TC 5

TC 5
EARTHING AND SURGE

PROTECTIO DEVICES
इ रसेट IRISET
TC 5
EARTHING AND SURGE
PROTECTION DEVICES
The Material Presented in this IRISET Notes is for

guidance only. It does not over rule or alter any of the
Provisions contained in Manuals or Railway Board’s
directives
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INDIAN RAILWAY INSTITUTE OF SIGNAL ENGINEERING

AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS
SECUNDERABAD - 500017
February 2020
TC 5
EARTHING AND SURGE PROTECTION DEVICES
INDEX
Page
S.No. Chapter
No.
1 Surges and their effects on S&T Installations

1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 What are Surges?
1.2 How does Lightning take place?
1.3 Physical Effects of Lightning
1.4 Concept of Lightning Protection Zones
2 Fundamentals of Earthing
2.1 Earthing De-mystified 7
2.2 Earth Resistance
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2.3 Pipe Electrode
2.4 Plate Electrode
2.5 Methods of Reducing Earth Resistance
3
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2.6 Ring Earth System
Surge Protection Standard IEC 62305

3.0 IEC 62305 - Lightning protection standard 10
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3.1 Structure of BS EN/IEC 62305
3.2 BS EN/IEC 62305-1 General principles
3.3 Lightning Protection Levels (LPL)
3.4 BS EN/IEC 62305-2 Risk Management
3.5 Non-conventional air termination systems
3.6 Earth termination system
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3.7 External zones

3.8 Internal zones
3.9 Surge Protection Measures (SPM)
3.10 Coordinated SPDs
3.11 Enhanced SPDs
3.12 Conclusion
4 RDSO Specification for Earthing System for Signal and Telecom

Installations
4.1 Introduction 28
4.2 The Objective of Earthing System
4.3 TERMINOLOGY
4.4 Soil Resistivity
4.5 Location of Earth Pit
4.6 Earth Electrodes
4.7 Measurement of Earth Resistance
4.8 Sphere of influence of earth electrode
5 Code of Practice of Earthing and Bonding System for S&T

Installations
5.1 Scope 38
5.2 References for Earthing & Bonding Practices
5.3 Characteristics of Good Earthing System
5.4 Acceptable Earth Resistance value
5.5 Components of Earthing & Bonding system
5.6 Design of Earthing & Bonding system
5.7 Construction of Unit Earth Pit
5.8 Construction of Loop Earth by Providing Multiple Earth Pits
5.10 Inspection Chamber
5.11 Equipotential Earth Busbars
5.12 Bonding Connections
5.13 Drawing of Earthing & Bonding System
6 Surge Protection Devices for Telecom Equipments 46
7 Annexure-I (IEC standards for SPDs) & Annexure-II (Introduction, 50

Classification, Parameters & Protection of SPDs, Calculations to
select SPDs, Some of the surge protection devices)
8 Question Bank 60
9 Abbreviations/Acronyms 64
10 Glossary 65
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Prepared by : Jayarajan D, ILP2
Reviewed by : B. B. K. Murthy, Prof. Tele
Approved by
DTP and Drawings
E : C. Chandrasekhara Sastry, Sr.Prof.-Tele
: K. Srinivas, JE (D)
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Version No. : 1.0, February 2020
No. of Pages : 69
No. of Sheets : 35
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© IRISET
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limited to photocopy, photograph, magnetic, optical or other record without the prior agreement
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http://www.iriset.indianrailways.gov.in
Surges and their Effects on S&T Installations
CHAPTER-1 Back to Content Page
SURGES AND THEIR EFFECTS ON S&T INSTALLATIONS
1.0 Introduction:
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Fig. 1.1 Lightning flash
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Signal and Telecommunication systems such as Electronic Interlocking, Digital Axle Counters,
Track Circuits, ISDN Exchanges, OFC Communication, Data Network, Control Communication,
etc. are functioning round the clock for the safe and smooth running of trains over Indian
Railways. These systems consist of sophisticated devices such as ICs, Microprocessors and
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Microcontrollers and they are prone to transient surge voltage and currents. Hence, it is required
to safeguard these systems from surges so as to ensure uninterrupted service rendered by
them and also to avoid replacement cost due to damages.
1.1 What are surges?
Surges are transient phenomena involving build-up of potentials and flow of currents of
magnitudes several times higher than the normal working voltages and currents, resulting in
partial or complete damage of equipment or reduction in life of components / equipment.
Surges are caused by:
• Lightning discharges
• Switching on/off of inductive loads (for example transformers, relay coils, & motors)
• Ignition and interruption of electric arcs (for example welding process )
• Tripping of fuses and circuit breakers.
• Power transitions in other large equipments on the same power line.
• Malfunctioning caused by the power supply systems.
• Short circuits.
IRISET 1 TC5 - Earthing and Surge Protection Devices

Back to Content Page
1.1.1 Result of surges:
• Interruption of the service rendered by the equipment.

• Replacement cost of the circuit or the equipment.
A study conducted by IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) in several countries

revealed that the loss (cost of damages) due to lightning is very high and is next only to loss
due to negligence in handling equipment (Please refer table 1.1).
Cause % of Total Loss

Negligence 36.1%
Surges 27.4%
Burglaries 12.9%
Floods/Storms 6.9%
Others 16.7%
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Table 1.1 Losses (Cost of Damages) due to various reasons
1.2 How does Lightning take place?

