1.

Course Introduction and the Atmosphere

1.1 Relevance and importance of meteorology and oceanography
A. Meteorology is the study of the atmosphere and how processes in the atmosphere
determine Earth's weather and climate. It is a very practical science because everyone
is concerned about the weather.
B. Oceanography is a scientific discipline concerned with all aspects of the world's oceans
and seas, including their physical and chemical properties, origin and geology, and life
forms. Oceanographers try to understand and predict how oceans work and help us to
use and conserve their resources. Because the oceans and the atmosphere are linked,
marine meteorology is a related area of expertise.
C. Marine meteorology is a subfield of meteorology that deals with overarching weather
and climate systems, while more specifically honing into the associated oceanographic
conditions in marine environments and the interactions between the ocean and
atmosphere.
D. Importance of meteorology
a. Weather forecasting has a vital role in urban administration. Cities preparing
extreme weather conditions such as tornadoes, and snowstorms to prevent
disasters.
b. Long-term weather forecasting is important for agriculture. Drought can cause
starvation. Meteorology is important for farmers since crops need water to
grow up.
c. Meteorology is also important for both air and marine transportation. Windy
weather effect planes and ships. Lightning can be dangerous for planes. Sea
waves give hard times to ships. Airports stop their operations and ships stay in
harbors in extreme weather conditions.
1.2 Climate and weather
A. Difference between weather and climate is a measure of time
a. Weather is what conditions of the atmosphere are over a short period of time.
b. Climate is how the atmosphere "behaves" over relatively long period of time.
B. Weather is the way the atmosphere is behaving, mainly concerning its effects on life
and human activities. Most people think of weather in terms of temperature, humidity,
precipitation, cloudiness, brightness, visibility, wind, and atmospheric pressure, as in
high and low pressure.
C. Some scientists define climate as the average weather for a particular region and
period, usually taken over 30 years. It's an average pattern of weather for a particular
region. When scientists talk about climate, they're looking at averages of precipitation,
temperature, humidity, sunshine, wind velocity, phenomena such as fog, frost, and hail
storms, and other measures of the weather that occur over a long period in a particular
place.

2. Solar Radiation and Air Temperature

2.1 Solar Radiation
A. Solar radiation provides heat, light, and energy necessary for all living organisms.
Infrared radiation supplies heat to all habitats, on land and in the water 24. Without
 solar radiation, Earth's surface would be about 32°C colder than 25. Solar radiation
provides the necessary heat and light for life on Earth.
B. Solar radiation is radiant (electromagnetic) energy from the sun.
a. It provides light and heat for the Earth and energy for photosynthesis.
b. Radiant energy is necessary for the metabolism of the environment and its
inhabitants.
c. Solar radiation can be captured and turned into useful forms of energy, such as
heat and electricity, using a variety of technologies.
2.2 Air Temperature
A. Air temperature is a measure of how hot or cold the air is. It is the most commonly
measured weather parameter. More specifically, temperature describes the kinetic
energy, or energy of motion, of the gases that make up air. As gas molecules move
more quickly, air temperature increases.
B. The temperature of the air at every place is influenced by:
a. The latitude of the place.
b. The altitude of the place.
c. Distance from the sea.
d. The air-mass circulation.
e. The presence of warm and cold ocean currents.
f. Local aspects.
a. Supporting details
2.3 Air Temperature Reading
A. A measurement of air temperature sometimes referred to as shade temperature or dry
bulb temperature, is the obvious starting point for thermal environment assessments. It
is important that techniques for measuring air temperature exclude the possible effects
of radiant heating or cooling on the sensor
2.4 Air Temperature Unit Conversion
A. The conversion formulas we use are the standard ones that are used in most textbooks.
To convert temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit to Celsius, subtract 32 and multiply by
0.5556 (or 5/9). To convert temperatures in degrees Celsius to Fahrenheit, multiply by
1.8 (or 9/5) and add 32.
a. From to Fahrenheit to Kelvin Fahrenheit (°F) = F∘ F − 32 × 5/9 + 273.15
b. Celsius (°C) = (∘ C × 9/5) + 32∘ C + 273.15
c. Kelvin (K) = (K − 273.15) × 9/5 + 32K

