----------------------- Page 1-----------------------

Journal of Food
Engineering 104 (2011) 632–638

Contents lists
available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Food Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevi

er.com/locate/jfoodeng

The effects of freeze, dry, and wet grinding processes on rice flour properties

and their energy consumption

Peerapong Ngamnikom, Sirichai Songsermpong ⇑

Program of Food Engineering, Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of

Agro-Industry, Kasetsart University, Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This study attempted to

replace the wet grinding process of rice with a freeze grinding process. The freeze

Received 29 September 2010 grinding process involved

soaking the rice samples in liquid nitrogen before grinding in a dry grinding

Received in revised form 30 January 2011 machine. Three different

types of grinders (hammer mill, roller mill, and pin mill) were used in
both

Accepted 1 February 2011

the freeze and the dry

grinding processes. Wet grinding resulted in significantly (P < 0.05) smaller aver-

Available online 21 February 2011

age particle size and a

lower percentage of damaged starch than the alternative methods of
grinding.

Freeze grinding,
especially using the hammer mill significantly reduced both the average
particle size

Keywords:

and the damaged starch

content. Moreover, freeze grinding produced a higher yield after sieving in com-

Freeze grinding

parison with dry grinding

using an identical grinder. In particular, freeze grinding with the hammer mill

Wet grinding

Dry grinding gave a significantly higher

yield after sieving than dry grinding with the hammer mill. The wet grinding

Rice process had the

significantly highest specific energy consumption (13,868 kJ/kg) due to the
large con-

Rice flour sumption of electrical

energy by the many machines in the process. The energy consumption of freeze

grinding was similar to dry

grinding. Consequently, the freeze grinding process was a viable alternative

to the traditional wet

grinding process.

# 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
semidry grinding process, the properties of flour are intermediate

to those of both dry and wet ground flour; in aspects of particle

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is one of the most important food crops in
size, viscosity, damaged starch, etc. The semidry grinding process

the world. Broken rice, either from waxy rice or non waxy rice vari-
has three steps: soaking, drying to remove excess water (15–17%

eties, is used to produce rice flour by different size reduction pro-

wet basis; %wb), and grinding with dry grinding machinery (Nai-

cesses. Rice flour is used to produce many kinds of food and

vikul, 2004; Yeh, 2004). Nevertheless, such a method has some

desserts such as noodles, breakfast cereals, unleavened breads,

drawbacks such as the extended duration necessary to adjust the
snack food items, crackers, candies and baby foods (Bao and Berg-
moisture content of the rice kernels, the excessive consumption

man, 2004). Generally, there are three methods used to prepare

of energy needed for the drying procedure, the undue consumption

rice flour: wet grinding, semidry grinding, and dry grinding

of water, and the generation of waste water. The type and method

(Chiang and Yeh, 2002). Wet grinding is a traditional method used

of grinding potentially has a profound impact on the physicochem-

to prepare rice flour and incorporates five distinctively consecutive

ical characteristics of the rice flours produced (Chen et al., 1999).

processes: soaking, adding excess water during grinding, filtering,

Yeh (2004) stated that both the model and design of the grinder af-

drying, and sieving; this process includes the use of many ma-
fect the performance, as well as the particle size of the flour. Gen-

chines and much manpower. The costs associated with the flour
erally, wet ground flour is better suited for the production of

loss, the high water consumption, the treatment of wastewater,

traditional rice based products than dry ground flour and semidry

and the high energy consumption call for an alternative method

ground flour, regardless of whether the products are steamed or

(Yeh, 2004). Dry grinding uses no water, does not generate waste
baked, as wet ground flour results in the lowest amount of dam-

water, and moreover, consumes less energy. Broken rice is ground

aged starch and the finest particle size (Chen et al., 1999).

with dry grinding machinery such as a hammer mill, pin mill, roller
When polished rice kernels are ground into rice flour, some

mill, or disc mill, etc. However, the level of quality of many food
starch granules are damaged due to the mechanical action during

items (for instance noodles, made of dry ground flour) is not ade-
the grinding process (Nishita and Bean, 1982; Chen et al., 1999,

quate for many consumers (Naivikul, 2004; Yeh, 2004). In the

2003a; Solanki et al., 2005; Sharma et al., 2008). Chen et al.

(2003a) indicated that the damaged starch and the particle size

distribution were two key factors which affect the physicochemical

⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +66 2 562 5042; fax: +66 2 562 5021.
properties and the application suitability of rice flour. Additionally,
 E-mail address: sirichai.so@ku.ac.th (S. Songsermpong).

