human or a bird with human appearance, Sir Syed does not accept their
separate physical existence independent of the human body. For him, the
Arabic word ‘Malik’ does not denote an existence over and above man, it
is a generic term used for the inherent human potentiality, which has been
created by God through which one can get along with the affairs of the
world smoothly. His description of the angels as the ‘potentialities’ or
‘power operatives’ in the universe at the bidding of God irks many. Syed
Asim Ali makes a discreet observation, ‘Sir Syed does not entirely reject
the very concept, even though he flatly refuses the popular notion of
angels’.10
Exploring the nuances of the term while interpreting a Quranic verse
‘Al-Baqar’, Sir Syed alludes to Sadducees (a sect of Jews) who reject the
notion of the angels. Sir Syed refers to it along with Ibn Arabi’s seminal text
5
INTRODUCTION
Fussosul Hikam (Bezels of Wisdom). Explaining the Quranic description of

the angels, Sir Syed says:
We see a chain of lower creatures, inferior to men. Similarly, there

is no reason to reject the existence of creature superior to men;
maybe it exists, howsoever, there is no evidence such a creature,
since no proof is traceable of its existence. Such existence of angels
as has been conceived by Muslims cannot be proved on the basis of
the Quran. Rather we read in it something contrary to it.11
Sir Syed takes a similar position on the existence of the Jinns. For him, the
angels and the Jinns do not have a separate physical existence; it irks the
clergymen and continues to create a sense of unease until date
Being a protagonist of religious reforms, he discusses several aspects of
Muslim theology, and his interpretation of the Quran and elucidation of the
sayings and practice of the Prophet manifest a new orientation (Troll,
1978).12 For him, the practice of polygamy is permissible only if the hus-
band could do full justice to his wives. Islam does not prohibit usury (inter-
est) on government promissory notes and loans; sharing the table with the
Christians and wearing dresses like the non-Muslims.13 From the stand-
point of the free spirit of enquiry, he interprets Muslim theology so that
Islam could get a respectable place in the world of scholarship (Malik,
1963).14 Mohammad Mujeeb (1970) concludes that Sir Syed genuinely felt
that the traditional view of Islam was a real hindrance to progress and it
was inconceivable in his time and later generations. Though the author has
a point here, one finds many instances when Sir Syed hardly supported the
measures to end gender and class discrimination.
Sir Syed strives for disentangling Indians from despair by persuading them
to turn back on sentimentalism, adopt rationalism and discard their raging
hostility towards British, as it would pave the way for their much- required
rehabilitation. At a time when patriotism, nationalism, citizenship, and mode
of governance looked hazy, Sir Syed expounds these terms in the Indian con-
text. In line with his religious adumbrations, Sir Syed puts reason into action
while initiating a debate on the concept of governance that shapes the nation.
For him, despotic and authoritarian regimes are unreasonable and anti-peo-
ple as personal whims and fancy hold sway, and discrimination on all counts
exists. The citizens are not provided with equal rights and it irks Sir Syed
who asserted that the well-being of everyone is paramount:
The government must provide all sort of rights related to property,

employment, Freedom of religion, speech, and life. It must protect
them, and the unequal powers should not be allowed to harm any-
one. The government must shield the weak and deserving from the
undeserving mighty. Everyone should be allowed to get the full
benefit from his property and skill.15
6
INTRODUCTION
For him, the very concept of unbridled powers is irrational, and the gov-
ernment needs to be constrained by the written laws: ‘The laws must grant
equal rights, and there should be a power to get them implemented for
everyone’.16
Sir Syed uses the term Qaum for both nation and community, and he
frequently refers to it as a conglomeration of the nation regardless of faith.
Some of his utterances, especially with regard to Hindi Urdu controversy
and his anti-Congress stance make him the object of scathing criticism. As
an eyewitness to the unprecedented catastrophe of 1857, Sir Syed becomes
wary of political agitations, and he urges Indians to concentrate on educa-
tion only. He sincerely, though naively, believes that the presence of the
British is necessary for the stability and prosperity of India. His stance
hardly has communal overtone as he clarifies in a letter that appeared in the
Pioneer:
I have no animosity against the Congress Wallahs—that I should

undertake the work to have them arrested by the criminal courts.
Their opinion and ours are different. We believe that what they
want is harmful for (to) Mahommedans, for (to) Rajputs and for
(to) other nations of Hindus and especially for (to) the peace of the
country.17
Here Sir Syed takes the term nation for a community. He believes the
policies of Congress will jeopardise the future of both the communities.
He is described as the votary of Muslim separatism in India based on the
selective readings of some his writings. Pakistani historians portray him as
the ideological mentor of the Pakistan movement and use the same excerpts
as the theoretical rationale for the two-nation theory. Hector Bolitho (1954)
goes far ahead to assert that Sir Syed was the first Muslim in India who
dared to speak of partition.18 Sir Syed’s writings, especially his commentary
on the Quran, betray a strong sense of non-conformism, and it is just a
wishful thinking to mark him out as the ideologue of the would-be Islamic
state. A Congress leader with rightist leanings Pandit Govind Ballabh Pant
points out:
I doubt if he (Sir Syed) would have subscribed to the two-nation

theory—In any case he would probably not have been an advocate
of Pakistan. The very idea of a theocratic state would have been
repugnant to him. He was one of the eminent Indians ever born.19
Sir Syed opposes the concept of ‘One man one vote’ by launching a cam-
paign against the Congress because he believes though erroneously that the
fall of British rule would result in unprecedented bloodshed and chaos. Sir
Syed founded the Muslim Educational Conference and joined the United
Indians Patriotic Association, which had many influential non-Muslim
7
INTRODUCTION
members and office-bearers. Sir Syed’s opposition hardly carries the traces of
overly communal connotations, and here Raj Mohan Gandhi (2000) makes a
point, ‘it is hard to discern even a hidden or latent Pakistan when he was
objecting to the election pure and simple and campaign against the Congress’.20
For some, his enthusiasm for rapprochement spanning a spectrum of
activities generates the narrative of applause and, the servitude of India
hardly deters Sir Syed from praying for the continuance of the ‘most gra-
cious rule’. Despite being in awe of the Western culture and mode of gover-
nance, he picks up holes in British policies when no one could dare to utter
a word against the invincible British. In his monograph, The Causes for
India’s Revolt (perhaps the first book on 1857 in any Indian language), Sir
Syed asserts, ‘the British government has been in power for more than a
century, it has not got the people’s confidence’.
Similarly, the self-respect of Indians was very close to his heart as his
biographer Hali gives a graphic account of an official ceremony when Sir
Syed walked out as Indians were not given the front seats at a durbar held
in Agra (Hali, 1901).21
Sir Syed accompanied his son Syed Mahmood who got a scholarship to
study at Cambridge in 1869 for preparing a rebuttal of William Muir's
book, The Life of Mohammad (1864). Burning or banning of books has no
place in his scheme of things and his rejoinder, Khutbaat-e-Ahmadiyya,
familiarises Muslims with the effectiveness of writing back, a practice that
hardly goes well his co-religionists.
He highlights the futility of boastfulness produced by nostalgia and
repression, and explores a range of priorities to change the attitude of the
Muslims overwhelmed by the uncertainties and insecurities.
Sir Syed insists on recognising and adopting unconventional knowledge,
at a time when people take pride in summary rejection of everything which
the British represents. For him, Islam is compatible with secular values and
religious tolerance, and it not the irretrievably conservative and dogmatic as
it made out to be.
His writings, both academic and journalistic, initiate an informed debate
on the social, cultural, religious, and political dynamics of the relationship
between the Muslims, the Hindus, and the British.
The understanding of Sir Syed’s beliefs still eludes us, though there is an
abundance of books, monographs, and articles in Urdu and English that
explains his intent on popularising Western education, and how he lives up to
the challenges posed by the British rule. His attempt to foster a resilient spirit
to cope with the realities of the time has not been fully explored. His legacy
beyond education and politics, and the intellectual domain he created mostly
escapes the attention of the biographers, historians, and social scientists.
Barring a few exceptions, they seem unwilling to locate Sir Syed in the broader
debate on subjugation, identity, nationalism, and political, social, and religious
reforms. One keeps looking for an access to the multiple strategies he adopted
to respond to the challenges that threatened the self-respect of Indians.
8
INTRODUCTION
Apart from being the founder of an educational institution and a propo-