3. Atmospheric Pressure
3.1 Atmospheric Pressure
A. Atmospheric pressure is commonly measured with a barometer. In a barometer, a
column of mercury in a glass tube rises or falls as the weight of the atmosphere changes.
Meteorologists describe the atmospheric pressure by how high the mercury rises.
B. Atmospheric pressure is an indicator of weather.
a. When a low-pressure system moves into an area, it usually leads to cloudiness,
wind, and precipitation.
b. High-pressure systems usually lead to fair, calm weather.
 C. As the pressure decreases, the amount of oxygen available to breathe also decreases. At
very high altitudes, atmospheric pressure and available oxygen get so low that people
can become sick and even die.
3.2 Atmospheric Pressure Reading
A. A barometer is a tool used to measure atmospheric pressure, also called barometric
pressure. It measures atmospheric pressure in units of measurement called
atmospheres or bars. An atmosphere (atm) is a unit of measurement equal to the
average air pressure at sea level at a temperature of 15 degrees Celsius (59 degrees
Fahrenheit). One atmosphere is 1,01 millibars or 760 millimeters (29.92 inches) of
mercury.
B. The number of atmospheres drops as altitude increases because the density of air is
lower and exerts less pressure. As altitude decreases, the density of air increases, as
does the number of atmospheres. Barometers have to be adjusted for changes in
altitude in order to make accurate atmospheric pressure readings.
3.3 Conversion of Units for Atmospheric Pressure
A. Atmospheric pressure is expressed in several different systems of units:
a. Millimeters (or inches) of mercury
b. Pounds per square inch (psi)
c. Dynes per square centimeter
d. Millibars (mb)
e. Standard atmospheres
f. Kilopascals.
B. Standard sea-level pressure, by definition, equals 760 mm (29.92 inches) of mercury,
14.70 pounds per square inch, 1,013.25 × 103 dynes per square centimeter, 1,013.25
millibars, one standard atmosphere, or 101.325 kilopascals. Variations in these values
are quite small; for example, the highest and lowest sea-level pressures ever recorded
are 32.01 inches (in the middle of Siberia) and 25.90 inches (in a typhoon in the South
Pacific). The small variations in pressure that do exist largely determine the wind and
storm patterns of Earth.
3.4 Atmospheric Pressure on the Weather Chart
A. The weather map, also known as a synoptic (summary or overview) chart, is a simple
representation of the weather patterns at the Earth's surface, showing the locations
and movements of the different systems.
B. We use a wide range of weather information from our observations network to prepare
a weather map. This includes observations from over 700 automated weather stations
across Australia, Antarctica, and offshore islands. We also use the information provided
by ships equipped with weather stations, and meteorological drifting buoys. Every day
at over 30 locations we collect information on the upper atmosphere using an
instrument attached to a weather balloon. International satellites supply information
that helps us monitor various weather elements such as the upper air winds or
temperature and moisture profiles of the atmosphere.
C. Weather maps may present the current situation, and what's happened in the past (a
synoptic analysis) or show a forecast for the next few days (a synoptic outlook or
 prognosis). It can be useful to look at multiple maps in sequence to show movement
and change.
4. Wind
4.1 Wind
A. Wind is the movement of air, caused by the uneven heating of the Earth by the sun and
the Earth's own rotation. Winds range from light breezes to natural hazards such as
hurricanes and tornadoes.
B. The daily wind cycle
a. During the day, the air above the land heats up faster than the air above the
water. Warm air above land expands and rises, and heavier, cooler air rushes in
to take its place, creating wind.
b. At night, the winds are reversed because air cools more rapidly over land than it
does over water.
c. In the same way, the atmospheric winds that circle the earth are created
because the land near the earth's equator is hotter than the land near the
North Pole and the South Pole.
C. Wind energy for electricity generation.
a. Wind energy is mainly used to generate electricity. Water-pumping windmills
were once used throughout the United States, and some still operate on farms
and ranches, mainly to supply water for livestock.
4.2 Determining the true speed and direction
A. If you are using a wind meter you can estimate the true wind speed by sailing close-
hauled and subtracting 80% of the boat speed from the apparent wind reading of the
wind meter. That will get you very close. For example, if the apparent wind is 20 knots
and the boat is going 6.2 knots at 45 degrees to the true wind then the true wind is 20 -
6.2 + 1.2 = 15 knots. The calculator says 15.1, which is close enough. (I used True Wind
Speed = Apparent Wind Speed - Boat Speed + .2 * Boat speed rather than Wind Speed =
Apparent Wind Speed - .8 * Boat Speed because the math is easier to do in your head).
4.3 Interpreting wind information the on the weather
A. Weather charts, also known as surface pressure or synoptic charts, contain a lot of
information that helps weather forecasters make predictions about the weather and
sea conditions.
B. Before going to sea, it is always a good idea to study weather charts and work out how
the weather is likely to evolve in the area you plan to sail in.
C. Isobars on a weather chart
a. The circular lines are isobars, similar to contour lines on a land map, and join
areas of equal barometric pressure.
b. Air moves from high to low pressure and when the difference in the pressure is
greater, the airflow or wind will also be greater.
c. Isobars that are close together indicate stronger winds. Isobars that are further
apart indicate lighter winds.
d. The wind scale inset in the top left of the chart helps you to forecast wind
speed.