0260-8774/$ - see front matter # 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

doi:10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2011.02.001

----------------------- Page 2-----------------------

P. Ngamnikom, S. Songsermpong / Journal

of Food Engineering 104 (2011) 632–638 633

Nomenclature

W wet grinding
A electric current (ampere)

R dry grinding with roller mill

V voltage (volt)

H dry grinding with hammer mill

P.F. power factor

P dry grinding with pin mill

E electrical energy (kJ)

RF freeze grinding with roller mill

Es specific energy consumption (kJ/kg)

HF freeze grinding with hammer mill

P electrical power (kW)

PF freeze grinding with pin mill

t time (sec)

several components, with the exception of carbohydrate, affect the

mill (AP-S, Hosokawa, Japan), a roller mill (Quadrumat Junior,

swelling of flour particles such as protein, ash, and lipids, etc., espe-
C.W. Brabender, USA), and a pin mill (Ngow Huat Yoo Machinery,

cially protein which is present in greater amount than the other

Bangkok, Thailand) were used.

components in the rice kernel and can block gel formation of the

starch granule during heating (Naivikul, 2004). Damaged starch

2.3. Grinding techniques

is a big concern in flour production, as it is separate from the intact

granules impacting on both the solubility and the susceptibility to
2.3.1. Wet grinding

enzymatic digestion. Yeh (2004) stated that some grinding

The broken rice kernels were steeped in water for 4 h to soften

machinery causes higher temperatures than others and that is part

the rice kernels using ratio of water to rice of 2:1 (w/w). Then, the

of the reason why such machinery yields flour that has more dam-
samples (rice and water) were ground using the super mass collo-

aged starch and does not function well. When the rice is ground,
ider. The flour slurry was poured into a thick cloth bag and centri-

amylopectin molecules are broken down into low molecular

fuged in a basket centrifuge for 10 min at 1492 rpm to remove the

weight fragments by the mechanical force applied. These amylo-

excess water. The wet ground flour was dried in a hot air oven at

pectin fragments block the formation of structures of leached amy-

40 #C for 12 h to obtain a moisture content of approximately 12%.

lose during heating which result in a less rigid structure (Han et al.,
The dried samples were ground by means of a hammer mill with

2002). Rice flour with a high damaged starch content is rapidly hy-
a 0.5 mm sieve. Flour samples were passed through a 100 mesh

drated and hydrolyzed by a- and b-amylase (Megazyme, 2008).

sieve (Retsch, Germany) with 150 lm openings, packed in plastic

Flour with a fine particle size has more swelling power and is thus
bags and stored in a bucket at ambient temperature (about 25–

more prone to form rigid gel structures than course particle rice
28 #C).

flour (Chen et al., 2003b).

Many parameters of the rice grinding process affect the charac-

2.3.2. Dry and freeze grinding

teristics of flour such as the grinding method, grinding machinery,

For dry grinding, the broken rice kernels were ground by the

the rice kernel hardness, the soaking process, rice cultivar (Chen
hammer mill with a 0.5 mm sieve, the roller mill, and the pin mill.

et al., 2003a). The important characteristics of rice flour which af-

Each sample was ground for two rounds to follow the manner of

fect the food quality, especially in rice noodles, are the particle size
wet grinding (using the super mass colloider in the first round

distribution, the amount of damaged starch, and the chemical com-

and the hammer mill in the second round).
position (such as amylose, protein, and amylopectin etc.).
For freeze grinding, the broken rice kernels were steeped in li-

A new method was investigated that uses a freeze grinding pro-

quid nitrogen for approximately 1 min with a ratio of rice to liquid

cess, which includes the freezing of rice with liquid nitrogen prior
nitrogen of 2:5 w/v. The frozen samples were ground with the

to dry grinding. At extremely low temperature, the samples are

hammer mill, the roller mill and the pin mill. Subsequent to the

generally brittle and easily broken (Fan and Hsu, 1976; Gouveia
first round of grinding, the flour sample was dipped into liquid

et al., 2002; Devi et al., 2009). The objectives of the present study
nitrogen for 1 min prior to the second round of grinding.

were to compare the performance of the freeze grinding, dry grind-

Flour samples (dry and freeze ground) were passed through a

ing, and wet grinding processes on yield, damaged starch content,

100 mesh sieve, packed in plastic bags and stored in a bucket at

average particle size, particle size distribution, microscopic struc-

ambient temperature.

tures, and energy consumption. Additionally, three types of grind-

ers (hammer mill, roller mill, and pin mill) were used in both the

2.4. Performance assessment

freeze grinding and the dry grinding processes to compare the effi-

ciency of the different machinery.