nent of reforms, Sir Syed opened up the earliest channels of the Renaissance.
He contributed to the collective life of India as a member of several apex
bodies such as the Vice-Regal Legislative Council (two terms: 1878 to 1880,
1881 to 1883), the North-Western Provinces Legislative Council (two
terms: 1887 to 1889, 1889 to 1891), the Imperial Commission on Education
(1882), and the Royal Public Service Commission (1887). His interventions
at meetings underscore his concern for the empowerment and uplift of the
subjugated Indians, regardless of their religious affiliations. Notwithstanding
his anglophile inclinations, Sir Syed sometimes challenges the colonial
assumptions of cultural, spiritual, and intellectual superiority.
Sir Syed’s foray in this interfaith domain has, however, been misconstrued
by some as a credulous venture of softening the mighty British.
His intent on rationalism and a visible streak of non-conformism incurred
the wrath of the conservative moulvi-oppressed Muslim society, and the
leading theologians and traditional clergymen. They detested his interpreta-
tion of Islam and considered it heretical, bordering on apostasy. Contrarily,
Sir Syed stoutly defends the teachings of Islam. His rejoinder to William
Muir’s widely known four-part book, The Life of Mahomet (1864), and
Ahmadiyya (1870), thwarts the attempts to tarnish the image of the Prophet.
Despite being outspokenly vocal in defending Islam, he takes a stand against
its political exertion. For him, Islam is more of a cultural force rather than
a political ideology, and the very concept of Pan-Islamism forcefully advo-
cated by his contemporary Islamic ideologue, Jamal Uddin Afghani (1839–
1897), is of no value. Sir Syed opposes the attempts for maintaining Khilafat
(a single Muslim political authority across the globe) and asserts ‘the
Turkish Khilafat does not extend over us. We are the residents of India’. He
pleads for emulating the model of secular nationalism. According to Hafeez
Malik (1980), he established a new orientation that religion existed as an
aid to man's progress, and man did not exist just for faith.
This book, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan: Reason, Religion and Nation, seeks to
highlight his contribution to the collective life of India. Right-wing histori-
ans of both India and Pakistan now misrepresent Sir Syed’s espousal of plu-
ral and liberal values clothed in secular vocabulary as representative of
communalism. Rather than falling prey to the frenzied mass politics of the
time, Sir Syed supports the moderate constitutional politics pursued by
Europe. He tries to bring about structural reforms so that India could emerge
as a modern democratic republic. Sir Syed’s reformative movement, extend-
ing to almost all spheres of life, created a new political space co-owned by
Muslims, and Hindus without relinquishing their distinct cultural identities.
His educational and reformative movement needs to be explained in the
context of his intermittent anti-colonial stance. His writings and speeches
reveal scant regard for consistency, and contradictions surface repeatedly.
His books and articles simultaneously discuss contradictory views, and any
attempt to draw them into a single narrative is destined to fail.
9
INTRODUCTION
Sir Syed makes a plea for restitution of the grievances of Indians, cultiva-
tion of liberal values and religious tolerance, a sustained campaign against
obscurantism. He presents an indigenous model of modernism as opposed
to colonial modernism. He tries to dispel the deep-seated unwillingness on
the part of Muslims to come to terms with the social reality they face. All
this needs to be discussed in the context of the socio-political debate of
nineteenth-century India: it is what the book sets out to do.
The book examines Sir Syed’s role as a public figure who set up several
institutions for producing a vibrant civil society in India at the height of
British rule. It attempts to provide a holistic window into Sir Syed’s life and
works, by turning attention to the full range of his works (books, mono-
graphs, tracts, newspaper articles, editorials, lectures, and speeches), and his
role as a lawmaker. His hostility towards Congress, concept of nation in its
flexible semantic and cultural connotations, his insistence on differences
between territorial and religious identity, and his commitment to the spread
of modern education, come in for a dispassionate debate.
The first chapter, ‘Biographical Narrative’, aims to provide a detailed nar-
rative of Sir Syed’s life, and the positions he held. The chapter draws upon
Sir Syed’s biography of his maternal grandfather Khawaja Fariduddin
Ahmad that contains essential details about Sir Syed’s family, and his traits.
It also refers to the journals that he edited, An Account of the Loyal
Mohammedans of India (1860), The Aligarh Institute Gazette (1866), and
Tahzibul Akhlaq or Muslim Social Reformer (1870).
The chapter tries to crosscheck the authenticity of the details provided
by his widely respected biographers, Khwaja Altaf Husain Hali (1901),
and his first biographer Col G. F. I. Graham (1885). The biographical
details produced by Hali and Graham, and subsequently repeated by the
historians of the Aligarh Movement, are hardly reconcilable with what Sir
Syed wrote or what appeared in his periodicals. It is surprising that Hali
and Graham hardly accurately mentioned even the names of Sir Syed’s
father and sister, and his employment details are riddled with inaccuracies.
The first chapter tries to put the record straight by referring to the pages
of The Aligarh Institute Gazette, the most reliable but sparingly used
source. The details of Sir Syed’s employment, his association with several
official bodies, and the awards he received are produced with documen-
tary evidence.
The second chapter makes an appraisal of Sir Syed’s lifelong engagement
with law and administration. It examines what Sir Syed did for the uplift
and empowerment of Indians in his official capacity. His legislative and
administrative engagements reflected in the bills he presented, and the deci-
sions he took as an officer, are illustrated with specific examples.
Sir Syed’s erratic attitude towards universal suffrage is scrutinised as he
opposed the Central Province Local Self Government Bill (1883) through
which Indians got voting rights in the local bodies’ elections. An attempt is
also made to understand the shifts of the political system, and the dynamics
10
INTRODUCTION
of the Muslim-Hindu relationship, as the simple explanation offered by his

biographers looks hardly plausible.
Sir Syed dispels assumptions that we take as certitudes. Notwithstanding
the passage of time, his views on the concept of blasphemy, jihad, cow sac-
rifice, gender equality, conversion, social conviction, cultural practices,
Hindu–Muslim unity, Hindi–Urdu controversy, reservation for Muslims,
and the question of nation and nationality, still have a strong bearing.
The third chapter ‘Unravelling Sir Syed’ focuses on his interpretation of
the above topics. His analysis, mostly devoid of rhetoric, is marked with a
sense of ingenuity and a judicial marshalling of facts. Nevertheless, his
stance of several incidents and elaboration of specific issues betrays several
shades of inconsistency.
The fourth chapter, ‘Female Education’, scrutinises Sir Syed’s unpalatable
views on female education, for which he is still pilloried. Gail Minault
(1990), and David Lelyveld (2016), refer to his support for an unequivo-
cally patriarchal society that denied institutional education to girls. There is
a grain of truth as Sir Syed, endorses Edward H. Clark’s book Sex in
Education; Or, a Fair Chance for the Girls (1873), which favoured single-
sex (male) education. He advocates setting up government schools for boys
only and prefers home-based tutor education for girls. Sir Syed’s views on
female education betray a sense of ambivalence, naivety, and vacillation.
However, his writings do not support the popular narrative that charges
him with being against modern education for girls.
Sir Syed does not join the campaign for the opposition of anything that
the British rule represents but it does not make him an imperialist’s stooge.
Sir Syed opposes colonial rule whenever he finds that the government’s poli-
cies seriously impinge upon the self-respect of Indians. He opposed several
official bills while serving on the Vice-Regal and North-Western Provinces
Legislative Councils for their anti-populace stance.
The fifth chapter seeks to acquaint the readers with Sir Syed's little-
known traits that demonstrate that he was not overwhelmed by the syco-
phancy. There are several specific instances when Sir Syed argued strongly
against the actions of supercilious and opinionated British officers.
Sir Syed launched two periodicals, The Aligarh Institute Gazette (the first
multilingual newspaper of India, 1866), and Tahzibul Akhlaq, or the
Muslim Social Reformer (1870) to initiate an informed dialogue with the
readers on the issues related to their political, social, religious, moral, cul-
tural, spiritual, and metaphysical concerns. These periodical instilled in
them much-needed confidence and motivation.
Chapter 6 ‘Intellectual Awakening through Periodicals’ explains that Sir
Syed launched a campaign through his periodicals to thwart the futile
endeavour to recreate the past. It presents a detailed analysis of Sir Syed’s
journalistic writings and how he convinced Muslims to eschew their irratio-
nal and emotional outlook. His pragmatic awareness about political, edu-
cational, and religious thoughts, demonstrate that Sir Syed was among a
11
INTRODUCTION
few of public figures of nineteenth-century India who deliberated on all that