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Lightning takes place due to accumulation of electric charges in cloud mass in atmospheric
conditions that prevail in thunderstorms. Thunderstorms and the resultant lightning have
different mechanisms in tropical regions and temperate regions.
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In tropical regions, thunderstorms are known as heat storms. These are caused by warm air
drifting up pushing down the cold air. This causes formation of single or many ‘cloud cells’
spanning several kilometers.
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In temperate regions, thunderstorms are known as frontal storms. Cloud frontal waves push-up
the warm air. This causes the formation of large number of ‘cloud cells’, each spanning many
kilometers and successively spaced.
Violent up-draught of air through centre of cloud cell causes the following:
1. Ice crystals, which are positively charged

2. Water droplets, which are negatively charged
3. Positive charge centre lies in the upper part of the atmosphere (about 10000 m) & negative
charge centre in lower part (about 5000 m) in case of heat storms in tropical regions
4. Positive charge centre lies in the upper part of the atmosphere (about 6000 m) & negative
charge centre in lower part (about 2500 m) in case of frontal storms in temperate region.
The lower negatively charged part of the cloud electro-statically induces positive charge on the
ground directly below it. More concentration of positive charge takes place on raised structures
such as trees and buildings. On building up of potential, the negative charge will be accelerated
towards the ground and it is called as the ‘Stepped leader’. When lightning begins, a step leader
comes from the cloud to the ground. The step leader is not very bright but it propagates for a
short distance and stops for a while, then proceeds in different direction and stops again. This

process repeats many times, making a zigzag path filled with negative charge. These high
speed electrons ionize air molecules thus providing a conducting path for the stroke. When the
step leader comes close to the ground a strong electric field is created which drives the positive
charge on the ground to neutralize the negative charge in the path. This is called the returning
stroke which is also called as the ‘Streamer’. This returning stroke is much brighter than the step
leader. Hence lightning is the flow of positive ions, mostly from raised structures on earth to the
clouds above. What we see as lightning is a discharge which actually goes from the ground to
the cloud. The returning stroke is the origin of intense light, heat and sound in lightning.
Lightning also takes place within the same cloud and between different clouds. But our concern
is the lightning between cloud and ground which may ruin the S&T equipments partially or
completely.
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Fig.1.2. Types of Lightning

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Fig. 1.3 Cloud to Ground Lightning
●
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Summarizing the lightning process, the following points are noteworthy:
Negative electrical charges build up within clouds

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● Electric field intensification
● Positive charges gather on ground
● Air breakdown leads to stepped Leader
● Further electric field intensification
● Generation of strong upward positive streamer
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● Positive upward streamer meets the downward step leader

● conducting path forms
● Visible lightning flash
1.3 Physical Effects of Lightning
Lightning has the following physical effects:
1. Heating of air up to 30,0000 K (297270 C)

2. Creation of pressure shock wave
3. Flow of current of magnitude 10 kA to 200 kA
4. Heavy potential difference of the order of 1 to 10 Million Volts
Fortunately, the above effects are transients (short lived) and are to be discharged through
suitable protection mechanisms to safeguard electrical and electronic installations.
Surge current due to lightning is expressed in 3 parameters:
1. Surge amplitude
2. Time taken by the surge to reach its maximum value
3. Time taken by the surge to fall to its half max. value

Example: 10 kA, 8/20 micro sec. means surge of 10 KA amplitude, taking 8 micro sec to reach
peak value and 20 micro sec. to fall to half peak value (of 5 kA)
Fig. 1.4 Parameters of surge current
Normally, we encounter surges of 200kA 10/350 micro sec., 50 kA 10/350 micro sec., 15 kA
8/20 micro sec., as per severity of lightning.
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Area under the curve gives the damaging energy of lightning surge.
1.4 Concept of Lightning Protection Zones (LPZs)

Lightning strike can be –
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1. Direct strike on equipment room
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2. Indirect strike (despite use of lightning arrester connected to earth through down conductor)
• Galvanic coupling , through metallic conductor coming in contact with surge
• Capacitance coupling due to capacitive effect caused by parallel surface
• Inductive coupling due to conductors, parallel to surge movement / discharge path
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Hence, the concept of protection zones is to be understood for any electrical installation. Please
refer to fig. 1.5 marking the protection zones and correlate with the description in table
Fig. 1.5 Lightning Protection Zones

Zone Details
LPZ 0A Direct strikes - Full lightning current - Full magnetic field
No direct strikes - Partial lightning or induced current - full magnetic
LPZ 0B
field
No direct strikes - Partial lightning or induced current - Damped
LPZ1
magnetic field
LPZ2 No direct strikes - Induced current - Further damped magnetic field
Table 1.2 Interpretations of Lightning Protection Zones
Having identified the lightning protection zones, what needs to be done is –
1. Provision of equipotential bonding system, comprising of external earthing system joined to

equipotential busbar inside
2. Provision of surge arresters as per specifications, connected to the earthing system
• To filter and clamp the transients at power entry point
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• To ensure stage-wise reduction of surge voltage to harmless level
Earthing system is discussed in chapter-2, surge arrestors in chapter-3 and RDSO

specifications regarding earthing are presented in chapter-4.
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Fundamentals of Earthing
CHAPTER-2 Back to Content Page
FUNDAMENTALS OF EARTHING
2.1 Earthing De-Mystified:
The very first question that crops up on earthing is “Is Earth a good conductor?” Earth, as per
material phenomenon, is a bad conductor. Table 2.1 confirms the same.
Material Resistivity
Copper 1.7 X 10 -8 Ohm. Meter
GI 10 -7 Ohm. Meter
Wet soil 10 Ohm. Meter
Moist soil 100 Ohm. Meter
Dry soil 1000 Ohm. Meter
Bedrock 10000 Ohm. Meter
Table 2.1 Resistivity of various materials
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Then, why at all earthing is done?
We resort to earthing, not because it is a good conductor, but because the earth is ideal
equipotential surface. A very large charge is required to raise potential of earth everywhere. In
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other words, effect of injected fault current is felt only locally. Fault current returns to the source
in case of Generation/Transmission systems and surges bypass equipment in other cases.
Having understood material property and equipotential surface phenomenon of earth, let us turn
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our attention to earth electrodes, i.e. the conductors used for earthing, their shapes, sizes, etc.
2.2 Earth Resistance