2.4.1. Sample temperatures and grinding times

A thermocouple (Rixen, T-60) was used to measure the tempera-

2. Materials and methods

ture of each rice or flour sample. In the first round, the temperature

of the rice was measured before grinding and the temperature of the

2.1. Materials
flour was remeasured after grinding. The temperature of the flour

was measured again before grinding in the second round and remea-

Thai milled rice (Leuang 11 variety) was used in this experi-

sured after grinding in the second round. The temperature measure-
ment, with an amylose content of approximately 32–37% (dry ba-
ments were closely monitored, as fluctuations in temperatures were

sis) (Suksomboon and Naivikul, 2006). In each treatment in the

considered likely to affect the properties of flour. The grinding times

grinding processes, 2 kg of rice was ground.

were recorded with a digital stop watch. The grinding times were

correlated with the temperature readings of samples.

2.2. Grinding machines

2.4.2. Yield

For wet grinding, a super mass colloider (MKPB6–2, Masuko

The yield of rice flour was calculated using three formulas (Eqs.

Sangyo, Japan) was used. For dry and freeze grinding, a hammer
(1)–(3)):

----------------------- Page 3-----------------------

634 P. Ngamnikom, S. Songsermpong /

Journal of Food Engineering 104 (2011) 632–638

Grinding yieldð%Þ ¼ ½Flour after grindingðgÞ=Weight of rice ðgÞ# # 100

ble sided tape and a gold coated sputter and investigated under the

ð1Þ
SEM at an accelerated voltage of 15 kV in accordance with the

Sieving yieldð%Þ ¼ ½Flour after sievingðgÞ=Flour after grindingðgÞ# # 100

method described by Suksomboon and Naivikul (2006).

ð2Þ

Process yieldð%Þ ¼ ½Flour after sievingðgÞ=Weight of rice ðgÞ# # 100

2.5. Statistical analysis

ð3Þ

A randomized complete block design (RCBD) was applied. The

The grinding yield denotes the yield of flour in the grinding part
SPSS for Windows program, version 12.0 (IBM, USA), was em-
of the process; the sieving yield represents the yield of flour that
ployed for analyzing the statistical results obtained from three rep-

passes through the 100 mesh sieve, whereas the process yield re-
lications. The mean ± standard deviation (SD) was calculated for

fers to the yield of total flour that passes through the 100 mesh
each treatment. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the Duncan’s

sieve per 2 kg of rice.

multiple range test (DMRT) were used to compare the differences

between mean values at the 5% confidence level.

2.4.3. Determination of the damaged starch contents

The temperature of each sample and the grinding times were cal-

The damaged starch content in the flour samples was deter-

culated as the mean ± SD. The yield, damaged starch content, average

mined in accordance with the approved method 76-31 of the

particle size, and energy consumption were analyzed statistically.

American Association of Cereal Chemists (AACC, 2000 ), where

damaged starch granules are hydrated and hydrolyzed to malto-

3. Results and discussion

saccharides plus a-limit dextrins by means of a carefully controlled

treatment with purified fungal a-amylase. The fungal a-amylase

3.1. Sample temperatures and grinding times

treatment is designed to result in a near complete solubilization

of damaged granules with a minimum breakdown of the undam-

The temperatures and grinding times in Table 1 show that the

aged granules. This reaction is terminated with the addition of di-

temperature increase was dependent on the type of grinder, the

lute sulfuric acid. Aliquots are treated with excess levels of purified

type of sample, and the grinding time. The temperatures of the

amyloglucosidase to cause the complete degradation of the starch

samples after grinding in the first and the second round were in-

derived dextrin to glucose. The glucose levels in this experiment

creased as the rice kernels or rice flour absorbed mechanical en-

were measured with a high purity glucose oxidase/peroxidase re-

ergy which was transformed into heat. However, the heat did not

agent mixture. With the application of a spectrophotometer (at

affect the physicochemical properties of the rice flour, as the tem-

510 nm), the damaged starch was determined as a percentage of

perature did not reach the gelatinization temperature of rice flour

flour weight on a dry basis.