evoked the attention of Indians.
The book seeks to produce a nuanced narrative of Sir Syed’s life and
works, and explains plausible reasons to rank him as one of the figures of
India who in his way tried to shape the destiny of India.
This critique on both the strengths and weaknesses of a leading nine-
teenth century writer, educationist, and thinker should be of interest to all
those studying the emergence of modern India, the Muslim mind and the
encounter between tradition and modernity.
Notes
1 Lelyveld, David. Aligarh's First Generation: Muslims' Solidarity with British
India, Princeton University Press, New Delhi, 2001
2 Khan, Sir Syed Ahmad. ‘Nature’, Tahzibul Akhlaq, Aligarh, 1296 Hegira.
3 Tabyin al-Kalam, (The Gospel According to Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan 1817–98)
translated and annotated by Christian W. Troll, Mahboob Basharat Mughal,
Charles M. Ramsey, pp. 19 and 20, Sir Syed Academy, Aligarh Muslim
University, Aligarh.
4 Ibid., pp.13 and 14.
5 Khan, Sir Syed Ahmad. Tasaneef-e-Ahmadiya, Vol. I, Tafsirul Quran wa
Hualhuda fil Quran, p.146, Aligarh Institute Press, 1880.
6 Panipati, Ismail. Maqalat, Vol. 4, pp.325, 26, Lahore: Majlis-e-Taraqqi-e-
Adab, 1955.
7 Ibid, p.317.
8 Khan, Sir Syed Ahmad. Tasaneef-e-Ahmadiya, pp.83, 84 and 86.
9 Khan, Sir Syed Ahmad. Tafsir ul Quran, Vol. I, p.39.
10 Asim, Ali Syed. ‘Sir Syed’s Tafsir: Issues in Terminology and Concepts’
(Revelation, Miracles and the Jinns) included in the book Sir Syed Ahmad
Khan: Muslim Renaissance Man of India (ed.) A. R. Kidwai, New Delhi: Viva
Books, 2016, p.12.
11 Khan, Sir Syed Ahmad. Tafsir ul Quran, Vol. I, p.342 (translated by Syed Asim
Ali).
12 Troll, Christian W. Saiyyid Ahmad Khan: A Reinterpretation of Muslim
Theology. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1978.
13 Mujeeb, Mohammad. Indian Muslims. Delhi: Munshi Manohar Lal Press,
1967.
14 Malik, Hafeez. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan and Muslim Modernisation in India and
Pakistan. New York: Columbia University Press.
15 Tahzibul Akhlaq, Aligarh, Vol. 6, Ramadan 1292 Hegira, p.145.
16 Ibid., p.146.
17 The Pioneer, 26 November 1886.
18 Bolitho, Hector. Jinnah: Creator of Pakistan. London: John Murray, 1954.
19 AMU Convocation Address 1956, Aligarh Muslim University Press, 1956.
20 Gandhi, Rajmohan. Understanding Muslim Mind. New Delhi: Penguin India
(Paperback), 2000.
21 Hali, Khawaja Altaf Husain. Hayat-e-Javed. Kanpur: Nami Press, 1901.
1 Khan, Sir Syed Ahmad. An Account of the Loyal Mohammedans of India Part
I. Meerut: Mofussilite Press, 1860, p.11.
2 Graham, G. F. I. The Life and Work of Syed Ahmad Khan, C.S.I. Edinburgh
and London: William Blackwood and Sons, 1885, p.1.
12
3 The Aligarh Institute Gazette, 20 October 1885.
4 Hali, Khawaja Altaf Husain. Hayat-e-Javed. Trans. K. H. Qadri and David J.
Matthews. Delhi: Idara-e-Adabiyat-Delhi, 1979, p.1.
5 Khan, Sir Syed Ahmad. Seerat-e-Faridiya (Life Sketch of Nawab Dabeerud
Dawla Ameenul Mulk Khawaja Fariduddin Bahadur Musleh Jung), Agra:
Mufeed-e-Aam Press, 1861, p.11 (My translation).
6 Mahmood Ahmad Barkati (Ed.). Seerat-e-Faridiya. Karachi: Pak Academy
Hyderabad and Karachi. 1964, p.89 (My translation).
7 Hali, Khawaja Altaf Husain Hali. Hayat-e-Javed. Trans. K. H. Qadri and David
J. Matthews. Delhi: Idara-e-Adabiyat-Delhi, 1979, p.1.
Dawla Ameenul Mulk Khawaja Fariduddin Bahadur Musleh Jung). Agra:
Mufeed-e-Aam Press, 1861, p.24 (My translation).
9 Troll, Christian W. Saiyyid Ahmad Khan: A Reinterpretation of Muslim
Theology. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd, 1978, p.31.
12 Taqweem-e-Hijri WA Iseevi (Calendar of Hijra and Calendar years). Delhi:
Anjuman-e-Taraqqi-e-Urdu Hind, 1939, p.63.
13 Khan, Iftikhar Alam. Sir Syed Duroon-e-Khana (Sir Syed inside home). Aligarh:
Educational Book House, 2006, p.27 (My translation).
14 Khan, Sir Syed Ahmad. Seerat-e-Faridiya (Life sketch of Nawab Dabeerud
Mufeed-e-Aam Press, 1861, pp.45–46. (My translation) (See comment on 5.).
15 Ibid., p.51 (My translation).
16 Hali, Khawaja Altaf Husain. Hayat-e-Javed. Trans. Rafi Ahmad Alvi. Aligarh:
Sir Syed Academy, Aligarh Muslim University, 2008, p.11.
17 Baseer, NasreenMumtaz. Khutoot-e-Sir Syed (Letters of Sir Syed). Aligarh:
Educational Book House, 1995, p.43 (My translation).
18 Ibid., p.44.
19 Hali, Khawaja Altaf Husain. Hayat-e-Javed. Trans. Rafi Ahmad Alvi, Aligarh:
Sir Syed Academy, Aligarh Muslim University, 2008, p.15 Print.
20 Lelyveld, David. Sir Sayyid’s Public Sphere: Urdu Print and Oratory in
Nineteenth Century India. Paper presented for the Vernacular Public Sphere
Workshop at Yale University, April 2007, p.109, Online available at: www.
academia.edudocuments/34747243
21 Siddiqui, Mohammad Ateeq. Suba-e-Shumaliwa Maghribi Ke Akhbaratwa
Matbooat, 1848–1853 (The Newspapers and Publications of the North-
Western Province, 1848–1853), Aligarh, Anuman-e-Taraqqi-e-Urdu Hind,
1962, pp.103–104 (My translation).
22 Ibid., p.104.
23 Masood, Tahir. Urdu Sahafat Uneesvin Sadi Mein (Urdu journalism in the
nineteenth century). Karachi: Fazali and Sons, 2002, p.110 (My translation).
Matthews. Delhi: Idara-e-Adabiyat-Delhi, 1979, pp.15–16 Print.
26 Ibid., p.27.
27 Ibid., p.16.
28 Ibid., p.17.
29 Ibid., p.18.
13
Mufeed-e-Aam Press, 1861, p.45 (My translation) Print. (See comment on 5.)
Matthews. Delhi: Idara-e-Adabiyat-Delhi, 1979, p.24 Print.
32 Dar, Basheer Ahmad. Religious Thoughts of Saiyyid Ahmad Khan. Lahore:
Institute of Islamic Culture, Club Road, 1957, p.3 Print.
33 Khan, Sir Syed Ahmad, Asar-us-Sanadid (The Archaeological History of Delhi).
Delhi: Matba Syedul Akhbar, 1847, p.65 (My translation).
Matthews. Delhi: Idara-e-Adabiyat-Delhi, 1979, Print.
37 Abdullah, Sheikh Mohammad. MushahidataurTasawwarat (Observations and
Impressions). Aligarh: Female Education Society, 1969, p.28 (My translation)
Print.
39 Abdullah, Sheikh Mohammad. Mushahidataur Tasawwarat (Observations and
Impressions). Aligarh: Female Education Society, 1969, p.28 (My translation)
Print.
40 Ibid.
42 Husain. Mir Vilayat. Aap Beetiaur MAO College Ki Kahani (Autobiography
and Story of MAO College).Aligarh: Muslim Education Press, year not men-
tioned, p.50 (My translation) Print.
45 Syed, Mohammad Ahmad. Sayyid Ahmad Khan, an Annotated Chronology.
Aligarh: Public Relations Office, AMU, 1995, p.9 Print.
46 Hali, Khawaja Altaf Husain. Hayat-e-Javed. Trans. K H Qadri and David J
47 Panipati, Sheikh Mohammad Ismail (Ed). Maktoobat-e-Sir Syed. Lahore:
Majlis-e-Adab, 1959, p.63 (My Translation) Print.
48 Khan, Iftikhar Alam. Sir Syed Duroon-e-Khana (Sir Syed Inside Home).
Aligarh: Educational Book House, 2006, p.96 (My translation).
49 Nadeem, Khalid. Shibli Ki Aap Beeti (The Autobiography of Shibli). Azamgarh:
Darul Musannifin, 2014, p.48 (My translation).
50 Zuberi, Mohammad Ameen. Tazkira-e-Syed Mahmood (Biography of Syed
Mahmood). Aligarh: Muslim University Press, year not mentioned, p.2 (My
translation) Print.
52 Lelyveld, David. ‘Macaulay’s Curse: Sir Syed and Syed Mahmood’, In: Asloob
Ahmad Ansari. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan: A Centenary Tribute. Delhi: Adam
Publishers, 2003, p.170 Print.
53 Zuberi, Mohammad Ameen, Tazkira-e-Syed Mahmood (Biography of Syed
Mahmood). Aligarh: Muslim University Press, year not mentioned, p.45 (My
translation) Print.
54 Khan, Iftikhar Alam. Sir Syed Duroon-e-Khana (Sir Syed Inside Home),
Aligarh: Educational Book House, 2006, p.131 (My translation) Print.
14
55 Graham, G .F. I, The Life and Work of Syed Ahmad Khan, C.S.I. Edinburgh
and London: William Blackwood and Sons, 1885, p.7 Print.
56 Hali, Khawaja Altaf Husain.Hayat-e-Javed. Trans. K. H. Qadri and David J.
57 Habib, Irfan. Syed Ahmad Khan Aur Tarikh Naweesi; included in Aligarh
Mera Chaman, ed. Dr. Razia Hamid and Rafat Sultan, Babul Ilm Publication,
Bhopal, 2001, p.122 (My translation) Print.
I. Meerut: Mofussilite Press, 1860, p.23 Print.
59 Ibid., p.13.
60 The Aligarh Institute Gazette, 22 May 1875.
61 Hali, Khawaja Altaf Husain. Hayat-e-Jave. Trans. K. H. Qadri and David J.
62 The Pioneer, 1 July 1876.
63 Mohammad, Shan (Ed). Sir Syed’s Correspondence: Selected Documents from
the Sir Syed Academy Archives, Vol. 4, Aligarh: AMU, 1995, p.33 Print.
64 The Aligarh Institute Gazette, 4 August 1876.
66 The Aligarh Institute Gazette, 28 March 1893 (My translation).
67 The Aligarh Institute Gazette, 24 June 1882.
70 The Aligarh Institute Gazette, Special Supplement, 4 August 1882.
71 Ibid.
72 Ibid.
73 Ibid.
75 The Aligarh Institute Gazette, 9 November 1886.
77 Ibid., p.203.
78 The Aligarh Institute Gazette, 3 March 1887.
79 The Aligarh Institute Gazette, 31 December 1887.
80 The Aligarh Institute Gazette, 7 January 1888.
82 Ibid., Qadri, p.37.
83 The Aligarh Institute Gazette, 21 April 1876.
84 The Aligarh Institute Gazette, September 1887.
86 The Aligarh Institute Gazette, 22 February 1889.
87 Abbas, Asghar. Print Culture: Sir Syed’s Aligarh Institute Gazette 1866–1897.
Trans. Ali Asim. New Delhi: Primus Books, 2015, p.18 Print.
88 Graham, G.F.I. The Life and Work of Syed Ahmad Khan, C.S.I. Edinburgh and
London: William Blackwood and Sons, 1885, p.73 Print.
89 Khan, Iftikhar Alam. Sir Syed Aur Scientific Society: Ek Bazyafat, Maktaba
Jamia, New Delhi, 2002 p.29 (My translation) Print.
90 Khan, Yusuf Hussain (Ed.). Sir Syed’s Correspondence, Selected Documents
from the Aligarh Archives. New Delhi: Asia Publishing House, 1967, pp.38–9.
(My translation).
15
91 A Voyage to Modernism: Syed Ahmad Khan. Trans. Mushirul Hasan and
Nishat Zaidi. New Delhi: Primus Books, 2011, pp.233–234 Print.
92 Ibid., p.212.
94 Ibid., p.147.
95 Begum, Rehmani. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan: The Politics of Educational Reform.
Lahore: Vanguard, 1985, p.260 Print.
96 Ibid., p.265, 311.
98 Syed, Mohammad Ahmad. A Voyage to Modernism. Trans. Mushirul Hasan
and Nishat Zaidi. New Delhi, Primus Books, 2011, p.8 Print.
99 Ibid., p.10.
100 Ibid., p.11.
101 Nizami, K. A. Sayyid Ahmad Khan. New Delhi: Publications Division,
Government of India, 1966, p.153 Print.
103 The Pioneer, 29 March 1898.
Matthews, Delhi: Idara-e-Adabiyat-Delhi, 1979, p.202 Print.
1 Khan, Sir Syed Ahmed, Causes of the Indian Revolt, Translated by Two
European Friends, 1873, pp.172–73; included as Appendix ‘A’ in History of
Bijnore Rebellion, translated by Hafeez Malik and Morris Dembo, Idara-e-
Adabiyat-e-Dehli, Delhi, 1982.
2 Ibid., p.114, p.116.
4 Premchand, Munchi. ‘Sir Syed’, Tahzibul Akhlaq monthly, Aligarh: Aligarh
Muslim University, July 2015, p.8 (My translation) Print.
5 Hali, Khawaja Altaf Husain, Hayat-e-Javed, Trans. K.H. Qadri and David J.
6 Ibid., p.57.
Muslim University. July 2015, p.9 (My translation) Print.
8 Khan, Iftikhar Alam, Sir Syed Duroon-e-Khana (Sir Syed Inside Home),
Aligarh: Educational Book House, 2006, p.72 (My translation) Print.
9 Hali, Khawaja Altaf Husain, Hayat-e-Javed, Trans. K. H. Qadri and David J.
Matthews, Delhi: Idara-e-Adabiyat-Delhi, 1979, pp.72–73 Print.
Muslim University. July 2015, p.9 (My translation) Print.
12 Ibid.
13 Ibid.
14 Ibid.
15 Ibid., p.72.
16 The Aligarh Institute Gazette 22 May 1874.
17 Ibid., 29 May 1874.
18 Ibid., 3 July 1874.
19 Ibid., 31 August 1866.
16
20 Ibid., 18 January 1869 (My translation).
21 Ibid., 18 October 1879.
23 Graham, G.F.I., The Life and Work of Syed Ahmad Khan, C.S.I. Edinburgh
24 Ibid., p.297.
25 Ibid., p.300.
26 Hali, Khawaja Altaf Husain, Hayat-e-Javed, Trans. Rafi Ahmad Alvi, Aligarh:
27 Ibid., p.136.
28 The Aligarh Institute Gazette 25 October 1879.
29 Graham, G.F.I., The Life and Work of Syed Ahmad Khan, C.S.I. Edinburgh
30 Mohammad, Shan (ed.), Writings and Speeches of Syed Ahmad Khan. Bombay:
Nachiketa Publications, 1972, p.148 Print.
31 Hali, Khawaja Altaf Husain, Hayat-e-Javed, Trans. Rafi Ahmad Alvi. Aligarh:
32 The Aligarh Institute Gazette, 13 July 1880.
34 Ibid., p.138.
36 Ibid., 13 July 1880.
39 Ibid.
43 Ibid., p.263.
44 Ibid., p.264.
45 Ibid., p.266.
46 Mohammad, Shan (ed.), Writings and Speeches of Syed Ahmad Khan, Bombay:
47 Ibid., p.158.
48 Ali, Syed Iqbal, Syed Ahmad Ka Safar Nama-e-Punjab, New Delhi: Educational
Publishing House, 1984, p.221 Print.
49 Ibid., p.61.
51 Ali, Syed Iqbal, Syed Ahmad Ka Safar Nama-e-Punjab, New Delhi: Educational
Publishing House, 1984, p.225 Print.
52 Ibid., p.226.
1 Pillai, G. Parameswaran. Representative Indians. London: George Rutledge