2.2.1 What determines Earth Resistance?
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When we talk about earth resistance, two components are to be considered: Electrode
resistance and electrode to earth resistance.
Electrode resistance is the resistance of material used (i.e. in the shape and size of electrode).
Obviously, we have to use metallic bodies like GI/Copper electrodes, to keep electrode
resistance less than 1 Ohm.
The resistance offered by earth to spread electric field is called ‘Electrode to earth resistance’. It
is important because current injected into earth by the electrode causes electric field set-up
which causes potential difference. ‘Electrode to earth resistance’, which depends on soil
resistivity and geometry and size of electrode, is also required to be low to make earth
resistance (electrode resistance plus electrode to earth resistance ) less than 1 Ohm.
Electrode to earth resistance depends on

• Geometry and size of electrode
• Soil resistivity
2.3. Pipe Electrode

In case of pipe electrode, electrode to earth resistance is given by:
R = (ρ / 2πL) [ln {(8L / D) - 1}]

Where L is the length of the electrode in metre, D is the diameter of electrode in metre and ρ is
soil resistivity
From the above formula, it can be easily inferred that electrode material is not of concern in
deciding the value of electrode to earth resistance. If the length of electrode is more, electrode
to earth resistance is less. However, electrode has to be metallic (GI/Copper) to keep electrode
resistance very low, as already discussed in section 2.2.1.
A very important point to be kept in mind is two parallel electrodes not necessarily reduce
electrode to earth resistance to half. If the length of electrode is L, we have to consider soil in
the hemisphere of radius L as the deciding portion of soil for electrode to earth resistance. This
implies each electrode requires exclusive soil in a hemi-sphere of radius L. So, if electrode to
earth resistance with one electrode is R, it can be R/2 with two electrodes only if the electrodes
have separation of 2L.
2.4. Plate Electrode

In case of Plate electrode, electrode to earth resistance is given by:
R = ρ/2πL [ln(8L/T) + ln(L/h)-2+(2h/L)-(h/L)2]
L is length, h is the depth of laying and T is thickness
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As can be seen, L has a major influence, T has minor influence.
For several years, electrical substations were being provided with earthing plates of large area,
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which could not solve problems of high ‘electrode to earth’ resistance. Finally, having
understood the implications of the above formula, electrical engineers started providing
electrode-grids for the sub-stations.
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2.5. Methods of Reducing Earth Resistance:
As Electrode to earth resistance depends on soil resistivity, it has to be reduced. The simplest
way to do so is
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• By adding salt, charcoal and sand mixture to the pit

• By adding earth enhancement material.
• By using a bigger grounding electrode
• By burying the ground electrode as deep as possible
• By having parallel ground electrodes with a distance of 10m between them
Resistivity of different Soils
Type of Soil Resistivity in Ohm-m

Surface soil, loam, etc. 1 - 50
Clay 2 - 100
Sand and gravel 150 - 1000
Surface limestone 100 - 10000
Shale 5 - 100
Sandstone 20 - 2000
Granites, basalts, etc. 1000
Decomposed gneisses 50 - 500
Slates, etc. 10 - 100
Table 2.2

When large number of earth systems is to be taken care of, it is difficult to keep track of re-
treatment. Hence, provision of maintenance free earth is recommended. It essentially consists
of filling the augured earth pit by earth-enhancement material like bentonite clay. For one pit
associated with each pipe electrode, it is recommended to use at least 20 kg of bentonite clay. If
less amount of bentonite clay is used, we may get low value of resistivity initially, but with the
passage of time, the resistivity increases.
2.6. Ring Earth System:
Ring earth system comprises of:
1. Equipotential bonding of earth electrodes planted externally (outside the building) as a ring.
2. Provision of equipotential busbar or ring inside equipment room.
3. Joining the external and internal rings.
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CHAPTER - 3 Back to Content Page
SURGE PROTECTION STANDARD IEC 62305
3.0 IEC 62305 - Lightning protection standard
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland

provided the BS EN/IEC 62305 standard recognised for lightning protection.
Key to BS EN/IEC 62305 is that all considerations for lightning protection are driven by a
comprehensive and complex risk assessment and this assessment not only takes into account
the structure to be protected, but also the services to which the structure is connected. In
essence, structural lightning protection can no longer be considered in isolation, protection
against transient overvoltages or electrical surges is integral to BS EN/IEC 62305.
3.1 Structure of BS EN/IEC 62305
The BS EN/IEC 62305 series consists of four parts, all of which need to be taken into
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consideration. These four parts are:
Part 1: General principles,

Part 2: Risk management, E
Part 3: Physical damage to structures and life hazard, and
Part 4: Electrical and electronic systems within structures
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3.2 BS EN/IEC 62305-1 General principles
This opening part of the BS EN/IEC 62305 suite of standards serves as an introduction to the
further parts of the standard. It classifies the sources and types of damage to be evaluated and
introduces the risks or types of loss to be anticipated as a result of lightning.
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Furthermore, it defines the relationships between damage and loss that form the basis for the
risk assessment calculations in part 2 of the standard.
Lightning current parameters are defined. These are used as the basis for the selection and
implementation of the appropriate protection measures detailed in parts 3 and 4 of the
standard.
Part 1 of the standard also introduces new concepts for consideration when preparing a
lightning protection scheme, such as Lightning Protection Zones (LPZs) and separation
distance.
3.2.1 Damage and loss: BS EN/IEC 62305 identifies four main sources of damage:
S1 Flashes to the structure

S2 Flashes near to the structure
S3 Flashes to a service
S4 Flashes near to a service

Each source of damage may result in one or more of three types of damage:
D1 Injury of living beings due to step and touch voltages

D2 Physical damage (fire, explosion, mechanical destruction, chemical release) due to
lightning current effects including sparking
D3 Failure of internal systems due to Lightning Electromagnetic Impulse (LEMP)
The following types of loss may result from damage due to lightning:
L1 Loss of human life

L2 Loss of service to the public
L3 Loss of cultural heritage
L4 Loss of economic value
Source of Type of Type of

Point of strike
damage damage loss
L1, L4
D1
L1, L2, L3,
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Structure S1 D2
L4
D3
L1, L2, L4
Near a structure S2 D3 L1, L2, L4