(approximately 62–65 #C from Rapid Visco Analyzer; RVA), and

thus did not modify the structure of the starch granules. Prior to

2.4.4. Particle size analysis

the first grinding process, the rice kernels used in the wet grinding

The particle size distribution and average particle size were

process had a lower temperature than in the dry grinding process

determined with a Mastersizer (Malvern 2000, UK) with Scirocco

because of they had been soaked in water as an initial part of the

2000 units for the dry samples. The equipment uses a laser beam

process. In the dry grinding process, the samples after grinding in

to detect the individual particles. The flour samples were dried in

the first round had a higher temperature due to the large particle

a hot air oven to reduce the moisture content to approximately

size of the broken rice. But, the temperature prior to and post
8–11%wb prior to the particle size analysis.

grinding in the second round did not appear to change due to the

small particle size of the rice flour. In the freeze grinding process,

2.4.5. Energy consumption

the temperatures of the samples prior to grinding in both the first

Only electrical energy was used during the wet, dry, and freeze

and second rounds were obviously lower than those of the other

grinding processes. The electrical current was measured with a

grinding processes (less than #170 #C) as the broken rice was

clamp meter (Kaise SK-7711, Japan), and the readings were used

dipped into liquid nitrogen for 1 min. After grinding, the actual

to calculate the electrical energy consumption. Energy consump-

temperature of the sample increased rapidly. However, after the

tion was calculated for all wet grinding processes. As for the dry

grinding process the flour had a low temperature. The extremely

and freeze grinding processes, the analysis was performed with

low temperature of the sample at input represents the brittleness

the stated grinding machinery in each method.

of the sample and easy breakage.

The electrical power for single phase and three phase were cal-

The grinding time for each grinding process was different due to

culated using Eqs. (4) and (5), respectively:

differences in the feeding capacity of each grinder with regard to

P ¼ ðA # V #P :F :Þ=1000 for single phase ð4Þ
the rice or flour sample. For dry grinding, both the hammer mill

P ¼ ðA # V # 1:73 #P :F :Þ=1000 for three phase ð5Þ

and pin mill generated more heat but used less grinding time dur-

ing both rounds than the roller mill. These results indicated that

The electrical energy consumption during grinding was calcu-

the design of both the hammer mill and the pin mill (which employ

lated using Eq. (6):

impact force) resulted in the generation of more heat than the

E ¼ P # t ð6Þ
compressive force present in the roller mill. In freeze grinding, a

The specific energy consumption was calculated using Eq. (7):

significant reduction of the temperature of the flour resulted from

the addition of liquid nitrogen to the rice. The grinding time af-

Es ¼ E=WRS ð7Þ

fected the increase in the temperature of the rice flour in the freeze

The units are P = kW, A = ampere, V = volt, P.F. = no unit, E = kJ,

grinding process. In freeze grinding, using the hammer mill in both

t = second, WRS (weight of rice sample) = kg, and Es = kJ/kg.

rounds shortened the grinding time so the flour temperature after

grinding was low, which was in stark contrast to the dry grinding

2.4.6. Microscopic structures of the ground particles

process using the hammer mill that resulted in higher flour tem-

Microscopic images of the rice flour granules were examined

peratures. The first round of freeze grinding with the roller mill re-

with a scanning electron microscope (SEM; SU-1500, Hitachi,

quired less grinding time than the pin mill so, after grinding, the

Japan). The samples were mounted on aluminum stubs with a dou-

flour had a lower temperature. However, in the second round,
----------------------- Page 4-----------------------

P. Ngamnikom, S. Songsermpong /
Journal of Food Engineering 104 (2011) 632–638
635

Table 1

Temperature of flour samples and grinding time with various grinding processes.

Grinding Temperature (#C)

Surrounding Operated time (min)

process
temperature (#C)