and Sons Ltd., 1897. 2nd ed.: W. Thacker & Co. London 1902. The National
Academy of Letters (Sahitya Academy, New Delhi) reprinted in 2012. Print.
2 Manzar, Arafat. ‘Blasphemy and the Death Penalty, Misconceptions Explained’.
Dawn. 2 November 2015. Online available at: www.dawn.com/news/1215304
(Accessed on 26 November 2017). Web.
17
3 Maudoodi, Abul Ala. Jihad Fil Islam. New Delhi: Markazi Maktab Islami,
1980, p.289 Print.
5 Ibid.
6 Proceedings of the fourth session of the Mohammedan Educational Congress.
Agra: Mufeed-e-Aam Press, 1890, p.125. (My Translation) Print.
7 Ibid.
8 Ibid.
9 Hali, Khawaja Altaf Husain. Hayat-e-Javed, Trans. Rafi Ahmad Alvi, Aligarh:
10 Lofland, John. Doomsday Cult: A Study of Conversion, Proselytization, and
Maintenance of Faith. New York: Prentice-Hall, 1966, Print. [Note: It was
republished in 2012 by Irvington Publishers.]
12 Ibid.
13 Williams, David. The Melvill Family and India. Blog. http://blogs.uc.uk/eichai,
May 2004
17 Khan, Sir Syed Ahmad. Dr Hunter’s Indian Musalmanan, p.79, Henry S. King
and Co, London, 1872 (Compiled by a Mohammedan and meant for private
circulation).
II, Meerut: Mofussilite Press, 1860, p.97 Print.
19 Ibid.
20 Ibid.
21 Khan, Syed Ahmad. Dr Hunter’s Indian Musalmanan, p.87, Henry S. King and
Co, London, 1872 (Compiled by a Mohammedan and meant for private circu-
lation) Print.
22 Ibid.
23 The Aligarh Institute Gazette, 2 June 1877 (My translation).
26 Ibid.
29 Khan, Syed Ahmad. ‘Sir Syed Ahmad Khan: Freedom of Expression.’ In:
Selected Essays of Sir Syed Vol I. Trans. Mohammed Hameedullah, Aligarh: Sir
Syed Academy, Aligarh Muslim University, 2004, p.107 Print
30 Ibid., p.108.
31 Ibid., p.108.
32 Ibid., p.125.
33 Ibid., p.124.
34 Ibid., p.126.
35 Ibid.
37 Abbas, Asghar. Sir Syed Ki Sahafat, Lahore: Urdu Academy, 1997, p.59 (My
translation) Print.
39 Pillai, G. Parameswaran. Representative Indians, New Delhi: Sahitya Academy,
2012, p.14 Print.
40 Khan, Syed Ahmad. Causes of Indian Rebellion 1857. Trans. Jaweed Ashraf,
Asha Jyoti Booksellers and Publishers, 2007, p.125.
18
41 Ibid., p.132.
43 Ibid.
46 ‘Sir Syed Ahmad Khan: Right of Women.’ In: Selected Essays of Sir Syed Vol I.
Trans. Mohammed Hameedullah, Aligarh: Sir Syed Academy. Aligarh Muslim
University, 2004, pp.51–2 Print.
47 Ibid., p.53.
48 The Aligarh Institute Gazette, 27 January 1884 (My translation) Print.
49 Ibid.
50 ‘Sir Syed Ahmad Khan: Right of Women.’ In: Selected Essays of Sir Syed Vol I.
Trans. Mohammed Hameedullah. Aligarh: Sir Syed Academy, Aligarh Muslim
University, 2004, p.53 Print.
51 Ibid., p.54.
52 Malik, Hafeez. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan and Muslim Modernisation in India and
Pakistan. New York: Columbia University Press, 1960, p.230 Print.
53 Ibid., p.231.
54 ‘Sir Syed Ahmad Khan: Contact between the Hindus and the Muslims.’ In:
Selected Essays of Sir Syed Vol I. Trans. Mohammed Hameedullah. Aligarh: Sir
Syed Academy. Aligarh Muslim University, 2004, p.102 Print.
55 Ibid., p.103.
56 The Aligarh Institute Gazette, 27 June 1880 (My translation).
57 Ibid.
60 Tahzibul Akhlaq, 30 March 1875.
61 Ibid.
62 Hussain, Mazhar. ‘Aligarh Tehreek, Samaji Aur Siyasi Mutala’. New Delhi:
Anjuman Taraqqi-e-Urdu, 2002, p.241 (My translation) Print.
63 The Aligarh Institute Gazette, 23 January 1884 (My translation).
64 Stephenyant, M. T. Pakistan, Philosophy and Sociology. Moscow: Noka
Publishing House, 1971, p.7. (Quoted in Khan, Sir Syed Ahmad, Causes of the
Indian Rebellion. Trans. Jawed Ashraf, New Delhi: Asha Jyoti Publishers,
2007.) Print.
65 Ibid., pp.52, 53.
66 Jalal, Ayesha, Self and Sovereignty, Individual and Community in South Asian
Islam since 1850. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2001, p.61 Print.
68 Lelyveld, David. Aligarh’s First Generation: Muslim Solidarity in British India.
New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1978, p.303 Print.
69 Ibid., pp.305, 306.
71 Lectures and Speeches: Mohammedan Educational Conference, Agra: Mufeed-
e-Aam Press, 1896, p.325 Print
72 Kidwai, Shafey. Cementing Ethics with Modernism: An Assessment of Sir
Syed’s Periodicals. New Delhi: Gyan Publishing House, 2010, p.165 Print.
73 The Aligarh Institute Gazette. December 1887.
74 Marahvari, Anwar Ahmad (Ed.). Murqa-e-Conference. Aligarh: Muslim
University Press, 1935, p.36 (My translation) Print, 1935.
75 Panipati, Sheikh Mohammad Ismail (Ed.). Maktoobat-e-Sir Syed. Lahore:
Majlis-e-Adab, 1959, p.876. (My Translation) Print.
76 The Aligarh Institute Gazette.27 November 1868 (My translation).
19
77 Ibid.
78 Ibid.
79 Ibid.
80 Ibid.
81 Asghar Abbas. Print Culture: Sir Syed’s Aligarh Institute Gazette 1866–1897.
Trans. Ali Asim. New Delhi: Primus Books, 2015, p.178 Print.
82 Ibid.
83 Hussain, Jafri Naqi Hussain. ‘The Sign and Signifiers of Urdu-Hindi
Controversy’ In: ‘Sir Syed Ahmad Khan’, a Centenary Tribute. New Delhi:
Adam Publishers, 2001, p.419 Print.
84 Robinson, Francis. Separatism among Indian Muslims: The Politics of the
United Province Muslims, 1860-1923, London: Cambridge University Press,
1974, p.44 Print.
1 Sheikh Abdullah Papa Mian (1874–1965): A junior but distinguished associate