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Service connected
to the structure
S3
D1
D2
D3
L1, L4
L1, L2, L3,
L4
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L1, L2, L4
Near a service S4 D3 L1, L2, L4
3.2.2 Scheme design criteria

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The ideal lightning protection for a structure and its connected services would be to enclose the
structure within an earthed and perfectly conducting metallic shield (box), and in addition
provide adequate bonding of any connected services at the entrance point into the shield.
This in essence would prevent the penetration of the lightning current and the induced
electromagnetic field into the structure.
However, in practice it is not possible or indeed cost effective to go to such lengths.
This standard thus sets out a defined set of lightning current parameters where protection
measures, adopted in accordance with its recommendations, will reduce any damage and
consequential loss as a result of a lightning strike. This reduction in damage and consequential
loss is valid provided the lightning strike parameters fall within defined limits, established as
Lightning Protection Levels (LPL).
3.3 Lightning Protection Levels (LPL)
Four protection levels have been determined and each level has a fixed set of maximum and
minimum lightning current parameters. These parameters are shown in table below.

The maximum values have been used in the design of products such as lightning protection
components and Surge Protective Devices (SPDs).
The minimum values of lightning current have been used to derive the rolling sphere radius for
each level.
LPL I II III IV
Maximum Current (kA) 200 150 100 100
Minimum Current (kA) 3 5 10 16
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Fig. 3.1 Types of damage and loss resulting from a lightning strike on or near a structure
3.3.1 Lightning Protection Zones (LPZ)
The concept of Lightning Protection Zones (LPZ) was introduced within BS EN/IEC 62305
particularly to assist in determining the protection measures required to establish protection
measures to counter Lightning Electromagnetic Impulse (LEMP) within a structure.
The general principle is that the equipment requiring protection should be located in an LPZ
whose electromagnetic characteristics are compatible with the equipment stress withstand or
immunity capability.

The concept caters for external zones, with risk of direct lightning stroke (LPZ 0A), or risk of
partial lightning current occurring (LPZ 0B), and levels of protection within internal zones (LPZ 1
& LPZ 2).
In general, the higher the number of the zone (LPZ 2, LPZ 3 etc), the lower the electromagnetic
effects expected. Typically, any sensitive electronic equipment should be located in higher
numbered LPZs and be protected against LEMP by relevant Surge Protection Measures
(SPM).
Figure below highlights the LPZ concept as applied to the structure and to SPM. The concept is
expanded upon in BS EN/IEC 62305-3 and BS EN/IEC 62305-4.
Selection of the most suitable SPM is made using the risk assessment in accordance with BS
EN/IEC 62305-2.
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Fig. 3.2 Lightning Protection Zone (LPZ) Concept
3.4 BS EN/IEC 62305-2 Risk Management:
BS EN/IEC 62305-2 is key to the correct implementation of BS EN/IEC 62305-3 and BS

EN/IEC 62305-4. The assessment and management of risk is significantly more in depth and
extensive.

BS EN/IEC 62305-2 specifically deals with making a risk assessment, the results of which
define the level of Lightning Protection System (LPS) required.
The first stage of the risk assessment is to identify which of the four types of loss (as identified
in BS EN/IEC 62305-1) the structure and its contents can incur. The ultimate aim of the risk
assessment is to quantify and if necessary reduce the relevant primary risks i.e.:
R1: risk of loss of human life

R2: risk of loss of service to the public
R3: risk of loss of cultural heritage
R4: risk of loss of economic value
For each of the first three primary risks, a tolerable risk (RT) is set. Each primary risk (Rn) is
determined through a long series of calculations as defined within the standard. If the actual
risk (Rn) is less than or equal to the tolerable risk (RT), then no protection measures are
needed. If the actual risk (Rn) is greater than its corresponding tolerable risk (RT), then
protection measures must be instigated. The above process is repeated (using new values that
relate to the chosen protection measures) until Rn is less than or equal to its corresponding RT.
It is this reiterative process that decides the choice or indeed Lightning Protection Level (LPL)
of Lightning Protection System (LPS) and Surge Protective Measures (SPM) to counter
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Lightning Electromagnetic impulse (LEMP).
3.4.1 BS EN/IEC 62305-3 Physical damage to structures and life hazard

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This part of the suite of standards deals with protection measures in and around a structure.
The main body of this part of the standard gives guidance on the design of an external
Lightning Protection System (LPS), internal LPS and maintenance and inspection programmes.
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3.4.2 Lightning Protection System (LPS)
BS EN/IEC 62305-1 has defined four Lightning Protection Levels (LPLs) based on probable
minimum and maximum lightning currents. These LPLs equate directly to classes of Lightning
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Protection System (LPS). The greater the LPL, the higher class of LPS is required.
LPL CLASS OF LPS

I I
II II
III III
IV IV
Table: Relation between Lightning Protection Level (LPL) and Class of LPS
The class of LPS to be installed is governed by the result of the risk assessment calculation
highlighted in BS EN/IEC 62305-2.
3.4.3 External LPS design considerations

The lightning protection designer must initially consider the thermal and explosive effects
caused at the point of a lightning strike and the consequences to the structure under
consideration. Depending upon the consequences the designer may choose either of the
following types of external LPS:
a) Isolated b) Non-isolated

An Isolated LPS is typically chosen when the structure is constructed of combustible materials
or presents a risk of explosion.
Conversely a non-isolated system may be fitted where no such danger exists.
An external LPS consists of:

a) Air termination system
b) Down conductor system
c) Earth termination system
These individual elements of an LPS should be connected together using appropriate lightning
protection components (LPC) complying (in the case of BS EN 62305) with BS EN 50164
series (note this BS EN series is due to be superseded by the BS EN/IEC 62561 series). This
will ensure that in the event of a lightning current discharge to the structure, the correct design
and choice of components will minimize any potential damage.
a) Air termination system