Before grinding After grinding 1st Before grinding

After grinding 2nd round 1st round 2nd
round

1st round round 2nd round

W 27.1 ± 0.8 31.1 ± 0.3 33.7 ± 0.6

39.5 ± 0.7 (with Hammer mill) 32.7 ± 2.3 7.87 ± 1.44 5.99 ±
1.24

R 31.9 ± 4.1 33.7 ± 0.9 33.5 ± 1.0

33.9 ± 0.8 32.0 ± 1.4 22.93 ± 8.88 23.10 ±
5.94

H 32.7 ± 2.9 46.5 ± 2.0 45.1 ± 2.1

44.7 ± 1.5 33.3 ± 2.1 8.98 ± 2.23 5.30 ±
0.89

P 31.3 ± 2.6 43.6 ± 3.1 41.3 ± 2.2

39.4 ± 0.7 33.1 ± 2.1 13.36 ± 1.93 15.72 ±
3.08

RF <#170 6.7 ± 10.7 <#170

13.7 ± 6.3 31.7 ± 1.8 10.70 ± 3.43 18.96 ±
5.85

HF <#170 #16.0 ± 14.8 <#170

#33.5 ± 15.1 30.8 ± 1.5 7.08 ± 0.95 8.59
± 3.10

PF <#170 25.2 ± 8.4 <#170

3.6 ± 5.4 31.4 ± 0.5 13.34 ± 5.39 9.21 ±
2.49

Values shown are the mean ± standard deviation; (n = 3).

The sieving yield of wet grinding, dry grinding with the roller

Table 2

Flour yields with various grinding processes.

mill, and freeze grinding with the roller mill were significantly

higher than the other grinding processes with yields of 84.74%,

Grinding process Grinding yield (%) Sieving yield (%) Process yield (%)
91.19%, and 91.24%, respectively. These three methods yielded

W 79.02c ± 6.62 84.74a ± 8.84 66.51b ± 3.54

flour with the greatest percentage of particles less than 150 lm,

R 88.97ab ± 9.25 91.19a ± 3.85 80.18a ± 12.60

yet the flour obtained from these three methods did not have a

H 96.06a ± 1.18 53.64c ± 10.13 50.40c ± 7.64

P 92.38ab ± 4.60 39.46d ± 3.25 35.68d ± 4.71

smaller average particle size than that obtained from the other

RF 86.39b ± 5.02 91.24a ± 1.67 78.83a ± 5.09

methods (see further elaboration below in the particle size analy-

HF 89.68ab ± 4.91 75.34b ± 6.32 67.22b ± 1.95

sis). The freeze grinding process reduced the particle size. The siev-

PF 91.58ab ± 1.61 34.04d ± 3.82 27.36d ± 4.89

ing yield of flour obtained by freeze grinding with the hammer mill

Values shown are the mean ± standard deviation; (n = 3).

resulted in a significantly higher yield than that of the flour ob-

Means with different letters within the same column differ significantly (P < 0.05).
tained by the dry grinding process with an identical grinder; how-

ever no significant divergence was observed for flour obtained

from the grinding processes using the roller mill and the pin mill.

Table 3
The process yield is an indication of the total flour obtained

Average particle size and range and damaged starch from various grinding processes.
from each process. The yields of dry ground flour and freeze

Grinding Average particle Range of particle Damaged starch

ground flour produced using the roller mill were significantly high-

process size (lm) size (lm) (%db)

er than the yields of flour from the other grinding processes. This

W 61.293d ± 3.579 1.905–239.883 2.78c ± 0.12

observation suggests that the roller mill was able to produce a

R 112.242a ± 1.238 1.259–316.228 10.73a ± 0.37

large amount of flour with a particle size less than 150 lm. How-

H 95.054bc ± 0.461 1.445–316.228 11.43a ± 1.10

ever, this does not confirm that these two flours had the smallest

P 99.752b ± 8.484 1.096–316.228 12.36a ± 1.61

RF 110.897a ± 1.997 2.512–316.228 7.21b ± 1.01

particle size. Both the wet ground flour and the freeze ground flour

HF 87.873c ± 4.913 1.445–316.228 5.88b ± 0.90

with the hammer mill had comparable yields. The dry ground flour

PF 104.768ab ± 8.513 3.802–363.078 12.27a ± 1.67

with the hammer mill, the dry ground flour with the pin mill, and

Values shown are the mean ± standard deviation; (n = 3).

the freeze ground flour with the pin mill all had low yields.

Means with different letters within the same column differ significantly (P < 0.05).
The grinding time (Table 1) did not relate to the yield of flour, as

%db = percentage on a dry basis.

the action zone of the grinder was open on either side of both the

inlet and the outlet, so that the samples were not ground in a

closed chamber. If the samples were ground in a closed chamber

the roller mill required more grinding time so, after grinding, the
for a long time, that would affect the flour properties, including

flour had a higher temperature because, in the second round, the

yield. The yield was dependent on (1) the sample fed into the grin-

flour agglomerated after being treated with liquid nitrogen and

der which determines whether there is any lagging of supply to the

that made it rather hard to feed the flour into the roller mill.
action zone, which affects any size reduction; (2) the design of the
action zone of the machinery which differed between machines;

3.2. Yield
(3) the actual grinding system; and (4) the properties of the rice

cultivar.