of Sir Syed who was born in Poonch district of Kashmir in 1874 and converted
to Islam in 1891 while studying in Lahore. Having received his early education
in Jammu and Lahore, he joined MAO College, Aligarh, in 1891, and soon
developed a close affinity with Sir Syed. Sheikh Abdullah passed his BA and
LL.B from MAO College and settled in Aligarh. He tried to supplement all that
had initially been ignored by the Aligarh Movement. He devoted himself to the
cause of women’s education, and worked relentlessly for the propagation of
education among Muslim women. He started a girls’ school in 1906 and, with
a generous financial grant from the ruler of Bhopal, Nawab Sultan Jahan
Begum, set up a boarding house at the school. The establishment of a girls’
hostel provided much required impetus to female education, and the small
school expanded into a degree college, now known as Abdullah College for
Women, Aligarh Muslim University. His sterling service in the field of women’s
education was recognised by the Government of India and he was awarded a
Padma Bhushan in 1964.
2 Abdullah, Sheikh Mohammad, Mushahidat Wa Ta’assurat (Observations and
Impressions). Autobiography, Aligarh: Female Education Society, 1969,
pp.198–9 (My translation).
3 Ibid., p.10.
4 Minault, Gail. ‘Sayyid Mumtaz Ali and Huquq-un-Niswan: An Advocate of
Women’s Rights in Islam in the Late Nineteenth Century’. Modern Asian
Studies. Vol. 24.1, February 1990, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Also reproduced in the book Secluded Scholars: Women’s Education and
Muslim Social Reforms in Colonial India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press,
1998
5 The Times of New Delhi, 20 January 2015.
6 Hafeez Jullundhri (1900–1982): Renowned Urdu poet who wrote the national
anthem of Pakistan. His epic narrative ‘Shahnama-e-Islam’ made him quite
popular in the subcontinent.
7 Tehzeeb-e-Niswan, Lahore, 6 July 1935, p.635.
8 Moulvi Syed Mumtaz Ali (1860–1935), a distinguished Islamic scholar, author,
and journalist, was born in Deoband. He received an early education in
Deoband under the supervision of Moulvi Mohammad Qasim Nanautvi, and
later shifted to Lahore to receive a modern education. His book Huqooq-e-
Niswan (Right of Women) in Urdu, blazed a new trail in interrogating the
religious texts by discarding the male centric interpretation. He launched the
first Urdu weekly for women Tehzeeb-e-Niswan from Lahore. His voluminous
commentary of the Quran, ‘Tafseerul Bayan Fi Matalib-ul-Quran’, is consid-
ered one of the most comprehensive exegetical texts.
20
9 Abdullah, Sheikh Mohammed, ‘Shamsul Ulema Maulana Syed Mumtaz Ali
Sahab Marhoom’, Tehzeeb-e-Niswan. Vol. 38, No. 27, 6 July 1935, p.628.
10 Mumtaz Ali, Moulvi Syed, Huqooq-e-Niswan (Rights of Women). Lahore:
Darul Ishaat, 1898, pp.58–9 (My translation).
11 Imtiyaz Ali Taaj (1900–1970); renowned Urdu playwright whose drama
‘Anarkali’ (1922) made him a household name in the subcontinent. The famous
movie Mughal-e-Azam (1960) is based on his drama that depicts the popular
romantic myth centring on Anarkali (a courtesan) and the Mughal Prince
Saleem. He was the son of Moulvi Syed Mumtaz Ali. His hilarious character
Chacha Chhakkan (1922) in considered one of the most memorable characters
in Urdu plays. On 19 April 1970, he was assassinated by unknown assailants
12 Tehzeeb-e-Niswan, Lahore, 29 June 1935, p.599.
13 Mumtaz Ali, Moulvi Syed, Huqooq-e-Niswan (Rights of Women). Lahore:
Darul Ishaat, 1898, p.56 (My translation).
14 Panipati, Sheikh Mohammad Ismail (Ed.). Maktoobat-e-Sir Syed. Lahore:
Majlis-e-Adab, 1959, p.82 (My Translation) Print
15 Mohsinul Mulk (1837–1907), a close associate of Sir Syed, was born in Etawah
in 1837. In 1867, he qualified in the Provincial Civil Service Examination, and
was appointed as a Deputy Collector in the North-Western Provinces. Later he
joined the service of Nizam of Hyderabad, and rendered 20 years of meritori-
ous service. He was a prolific writer and wrote extensively for Sir Syed’s peri-
odical Tahzibul Akhlaq. He was appointed as the Secretary of MAO College,
and contributed invaluable service in converting MAO College into a
University.
16 Abdullah, Sheikh Mohammad, Mushahidat Wa Ta’assurat (Observations and
Impressions). Autobiography, Aligarh: Female Education Society, 1969, p.206
(My translation).
Matthews. Delhi: Idara-e-Adabiyat-Delhi, 1979, p.23.
18 Ibid., p.10.
19 Nehru, Jawaharlal, The Discovery of India. New York: The John Day
Company, Second Imprint, 1958, p.347.
20 Khan, Sir Syed Ahmad, Causes of the Indian Rebellion, Trans. Jawed Ashraf,
New Delhi: Asha Jyoti Publishers, 2007, pp.125–6.
21 Bharatendu Harish Chandra (1850–1885): One of the most significant Hindi
writers who is known as the father of modern Hindi literature.
22 Bharatendu Harish Chandra’s testimony included in the book Rassa Kashi by
Veer Bharat Talwar, New Delhi: Saaransh Prakashan, 2001, p.36 (My
translation).
23 Ibid., p.37.
24 Talwar, Veer Bharat, Rassa Kashi: Uneesvin Sadi Ka Navjagaran Aur
Pashchimottar Prant. New Delhi: Saransh Prakashan, 2001, p.38.
26 The Aligarh Institute Gazette, 15 June 1866..
Nishat Zaidi. New Delhi: Primus Books, 2011, p.76.
29 The Aligarh Institute Gazette, 28 December 1866 (My translation).
31 Ibid.
35 Ibid.
21
44 Kambalposh, Yusuf Hussain Khan, Adabiyat-e-Farang (Ed. Tehsin Firaqi),
Lahore, p.8 (My translation).
45 Asfahani, Talib, Safarnama-e-Englistan (Ed. Mahzoon Moradabadi),
Moradabad: Birlas Press, p.75.
46 Khan, Nawab Karim, Sayahat Nama, reproduced in Ajaebat-e-Farang.
47 Kambalposh, Yusuf Hussain Khan, Adabiyat-e-Farang (Ed. Tehsin Firaqi),
Lahore, p.104 (My translation).
48 Ibid., 105.
49 Ibid., 122.
50 Ibid., 134.
51 Ibid., 136.
52 Ibid., 148.
53 Ibid.,157.
54 Lewis, Bernard, What Went Wrong, Western Impact and Middle East
Response?. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002, p.66.
Nishat Zaidi. New Delhi: Primus Books, 2011, p.69.
56 Ibid., pp.76–8
57 Ibid., pp.120
58 Ibid., pp.134
59 Ibid., pp.146
60 Ibid., pp.180–1
61 Ibid., pp.181
62 Ibid., pp.183
63 Ibid., pp.185
64 Ibid., pp.184
65 Graham, G.F.I., The Life and Work of Syed Ahmad Khan, C.S.I., Edinburgh
66 Ibid., p.324.
68 Jones, Kenneth W., The New Cambridge History of India III. Delhi: Oxford
University Press, 1989, p.2.
Pashchimottar Prant, New Delhi: Saransh Prakashan, 2001, p.41 (My
translation).
70 Pandey, Shri Narain, Bhartendu Harish Chander: Quest for New Reference.
Allahabad: Shabad Bharti, 2002, p.36 (My translation) as quoted in Veer
Bharat Talwar’s book Rassa Kashi, 2001.
Pashchimottar Prant. New Delhi: Saransh Prakashan, 2001, p.37 (My
translation).
73 Hunter, W., Report on the Indian Education Commission. Calcutta:
Superintendent of Government Printing Press, 1882, p.548.
74 Ibid., p.538.
22
76 Iqbal Ali, Syed, Syed Ahmad Ka Safarnama-e-Punjab. New Delhi: Educational
Book House, Second Edition, 1979, p.138 (My translation).
77 Ibid., p.142 (My translation.
80 Report of Mohammedan Educational Conference (Third Session held in
Lahore from 27–30 December 1888). Agra: Mufeed-e-Aam Press, 1889, p.119.
81 Ibid., p.121.
82 Report of Mohammedan Educational Conference (Sixth Session held in
Aligarh, 1891). Agra: Mufeed-e-Aam Press, 1892, p.96.
83 Ibid., p.98.
84 Lelyveld, David, Sayyid Ahmad’s Problems with Women. Unpublished Article,
p.2.
1 Wahhabism: A significant puritan Islamic movement that denounces all social