The role of an air termination system is to capture the lightning discharge current and dissipate
it harmlessly to earth via the down conductor and earth termination system. Therefore it is
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vitally important to use a correctly designed air termination system.
BS EN/IEC 62305-3 advocates the following, in any combination, for the design of the air
termination:
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i) Air rods (or finials) whether they are free standing masts or linked with conductors to form
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a mesh on the roof
ii) Catenary (or suspended) conductors, whether they are supported by free standing masts or
linked with conductors to form a mesh on the roof
iii) Meshed conductor network that may lie in direct contact with the roof or be suspended
above it (in the event that it is of paramount importance that the roof is not exposed to a
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direct lightning discharge)
The standard makes it quite clear that all types of air termination systems that are used shall
meet the positioning requirements laid down in the body of the standard. It highlights that the
air termination components should be installed on corners, exposed points and edges of the
structure.
The three basic methods recommended for determining the position of the air termination
systems are:
i) The rolling sphere method

ii) The protective angle method
iii) The mesh method
These methods are detailed over the following pages.

i) The rolling sphere method
The rolling sphere method is a simple means of identifying areas of a structure that need
protection, taking into account the possibility of side strikes to the structure. The basic concept
of applying the rolling sphere to a structure is illustrated in Figure.

Fig. 3.3 Application of Rolling Sphere Method
The rolling sphere method was used in BS 6651, the only difference being that in BS EN/IEC
62305 there are different radii of the rolling sphere that correspond to the relevant class of LPS
(see Table).
Class of Rolling Sphere

LPS Radius (m)
T
I 20
II 30
E III
IV
45
60
Maximum values of rolling sphere radius corresponding to the Class of LPS

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This method is suitable for defining zones of protection for all types of structures, particularly
those of complex geometry.
ii) The protective angle method

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The protective angle method is a mathematical simplification of the rolling sphere method. The
protective angle (α) is the angle created between the tip (A) of the vertical rod and a line
projected down to the surface on which the rod sits (see Figure 3.4).
The protective angle afforded by an air rod is clearly a three dimensional concept whereby the
rod is assigned a cone of protection by sweeping the line AC at the angle of protection a full
360º around the air rod.
The protective angle differs with varying height of the air rod and class of LPS. The protective
angle afforded by an air rod is determined from Table of BS EN/IEC 62305-3 (see Figure 3.4).
Varying the protection angle is a change to the simple 45º zone of protection afforded in most
cases in BS 6651. Furthermore the new standard uses the height of the air termination system
above the reference plane, whether that be ground or roof level (See Figure).

Fig. 3.4 The protective angle method for a single air rod
Varying the protection angle is a change to the simple 45º zone of protection afforded in most
cases in BS 6651. Furthermore the new standard uses the height of the air termination system
above the reference plane, whether that be ground or roof level (See Figure).
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Fig.3.5 Determination of the protective angle
Note 1: Not applicable beyond the values marked with only rolling sphere and mesh methods
apply in these cases.
Note 2: h is the height of air-termination above the reference plane of the area to be protected.
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Note 3: The angle will not change for values of h below 2m.
The protective angle method is suitable for simple shaped buildings. However this method is
only valid up to a height equal to the rolling sphere radius of the appropriate LPL.
Fig. 3.6 Effect of the height of the reference plane on the protection angle
iii) The mesh method

This is the method that was most commonly used under the recommendations of BS 6651.
Again, within BS EN/IEC 62305 four different air termination mesh sizes are defined and
correspond to the relevant class of LPS (see Table).
Class of LPS Mesh size (m)

I 5X5
II 10 X 10
III 15 X 15
IV 20 X 20
Maximum values of mesh size corresponding to the Class of LPS
This method is suitable where plain surfaces require protection if the following conditions are
met:
a) Air termination conductors must be positioned at roof edges, roof overhangs and on the
ridges of the roof with a pitch in excess of 1 in 10 (5.7º)
b) No metal installation protrudes above the air termination system
Modern research on lightning inflicted damage has shown that the edges and corners of roofs
are most susceptible to damage.
So, on all structures particularly with flat roofs, perimeter conductors should be installed as
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close to the outer edges of the roof as is practicable.
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Fig. 3.7 Concealed air termination network
As in BS 6651, the current standard permits the use of conductors (whether they be fortuitous
metalwork or dedicated LP conductors) under the roof. Vertical air rods (finials) or strike plates
should be mounted above the roof and connected to the conductor system beneath. The air
rods should be spaced not more than 10 m apart and if strike plates are used as an alternative,
these should be strategically placed over the roof area not more than 5 m apart.
3.5 Non-conventional air termination systems

A lot of technical (and commercial) debate has raged over the years regarding the validity of
the claims made by the proponents of such systems.
This topic was discussed extensively within the technical working groups that compiled BS
EN/IEC 62305. The outcome was to remain with the information housed within this standard.
BS EN/IEC 62305 states unequivocally that the volume or zone of protection afforded by the air
termination system (e.g. air rod) shall be determined only by the real physical dimension of the
air termination system.

This statement is reinforced within the 2011 version of BS EN 62305, by being incorporated in
the body of the standard, rather than forming part of an Annex (Annex A of BS EN/IEC 62305-
3:2006).
Typically if the air rod is 5 m tall then the only claim for the zone of protection afforded by this
air rod would be based on 5 m and the relevant class of LPS and not any enhanced dimension
claimed by some non-conventional air rods.
There is no other standard being contemplated to run in parallel with this standard BS EN/IEC
62305.
3.5.1 Natural components

When metallic roofs are being considered as a natural air termination arrangement, then BS
6651 gave guidance on the minimum thickness and type of material under consideration.
BS EN/IEC 62305-3 gives similar guidance as well as additional information if the roof has to
be considered puncture proof from a lightning discharge (see Table).
Class of LPS Material Thickness Thickness
T
(1) in mm (2) in mm
Lead - 2.0
E Steel (stainless, galvanised) 4 0.5
Titanium 4 0.5
I to IV
Copper 5 0.5
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Aluminium 7 0.65
Zinc - 0.7
Minimum thickness of metal sheets or metal pipes in air termination systems
(1) Thickness ‘t’ prevents puncture, hot spot or ignition.