Table 2 shows that both dry and freeze grinding resulted in sig-

nificantly (P < 0.05) higher grinding yields than wet grinding. The
3.3. Particle size analysis and damaged starch content

wet ground flour yield was 79.02%, whereas the freeze and dry

ground flour yields were between 86% and 96%, respectively, as

Particle size analysis was performed with a mastersizer to re-

in the wet grinding process, more flour was lost in the step of soak-
cord the particle size distribution and to assess the average particle

ing, grinding, removing of excess of water, drying, and regrinding.

size (Table 3 and Fig 1). Flour samples were assessed after the siev-

Yields were not significantly different for the dry and freeze grind-
ing process, so the particles size did not exceed 150 lm. The results

ing but the sieving yield diverged significantly. Freeze grinding

revealed that the wet ground flour was composed of the finest

gave a slightly lower yield than dry grinding with the same grinder,
average particle size and had the smallest range in particle size.

because flour spurted out of the container during the pouring of li-
The average particle size of wet ground flour was 61.293 lm. The

quid nitrogen into the flour prior to the grinding process in the sec-
flour particles resulting from the wet grinding process were found

ond round. Flour obtained after grinding in the second round of

to be finer than from the dry grinding process, which confirmed the

each process was sieved with a 100 mesh sieve to obtain the fine
findings reported by Chen et al. (1999), Solanki et al. (2005), Suk-

flour particle size necessary for the production of many rice based
somboon and Naivikul (2006), and Yeh (2004), and can be clearly

products. The physicochemical properties were subsequently

seen in the particle size distribution graph in Fig 1. The wet ground

examined.
flour consisted of two particle types, with size of 2–20 lm and 20–

----------------------- Page 5-----------------------

636 P. Ngamnikom, S. Songsermpong /

Journal of Food Engineering 104 (2011) 632–638

Fig. 1. Particle size distribution

of rice flour from various grinding types.

Solanki et al. (2005), Suksomboon and Naivikul (2006), and Yeh

Table 4
(2004). The freeze grinding process reduced the damaged starch

Energy used by each grinding process.

content in the flour after using an identical grinder to the one used

Grinding process Electrical energy (kJ) Specific energy

in the dry grinding process. The roller mill reduced the damaged

consumption (kJ/kg)
starch content from 10.73%db to 7.21%db for the dry grinding pro-

W 26,013a ± 158 13,868a ± 5516

cess and freeze grinding process, respectively. The damaged starch

R 1153bc ± 319 801b ± 526

content using the hammer mill reduced from 11.43%db to 5.88%db

H 658d ± 135 420b ± 123

for the dry grinding process and freeze grinding process, respec-

P 1170b ± 204 795b ± 466

tively. Using the pin mill did not produce a significant between

RF 769bcd ± 199 534b ± 333

HF 714cd ± 189 440b ± 59

the damaged starch content for the dry grinding process or the

PF 1144bc ± 303 718b ± 170

freeze grinding process. Since, the rice before grinding in the freeze

grinding process has an extremely low temperature, it is more brit-

Values shown are the mean ± standard deviation; (n = 3).

tle than rice at ambient temperature; it is easily broken and re-

Means with different letters within the same column differ significantly (P < 0.05).

ceives less mechanical action (Fan and Hsu, 1976; Gouveia et al.,
2002; Devi et al., 2009). Therefore, the flour from the freeze grind-

150 lm. Additionally, the particle size distribution showed an in-

ing process had a lower damaged starch content and finer particle

creased volume of fine particle sizes compared with both the dry

size than the dry grinding process based on the results from partic-

grinding process and the freeze grinding processes. Since wet

ular grinding machines (only the hammer mill in this research).