and religious practices that came into being after the Prophet. It owes much to
the writings of a prominent Arab scholar Muhammad Ibn-e-Abdul Wahhab
(1703–92). In India, it was propagated by Saiyid Ahmad Barelvi (1786–1831)
who laid down his life in the Battle of Balakot in 1831 against Sikhs. The
movement exerted tremendous influence on Indian Muslims during 1820–70.
5 Ibid., 4 May 1866.
6 Khan, Sir Syed Ahmad. ‘Customs and Habits’. In: Selected Essays of Sir Syed
Vol I. Trans. Mohammed Hameedullah. Aligarh: Sir Syed Academy. Aligarh
Muslim University, 2004, p.177 Print.
7 Ibid., p.178.
8 Ibid., p.192.
9 Khan, Sir Syed Ahmad. Musafiran-e-London (A Voyage to Modernism). Trans.
and ed. Mushirul Hasan and Nishat Zaidi. New Delhi: Primus Books, 2011,
p.161 Print.
10 Ibid., p.177.
11 Ibid., p.178.
12 Khan, Sir Syed Ahmad. Taarikh-e-Sarkashi Zila Bijnor (History of Bijnor
Rebellion). Trans. Hafeez Malik and Morris Dembo. Delhi: Idara-e-Adabiyat-
e-Delhi, 1982, Preface IX, Print.
13 Ibid., Preface VII.
14 Ibid., p.1.
15 Ibid., p.140.
16 Ibid., p.142.
17 Ibid., p.214.
18 Kaye, John William. A History of the Sepoy War in India Vol II. London:
Longmans Green, 4th ed. 1878, p.195 Print.
19 Khan, Sir Syed Ahmad. Taarikh-e-Sarkashi Zila Bijnor (History of Bijnor
e-Delhi, 1982, p.214.
20 Saiyyid Ahmad Khan Bahadur. The Causes of Indian Revolt, translated into
English by his two European friends included as Appendix A in the book The
History of Bijnore Rebellion, Idara-e-Adabiyat-e-Delhi, p.145.
21 Ibid., pp.148–9.
22 Ibid., p.150.
23 Ibid., p.157.
23
24 Shah Mohammad Ismail (1779–1831): A well-known Islamic scholar and
author of the widely read book Taqwiyatul Islam (Strengthening of the Faith).
He was the grandson of Shah Waliullah (1703–1762) and he, along with
Saiyyid Ahmad Barelvi, initiated a new Islamic reform, and waged a war
against the Sikh empire to create an Islamic state in the subcontinent. Shah
Ismail breathed his last in the battle of Balakot in 1831.
25 Khan, Saiyyid Ahmad. ‘The Causes of the Indian Revolt’, p.153, translated into
English by his European Friends included as Appendix ‘An’ in The History of
Bijnore Rebellion, Idara-e-Adabiyat-e-Dehli.
26 Ibid., p.154.
27 Ibid., p.159.
28 Ibid., p.176.
29 Ibid., p.177.
30 Ibid., p.169.
31 Ghalib, Mirza Asadullah Khan. Dastambo. (Diary written in Persian, trans-
lated into Urdu by Khawaja Ahmad Farooqui). New Delhi: Taraqqi Urdu
Bureau, 2000, p.38 (My translation).
32 Khan, Saiyyid Ahmad Khan. ‘The Causes of Indian Revolt’, p.179; translated
into English by his European Friends included as Appendix ‘A’ in The History
of Bijnore Rebellion, Idara-e-Adabiyat-e-Dehli.
33 Ibid., p.180.
34 Ibid.
35 Ibid., p.187.
36 Ibid., p.193.
37 Ibid., p.194.
38 Ibid., p.196.
39 Mirza Asadullah Khan Ghalib (1797–1869): Most celebrated Urdu and Persian
poet whose prose and poetry blazed a new trail in Urdu literature. His poetry
holds sway in the subcontinent and it has already been translated into all major
languages of the world. His prose writing in the form of letters and diary are
considered the best examples of Urdu prose; Dastambo, p.42 Ghalib, Mirza
Asadullah Khan. Dastambo is the diary of Ghalib (written in Persian and
translated into Urdu by Khwaja Ahmad Farooqui) and it contained a detailed
first-hand account of 1857 rebellion; New Delhi: Taraqqi Urdu Bureau, 2000
(My translation).
40 Ehtesham Husain (1912–1972): A prominent Marxist critic who wrote exten-
sively on almost all genres of Urdu literature. He taught at Lucknow University
and Allahabad University. Urdu Adab ki Tanqueedi Tareekh, Hindustani
Lesaniyat Ka Khaka, Etabar-e-Nazar are some of his significant books
41 Husain, Ehtesham. ‘Urdu Literature and the Revolt’. In: P. C. Joshi (Ed.).
Rebellion 1857: A Symposium. New Delhi: People’s Publishing House, 1957,
p.241 Print.
42 Pratap Narain Misra (1856–1894): A key figure of modern Hindi language
whose right-wing views were very popular in nineteenth century India. He
relentlessly propagated ‘Hindi, Hindu, and Hindustan’, and wrote 40 books
related to several genres of Hindi literature. Pratap Sameekcha, Bharat
Durdasha, and Pratap Piyush are some of his important books.
43 Gupta, P.C., ‘1857 and Hindi Literature’. In: P. C. Joshi (Ed.). Rebellion 1857:
A Symposium, New Delhi: People’s Publishing House, 1957, p.228 Print.
44 Khan, Sir Syed Ahmad. Taarikh-e-Sarkashi-e-Zila Bijnor (History of Bijnor
e-Delhi, 1982, p.207 Print.
45 Ibid., p.209.
46 Ibid., p.210.
24
47 W.W. Hunter (1840–1900): A Scottish scholar and member of the Indian Civil
Service who produced the astutely researched The Imperial Gazetteer of India
in 9 volumes in 1881. His book, The Indian Musalmans: Are They Bound in
Conscience to Rebel against the Queen? was published in 1871. It was a well
written book, but many Muslims found it biased and one-sided. Sir Syed wrote
a rejoinder. Sir William Wilson Hunter was appointed the Chairman of the
Indian Education Commission in 1882, and he also served as vice-chancellor
of the University of Calcutta in 1886.
48 Saiyid Ahmad Khan. Sir Hunter’s ‘Our Indian Musalman’ Compiled by a
Mohammedan. London: Henry S. King & Co., 1872, p.3.
49 Ibid., p.15.
50 Ibid., p.20.
51 Khan, Iftikhar Alam. ‘Sir Syed Aur National Congress’. In: Tahzibul Akhlaq,
Monthly Special Issue. Aligarh: Aligarh Muslim University, April 2017, p.118
Print.
52 Khan, Sir Syed Ahmad. Na Muhazzab Mulk Aur Na Muhazzab Government
(Uncivilized Nation and Uncouth Government). Aligarh: Tahzibul Akhlaq.Vol.
VI, 1292 Hejra, p.145 (My translation).
53 Khan, Sir Syed Ahmad. Patriotism and Necessity of Promoting Knowledge in
India (A speech by Sir Syed in Persian at the meeting of the Mohammedan
Literary Society in Calcutta) on 6 October 1863 published at Sir Syed Ahmad’s
private press, Ghazipur, 1863, p.5.
54 Ibid., p.6.
55 A speech of Sir Syed delivered at Lucknow, included in the book Political
Profile of Sir Syed Ahmad Khan: A Documentary Record, edited by Hafeez
Malik, Islamabad: Institute of Islamic History, Culture and Civilization, Islamic
University, 1982, p.356.
56 Reply of Sir Syed to some criticism included in the book Political Profile of Sir
Syed Ahmad Khan: A Documentary Record, edited by Hafeez Malik,
Islamabad: Institute of Islamic History, Culture and Civilization, Islamic
57 Ibid., p.357.
58 Ibid., p.358.
59 Panipati, Sheikh Mohammad Ismail (Ed). Maktoobat-e-Sir Syed. Lahore:
Majlis-e-Adab, 1984 (Second edition), (My translation) Print.
60 Khan, Iftikhar Alam. ‘Sir Syed Aur National Congress: Ek Qayas Jo Qareen-e-
Qayas Hai’ (A Guess that Looks Plausible), Tahzibul Akhlaq, Special Issue,
April 2017, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, p.117.
62 Ibid., 1 June 1866.
63 Ibid.
64 Ibid.
65 Simon Mathews Kempson (1831–1894): A well-known British educationist
and administrator. He served as Principal of Bareilly College, and Inspector of
School at Bareilly and Agra respectively. He was appointed Director Public
Instruction of North-Western Provinces in 1862, and worked until 1878. He
returned to England and joined the University of Cambridge.
68 Ibid., 8 February 1867.
69 Ibid., 19 March 1875.
70 Ibid., 30 April 1875.
71 Khan, Yusuf Hussain (Ed.). Selected Documents from the Aligarh Archives.
Delhi: Asia Publishing House, 1967, p.114.
25
Sir Syed Academy, Aligarh Muslim University, 2008, pp.218–9 Print.
75 Khan, Iqtidar Alam: ‘Aligarh Tahrik aur Tarikh Nigari’. Prof M. Mujeeb
Memorial Lecture at the Jamia Millia Islamia, University, New Delhi, 1991.
Aligarh: Centre of Advanced Studies. Dept of History. AMU, 1992, p.12 Print.
76 Faruqui, Shamsur Rehman: ‘From Antiquary to Social Revolutionary: Sir Syed
Ahmad Khan and the Colonial Experience’. Sir Syed Memorial Lecture, 2006.
In: Shan Mohammad (Ed.). Sir Syed Ahmad Khan: Memorial Lectures. New
Delhi: Viva Books, 2917, p.590 Print.
1 Krishnamurthy, Nadig. Indian Journalism. Mysore: Mysore University Press,