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(2) Thickness ‘t’ only for metal sheets if it is not important to prevent puncture, hot spot or
ignition problems.
3.5.2 Down conductors:

Down conductors should within the bounds of practical constraints take the most direct route
from the air termination system to the earth termination system. The greater the number of
down conductors the better the lightning current is shared between them. This is enhanced
further by equipotential bonding to the conductive parts of the structure.
Lateral connections sometimes referred to as coronal bands or ring conductors provided either
by fortuitous metal work or external conductors at regular intervals are also encouraged. The
down conductor spacing should correspond with the relevant class of LPS (see Table below).
Class of LPS Typical distances (m)

I 10
II 10
III 15
IV 20
Typical values of the distance between down conductors according to the Class of LPS
There should always be a minimum of two down conductors distributed around the perimeter of
the structure. Down conductors should wherever possible be installed at each exposed corner
of the structure as research has shown these to carry the major part of the lightning current.
3.5.3 Natural components:

BS EN/IEC 62305, like BS 6651, encourages the use of fortuitous metal parts on or within the
structure to be incorporated into the LPS.
Where BS 6651 encouraged an electrical continuity when using reinforcing bars located in
concrete structures, so too does BS EN/IEC 62305-3. Additionally, it states that reinforcing bars
are welded, clamped with suitable connection components or overlapped a minimum of 20
times the rebar diameter. This is to ensure that those reinforcing bars likely to carry lightning
currents have secure connections from one length to the next.
When internal reinforcing bars are required to be connected to external down conductors or
earthing network either of the arrangements shown in Figure 20 is suitable. If the connection
from the bonding conductor to the rebar is to be encased in concrete, then the standard
recommends that two clamps are used, one connected to one length of rebar and the other to a
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different length of rebar. The joints should then be encased by a moisture inhibiting compound
such as Denso tape.
If the reinforcing bars (or structural steel frames) are to be used as down conductors then
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electrical continuity should be ascertained from the air termination system to the earthing
system. For new build structures this can be decided at the early construction stage by using
dedicated reinforcing bars or alternatively to run a dedicated copper conductor from the top of
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the structure to the foundation prior to the pouring of the concrete. This dedicated copper
conductor should be bonded to the adjoining/adjacent reinforcing bars periodically.
If there is doubt as to the route and continuity of the reinforcing bars within existing structures
then an external down conductor system should be installed. These should ideally be bonded
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into the reinforcing network of the structures at the top and bottom of the structure.
Fig. 3.8 Typical methods of bonding to steel reinforcement within concrete

3.6 Earth termination system:

The earth termination system is vital for the dispersion of lightning current safely and effectively
into the ground.
In line with BS 6651, the new standard recommends a single integrated earth termination
system for a structure, combining lightning protection, power and telecommunication systems.
The agreement of the operating authority or owner of the relevant systems should be obtained
prior to any bonding taking place.
A good earth connection should possess the following characteristics:

1. Low electrical resistance between the electrode and the earth. The lower the earth
electrode resistance the more likely the lightning current will choose to flow down that path
in preference to any other, allowing the current to be conducted safely to and dissipated in
the earth
2. Good corrosion resistance. The choice of material for the earth electrode and its
connections is of vital importance. It will be buried in soil for many years so has to be totally
dependable
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The standard advocates a low earthing resistance requirement and points out that it can be
achieved with an overall earth termination system of 10 ohms or less.
a) Type A arrangement
b) Type B arrangement
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Three basic earth electrode arrangements are used.
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c) Foundation earth electrodes
a) Type A arrangement: This consists of horizontal or vertical earth electrodes, connected to
each down conductor fixed on the outside of the structure. This is in essence the earthing
system used in BS 6651, where each down conductor has an earth electrode (rod)
connected to it.
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b) Type B arrangement: This arrangement is essentially a fully connected ring earth

electrode that is sited around the periphery of the structure and is in contact with the
surrounding soil for a minimum of 80% of its total length (i.e. 20% of its overall length may
be housed in say the basement of the structure and not in direct contact with the earth).
c) Foundation earth electrodes: This is essentially a type B earthing arrangement. It
comprises conductors that are installed in the concrete foundation of the structure. If any
additional lengths of electrodes are required they need to meet the same criteria as those
for type B arrangement. Foundation earth electrodes can be used to augment the steel
reinforcing foundation mesh.

Fig. 3.9 A sample of high quality earthing components
3.6.1 Separation (isolation) distance of the external LPS

A separation distance (i.e. the electrical insulation) between the external LPS and the structural
metal parts is essentially required. This will minimize any chance of partial lightning current
being introduced internally in the structure.
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This can be achieved by placing lightning conductors sufficiently far away from any conductive
parts that have routes leading into the structure. So, if the lightning discharge strikes the
lightning conductor, it cannot `bridge the gap’ and flash over to the adjacent metalwork.
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BS EN/IEC 62305 recommends a single integrated earth termination system for a structure,
combining lightning protection, power and telecommunication systems.
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3.6.2 Internal LPS design considerations:
The fundamental role of the internal LPS is to ensure the avoidance of dangerous sparking
occurring within the structure to be protected. This could be due, following a lightning
discharge, to lightning current flowing in the external LPS or indeed other conductive parts of
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the structure and attempting to flash or spark over to internal metallic installations.
Carrying out appropriate equipotential bonding measures or ensuring there is a sufficient

electrical insulation distance between the metallic parts can avoid dangerous sparking between
different metallic parts.
3.6.3 Lightning equipotential bonding:

Equipotential bonding is simply the electrical interconnection of all appropriate metallic
installations/parts, such that in the event of lightning currents flowing, no metallic part is at a
different voltage potential with respect to one another. If the metallic parts are essentially at the
same potential then the risk of sparking or flashover is nullified.
This electrical interconnection can be achieved by natural/fortuitous bonding or by using

specific bonding conductors that are sized according to Tables of BS EN/IEC 62305-3.
Bonding can also be accomplished by the use of surge protective devices (SPDs) where the
direct connection with bonding conductors is not suitable.
Figure (which is based on BS EN/IEC 62305-3 fig E.43) shows a typical example of an
equipotential bonding arrangement. The gas, water and central heating system are all bonded

directly to the equipotential bonding bar located inside but close to an outer wall near ground
level. The power cable is bonded via a suitable SPD, upstream from the electric meter, to the
equipotential bonding bar. This bonding bar should be located close to the main distribution
board (MDB) and also closely connected to the earth termination system with short length
conductors. In larger or extended structures several bonding bars may be required but they
should all be interconnected with each other.
The screen of any antenna cable along with any shielded power supply to electronic appliances
being routed into the structure should also be bonded at the equipotential bar.
Further guidance relating to equipotential bonding, meshed interconnection earthing systems

and SPD selection can be found in the Furse guidebook.
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Fig. 3.10: Example of main equipotential bonding
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3.6.4 BS EN/IEC 62305-4 Electrical and electronic systems within structures:

Electronic systems now pervade almost every aspect of our lives, from the work environment,
through filling the car with petrol and even shopping at the local supermarket. As a society, we
are now heavily reliant on the continuous and efficient running of such systems. The use of
computers, electronic process controls and telecommunications has exploded during the last
two decades. Not only are there more systems in existence, the physical size of the electronics
involved has reduced considerably (smaller size means less energy required to damage
circuits).
BS EN/IEC 62305 accepts that we now live in the electronic age, making LEMP (Lightning
Electromagnetic Impulse) protection for electronic and electrical systems integral to the
standard through part 4. LEMP is the term given to the overall electromagnetic effects of
lightning, including conducted surges (transient overvoltages and currents) and radiated
electromagnetic field effects.
LEMP damage is so prevalent that it is identified as one of the specific types (D3) to be
protected against and that LEMP damage can occur from ALL strike points to the structure or
connected services - direct or indirect. This extended approach also takes into account the
danger of fire or explosion associated with services connected to the structure, e.g. power,
telecoms and other metallic lines.
Lightning is not the only threat…

Transient over voltages caused by electrical switching events are very common and can be a
source of considerable interference. Current flowing through a conductor creates a magnetic
field in which energy is stored. When the current is interrupted or switched off, the energy in the
magnetic field is suddenly released. In an attempt to dissipate itself it becomes a high voltage
transient.
The more stored energy, the larger the resulting transient. Higher currents and longer lengths
of conductor both contribute to more energy stored and also released!
This is why inductive loads such as motors, transformers and electrical drives are all common
causes of switching transients.
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Fig. 3.11 Motors create switching events
Significance of BS EN/IEC 62305-4

Previously transient overvoltage or surge protection was included as an advisory annex in the
BS 6651 standard, with a separate risk assessment. As a result protection was often fitted after
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equipment damage was suffered, often through obligation to insurance companies. However,
the single risk assessment in BS EN/IEC 62305 dictates whether structural and/or LEMP
protection is required hence structural lightning protection cannot now be considered in
isolation from transient overvoltage protection - known as Surge Protective Devices (SPDs)
within this new standard. This in itself is a significant deviation from that of BS 6651.
Indeed, as per BS EN/IEC 62305-3, an LPS system can no longer be fitted without lightning
current or equipotential bonding SPDs to incoming metallic services that have “live cores” -
such as power and telecoms cables - which cannot be directly bonded to earth. Such SPDs are
required to protect against the risk of loss of human life by preventing dangerous sparking that
could present fire or electric shock hazards.
Lightning current or equipotential bonding SPDs are also used on overhead service lines
feeding the structure that are at risk from a direct strike. However, the use of these SPDs alone
“provides no effective protection against failure of sensitive electrical or electronic systems”, to
quote BS EN/IEC 62305 part 4, which is specifically dedicated to the protection of electrical and
electronic systems within structures.
Lightning current SPDs form one part of a coordinated set of SPDs that include overvoltage
SPDs - which are needed in total to effectively protect sensitive electrical and electronic
systems from both lightning and switching transients.
3.6.5 Lightning Protection Zones (LPZs):

Whilst BS 6651 recognised a concept of zoning in Annex C (Location Categories A, B and C),
BS EN/IEC 62305-4 defines the concept of Lightning Protection Zones (LPZs). Figure 12
illustrates the basic LPZ concept defined by protection measures against LEMP as detailed
within part 4.
SPD 0/1 - Lightning Current Protection

SPD 1/2 - Overvoltage Protection
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Connected service directly bonded
E Fig. 3.12 Basic LPZ concept - BS EN/IEC 62305-4
Within a structure a series of LPZs are created to have, or identified as already having,
successively less exposure to the effects of lightning.
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Successive zones use a combination of bonding, shielding and coordinated SPDs to achieve a
significant reduction in LEMP severity, from conducted surge currents and transient
overvoltages, as well as radiated magnetic field effects. Designers coordinate these levels so
that the more sensitive equipment is sited in the more protected zones.
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The LPZs can be split into two categories - 2 external zones (LPZ 0A, LPZ 0B) and usually 2
internal zones (LPZ 1, 2) although further zones can be introduced for a further reduction of the
electromagnetic field and lightning current if required.
3.7 External zones

LPZ 0A is the area subject to direct lightning strokes and therefore may have to carry up to the
full lightning current.
This is typically the roof area of a structure. The full electromagnetic field occurs here.
LPZ 0B is the area not subject to direct lightning strokes and is typically the sidewalls of a
structure.
However the full electromagnetic field still occurs here and conducted partial lightning currents
and switching surges can occur here.
3.8 Internal zones

LPZ 1 is the internal area that is subject to partial lightning currents. The conducted lightning
currents and/or switching surges are reduced compared with the external zones LPZ 0A, LPZ
0B.