grinding involves a soaking process, rice kernels are softened and

easily broken (Chiang and Yeh, 2002). As for dry and freeze grind-

ing processes, the freeze grinding process not only reduced the
3.4. Energy consumption

average size of the particles but furthermore, increased the volume

of small particles compared with the dry grinding process with

Energy results, based only on the grinding process, are shown in

both the hammer mill and the roller mill. Conversely, the pin mill
Table 4. Wet grinding consumed significantly more electrical en-

might not provide sufficient levels of efficiency. The results in Ta-

ergy and specific energy consumption than the other grinding pro-

ble 3 show that dry and freeze grinding, with the application of
cesses because this method had several processes that used

an identical grinder, did not produce significantly different average

electrical energy, including grinding with the wet grinding

particle sizes. Both the impact force (the main force) and the shear
machinery, removal of excess of water by centrifuging, drying to

force (the minor force) in a hammer mill produce a smaller average

adjust the moisture content, and regrinding with the hammer mill.

particle size than the compressive force of a roller mill (Barbosa-

The electrical energy and specific energy consumption of dry and

Cánovas et al., 2005). Generally, a fine particle size has the highest
freeze grinding with the same grinder were not significantly differ-

swelling power and form a rigid gel structure which results in

ent. Dry and freeze grinding with the hammer mill seemed to use

additional strength in comparison with a coarse particle size (Chen

less electrical energy and have lower specific energy consumption

et al., 2003b; Hatcher et al., 2002).

than the dry and freeze grinding methods. Moreover, flour made by

Flour from wet grinding had significantly the lowest damaged

freeze grinding with the hammer mill had closely fine particle size

starch content of 2.78% on a dry basis (%db), as the water in the

and lower damaged starch content with wet ground flour.

wet grinding process absorbed the heat during grinding, and the
Wet grinding used more energy and water than dry and freeze

plentiful moisture content of the rice kernels resulted in a soft

grinding; therefore, it had a higher cost. Industry needs to treat the

structure. Therefore, the flour is composed of fine particles and

wastewater which results in additional extra cost. Freeze grinding

has a low content of damaged starch (Chiang and Yeh, 2002).

tended to produce flour with a finer particle size and a lower dam-

Wet ground flour normally has a lower volume of damaged starch

aged starch content than dry grinding. The cost of liquid nitrogen

in the flour than dry ground flour, as reported by Chen et al. (1999),
was less than wastewater treatment for mass production. Addi-

----------------------- Page 6-----------------------

P. Ngamnikom, S. Songsermpong /
Journal of Food Engineering 104 (2011) 632–638
637

Fig. 2. Microscopic
structure of rice flour by SEM.

tionally, with the freeze grinding process, the plant area will be
freeze grinding was lower than from wet grinding but the freeze

cleaner than with wet grinding because there is no water. There-

grinding and dry grinding consumed the same energy consump-

fore, freeze grinding is a suitable process to use.

tion with the same grinder. Freeze grinding with the hammer mill

consumed a low amount of energy and resulted in a fine particle

3.5. Microscopic structure

size and low damaged starch content. In summary, the freeze

grinding process provided a suitable alternative to produce rice

Photographs of wet, dry, and freeze ground rice flour are pre-
flour as it uses no water and consumes less energy than the wet

sented in Fig. 2. The microscopic structure of wet ground flour is

grinding process and thus enables an environmentally friendly

composed of both small and large particles. There were a greater

production of rice flour. Additionally, the use of high performance

number of smaller particles than larger particles. The small parti-

equipment in the freeze grinding process may produce a finer par-

cles (starch granules) were generally round in shape with a smooth

ticle size and a lower damaged starch content than was achieved in

surface, whereas the large particles (flour particles) had a rough

this experiment.

surface and irregular shape. Dry and freeze ground flour samples

from each grinder were significantly different in appearance. The

Acknowledgments

freeze ground flour had more sharp breakage angles than the dry

ground flour, resulting from freezing the rice samples before

This research was financially supported by The Office of the

grinding.
Higher Education Commission, Bangkok, Thailand. The scanning

electron microscope photographs were supported by the Agricul-

4. Conclusions
tural and Agro-Industrial Product Improvement Institute, Kasetsart

University, Bangkok, Thailand, and the COAX Group Corporation

The study showed that the freeze grinding process reduced the
Ltd., Bangkok, Thailand. The particle size analysis was carried out

average particle size and the damaged starch content due to the
with a mastersizer, Malvern 2000 that was supported by the Insti-

extremely low temperature of the sample prior to grinding. In par-

tute of Food Research and Product Development, Kasetsart Univer-

ticular, freeze grinding using the hammer mill resulted both in a fi-

sity, Bangkok, Thailand, and Diethelm Ltd., Bangkok, Thailand.

ner particle size and a lower content of damaged starch for the dry

and freeze grinding processes. In the freeze grinding process, the

References
rice had high brittleness and breakage. The freeze grinding resulted

in a smaller flour particle size than from dry grinding resulting in a

American Association of Cereal Chemists (AACC), 2000. Approved Methods of the

greater yield after sieving. The roller mill produced the highest pro-
American Association of Cereal Chemists. Methods: 76-31, 10th ed. American

cess yield of all methods. The freeze grinding process used less
Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul.