1966, p.66.
2 Moulvi Mohammad Baqar (1780–1857), was a widely respected religious
scholar, author and journalist who started Urdu’s first litho-based weekly Delhi
Urdu Akhbar from Delhi in 1837. It was the most popular and widely respected
newspaper in North India. Moulvi Baqar’s newspaper occasionally supported
the British government, but when the First War of Independence broke out, he
threw his weight behind it. He even changed the name of his newspaper from
Delhi Akhbar to Akhbaruz Zafar on 12 July 1857. At least ten issues of Delhi
Urdu Akhbar carried the new title Akhbaruz Zafar. Moulvi Baqar was arrested
on 14 September 1857, and on 16 September 1857, he was produced before
Captain Hudson who ordered his execution on charges of being a rebel.
3 Siddiqui, Mohammad Ateeq. Suba-e-Shumali wa Maghribi ke Akhbarat-o-
Matbooat (1848–1853). Aligarh: Anjuman Tarqqi Urdu Hind, 1962, p.104.
6 Krishnamurthy, Nadig. Indian Journalism. Mysore: Mysore University Press,
1966, p.165.
7 The Aligarh Institute Gazette, 12 November 1878 (My translation).
II. Meerut: Mofussilite Press, 1860, p.20, Printed by J. A. Gibson.
10 Ibid., p.32.
11 Ibid., p.34.
12 Ibid., p.9.
III. Meerut: Mofussilite Press, Printed by J. A. Gibson, 1961, p.1 Print.
14 Ibid., p.3.
15 Ibid., p.5.
16 Ibid., p.6.
17 Ibid., p.7.
18 Ibid., p.8.
21 Ibid., 15 March 1880.
23 Ibid., 7 May 1868.
24 Ibid., 6 June 1869.
26
25 ‘Sir Syed: Bigotry’, In: Selected Essays of Sir Syed, Vol. I, Trans. Mohammed
Hameedullah, Aligarh, Sir Syed Academy, Aligarh Muslim University, 2004,
p.157.
26 Ibid., p.158.
27 Ibid., p.91.
28 Ibid., p.101.
29 Ibid., p.84.
30 Ibid., p.164.
31 Ibid., p.167.
32 Ibid., p.188.
33 Ibid., p.167.
34 Ibid., p.185.
35 Ibid., p.179.
36 Tahzibul Akhlaq, Yakum Shabaan, 1292 Hegira.
37 Selected Essays of Sir Syed, Vol. I, Trans. Mohammed Hameedullah, Aligarh:
38 Ibid., p.186.
39 Ibid., p.42.
40 Selected Essays of Sir Syed Vol. I, Trans. Mohammad Hameedullah, Aligarh:
41 Tahzibul Akhlaq, 29 Shabaan, 1289 Hegira.
43 Selected Essays of Sir Syed, Vol. I, Trans. Mohammad Hameedullah, Aligarh:
44 Tahzibul Akhlaq, 1311 Hegira, In Selected Essays of Sir Syed Ahmad, Vol. I,
Trans. Mohammad Hameedullah, Aligarh: Sir Syed Academy, Aligarh Muslim
46 Ibid., p.43.
47 Ali, Syed Asim. Sir Syed’s Attitude to the West, In: A. A. Ansari (ed.) Sir Sayyid
Ahmad Khan: A Centennial Tribute. Delhi: Adam Publishers, 2001,
pp.371–2.
48 Tahzibul Akhlaq. 1287 Hegira. In: Selected Essays of Sir Syed Ahmad Vol. I.
Trans. Mohammad Hameedullah. Aligarh: Sir Syed Academy, Aligarh Muslim
49 Ibid., p.125.
50 The Aligarh Institute Gazette, 13 July 1873 (My translation).
27
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231

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Sir Syed Ahmad Khan

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‘I am sure readers interested in Sir Syed Ahmad Khan’s life and work would

find Professor Shafey Kidwai’s work a mine of well-arranged information,

‘Fresh perspectives on Sir Syed, especially as a reformist, have a definite

‘Drawing upon a wide variety of primary and secondary sources, Kidwai

Shafey Kidwai is a reputed scholar, well-known literary critic and colum-

3 Unravelling Sir Syed 85

4 Female education 127

5 A dialogic affair 164

6 Intellectual awakening through periodicals 197

Sukrita Paul Kumar

Professor Anisur Rahman

Polymaths are no strangers to India, and the nineteenth century is no excep-

adherence to ancestral beliefs looked gratifying, and people sought succour

Here non-rational or transrational aspects of faith encased in the meta-

His writings have a distinctively Sufi tone which is overshadowed

interpretation of the Quran. In 1877, he started putting together his reflec-

Fussosul Hikam (Bezels of Wisdom). Explaining the Quranic description of

We see a chain of lower creatures, inferior to men. Similarly, there

The government must provide all sort of rights related to property,

I have no animosity against the Congress Wallahs—that I should

I doubt if he (Sir Syed) would have subscribed to the two-nation

Apart from being the founder of an educational institution and a propo-

of the Muslim-Hindu relationship, as the simple explanation offered by his

few of public figures of nineteenth-century India who deliberated on all that

1 Pillai, G. Parameswaran. Representative Indians. London: George Rutledge

1 Sheikh Abdullah Papa Mian (1874–1965): A junior but distinguished associate

1 Wahhabism: A significant puritan Islamic movement that denounces all social

1 Krishnamurthy, Nadig. Indian Journalism. Mysore: Mysore University Press,

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———, Moslem Nationalism in India and Pakistan (Washington: Public Affairs

Husain, M. Hadi, Syed Ahmad Khan: Pioneer of Muslims Resurgence (Lahore:

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