Bao, J., Bergman, C.J., 2004. The functionality of rice starch. In:
Eliasson, A. (Ed.),

water in the process and thus, produced less environmentally

Starch in Food: Structure, Functional and Application. CRC Press, Cambridge, pp.

problematic wastewater. Additionally, the energy consumption of

258–292.

----------------------- Page 7-----------------------

638 P. Ngamnikom, S. Songsermpong /

Journal of Food Engineering 104 (2011) 632–638

Barbosa-Cánovas, G.V., Enrique, O.R., Pablo, J., Hong, Y., 2005. Food
Powders: Hatcher, D.W., Anderson, M.J., Desjardins, R.G., Edwards,
N.M., Dexter, J.E., 2002.

Physical Properties, Processing, and Functionality. Kluwer

academic/Plenum Effect of flour particle size and starch
damage on processing and quality of

publishers, New York. pp. 157–173.

white salted noodles. Cereal Chemistry 79 (1), 64–71.

Chen, J.J., Lu, S., Lii, C.Y., 1999. Effect of milling on the
physicochemical Megazyme International Limited, 2008. Starch Damage Assay
Procedure. Megazyme

characteristics of waxy rice in Taiwan. Cereal Chemistry 76 (5), 796–799.

International Ireland Limited. pp. 1–11.

Chen, J.J., Lu, S., Lii, C.Y., 2003a. Physicochemical and morphological
on damaged Naivikul, O., 2004. Rice: Science and Technology.
Kasetsart University Press,

rice starch. Journal of Food and Drug Analysis 11 (4), 283–799.

Bangkok.

Chen, Z., Schols, H.A., Voragen, A.G.J., 2003b. Starch granule size strongly
determines Nishita, K.D., Bean, M.M., 1982. Grinding methods:
their impact on rice flour
 starch noodle processing and noodle quality. Journal of Food Science:
Food properties. Cereal Chemistry 59 (1), 46–49.

Chemistry and Toxicology 5 (68), 1584–1589.

Sharma, P., Chakkaravarthi, A., Singh, V., Subramanian, R., 2008.
Grinding

Chiang, P.Y., Yeh, A.I., 2002. Effect of soaking on wet-milling of rice. Journal of
Cereal characteristics and batter quality of rice in different
wet grinding systems.

Science 35, 85–94.

Journal of Food Engineering 88 (1), 499–506.

Devi, A.F., Fibrianto, K., Torley, P.J., Bhandari, B., 2009. Physical
properties of Solanki, S.N., Subramanian, R., Singh, V., Ali, S.Z., Manohar,
B., 2005. Scope of colloid

cryomilled rice starch. Journal of Cereal Science 1, 1–7.

mill for industrial wet grinding for batter preparation of some Indian
snack

Fan, L.T., Hsu, K.H., 1976. A note on the characterization of cryomilled wheat flour
foods. Journal of Food Engineering 69 (1), 23–30.

by scanning electron microscopy. Cereal Chemistry 53 (6), 979–982.

Suksomboon, A., Naivikul, O., 2006. Effect of dry-and wet-milling
processes on

Gouveia, S.T., Lopes, G.S., Fatibello-Filho, O., Nogueira, A.R.A., Nóbrega,

J.A., 2002. chemical, physicochemical properties and starch molecular
structures of rice

Homogenization of breakfast cereals using cryogenic grinding. Journal of Food

starches. Kasetsart Journal 40, 125–134.

Engineering 51, 59–63.

Yeh, A.-I., 2004. Preparation and applications of rice flour. In: Champagne, E.T.
(Ed.),

Han, Z.H., Campanella, O.H., Mix, N.C., Hamaker, B.R., 2002. Consequence of starch
Rice: Chemistry and Technology, 3rd ed. The American Association of
Cereal

damage on rheological properties of maize starch paste. Cereal

Chemistry 79 Chemists, Inc., pp. 495–539.

(6), 897–901.