This is typically the area where services enter the structure or where the main power
switchboard is located.
LPZ 2 is an internal area that is further located inside the structure where the remnants of
lightning impulse currents and/or switching surges are reduced compared with LPZ 1.
This is typically a screened room or, for mains power, at the sub-distribution board area.
Protection levels within a zone must be coordinated with the immunity characteristics of the
equipment to be protected, i.e., the more sensitive the equipment, the more protected the zone
required.
The existing fabric and layout of a building may make readily apparent zones, or LPZ
techniques may have to be applied to create the required zones.
3.9 Surge Protection Measures (SPM)

Some areas of a structure, such as a screened room, are naturally better protected from
lightning than others and it is possible to extend the more protected zones by careful design of
the LPS, earth bonding of metallic services such as water and gas, and cabling techniques.
However it is the correct installation of coordinated Surge Protective Devices (SPDs) that
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protect equipment from damage as well as ensuring continuity of its operation - critical for
eliminating downtime. These measures in total are referred to as Surge Protection Measures
(SPM) (formerly LEMP Protection Measures System (LPMS)).
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When applying bonding, shielding and SPDs, technical excellence must be balanced with
economic necessity. For new builds, bonding and screening measures can be integrally
designed to form part of the complete SPM. However, for an existing structure, retrofitting a set
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of coordinated SPDs is likely to be the easiest and most cost-effective solution.
3.10 Coordinated SPDs

BS EN/IEC 62305-4 emphasizes the use of coordinated SPDs for the protection of equipment
within their environment. This simply means a series of SPDs whose locations and LEMP
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handling attributes are coordinated in such a way as to protect the equipment in their
environment by reducing the LEMP effects to a safe level. So there may be a heavy duty
lightning current SPD at the service entrance to handle the majority of the surge energy (partial
lightning current from an LPS and/or overhead lines) with the respective transient overvoltage
controlled to safe levels by coordinated plus downstream overvoltage SPDs to protect terminal
equipment including potential damage by switching sources, e.g. large inductive motors.
Appropriate SPDs should be fitted wherever services cross from one LPZ to another.
Coordinated SPDs have to effectively operate together as a cascaded system to protect

equipment in their environment. For example the lightning current SPD at the service entrance
should handle the majority of surge energy, sufficiently relieving the downstream overvoltage
SPDs to control the overvoltage.
Poor coordination could mean that the overvoltage SPDs are subject to too much surge energy
putting both itself and potentially equipment at risk from damage.
Furthermore, voltage protection levels or let-through voltages of installed SPDs must be

coordinated with the insulating withstand voltage of the parts of the installation and the
immunity withstand voltage of electronic equipment.
Note: Appropriate SPDs should be fitted wherever services cross from one LPZ to another.
3.11 Enhanced SPDs
Whilst outright damage to equipment is not desirable, the need to minimize downtime as a
result of loss of operation or malfunction of equipment can also be critical. This is particularly
important for industries that serve the public, be they hospitals, financial institutions,
manufacturing plants or commercial businesses, where the inability to provide their service due
to the loss of operation of equipment would result in significant health and safety and/or
financial consequences.
Standard SPDs may only protect against common mode surges (between live conductors and
earth), providing effective protection against outright damage but not against downtime due to
system disruption.
BS EN 62305 therefore considers the use of enhanced SPDs (SPD*) that further reduce the
risk of damage and malfunction to critical equipment where continuous operation is required.
Installers will therefore need to be much more aware of the application and installation
requirements of SPDs than perhaps they may have been previously.
Superior or enhanced SPDs provide lower (better) let-through voltage protection against surges
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in both common mode and differential mode (between live conductors) and therefore also
provide additional protection over bonding and shielding measures.
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Such enhanced SPDs can even offer up to mains Type 1+2+3 or data/telecom Test Cat
D+C+B protection within one unit. As terminal equipment, e.g. computers, tends to be more
vulnerable to differential mode surges, this additional protection can be a vital consideration.
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Furthermore, the capacity to protect against common and differential mode surges permits
equipment to remain in continued operation during surge activity - offering considerable benefit
to commercial, industrial and public service organizations alike.
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All SPDs offer enhanced SPD performance with industry leading low let-through voltages
(voltage protection level, Up), as this is the best choice to achieve cost-effective, maintenance-
free repeated protection in addition to preventing costly system downtime. Low let-through
voltage protection in all common and differential modes means fewer units are required to
provide protection, which saves on unit and installation costs, as well as installation time.
3.12 Conclusion
Lightning poses a clear threat to a structure but a growing threat to the systems within the
structure due to the increased use and reliance of electrical and electronic equipment. The BS
EN/IEC 62305 series of standards clearly acknowledge this. Structural lightning protection can
no longer be in isolation from transient overvoltage or surge protection of equipment. The use
of enhanced SPDs provides a practical cost-effective means of protection allowing continuous
operation of critical systems during LEMP activity.

RDSO Specifications for Earthing
system for S&T Installations
RDSO SPECIFICATIONS FOR EARTHING SYSTEM

FOR SIGNAL AND TELECOM INSTALLATIONS
4.1 Introduction
RDSO Spec. RDSO/SPN/197/2008 covers the specifications of earthing system for S&T
installation. These are presented in this chapter.
These specifications are based on Indian Standard code of practice for earthing vide IS 3043-
1987.
4.2 The Objective of Earthing System

The main aim of earthing is to maintain a zero potential or zero voltage of all non-current
carrying parts of electrical system which has the probability of electrified by some fault. If by
some means the non-current carrying parts are electrified which is not earthed, the person
touching it will receive a lethal shock. Also sometimes earth is used for carrying current from
one place to another in a circuit such as telegraph systems etc. Thus the purpose of the earth
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may be one or more of the following:
1. To afford safety to personnel against shock by earthing the casing or other exposed parts.
2. To provide a return path as, for example, in block instruments, unbalanced HF serial
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circuits, unbalanced three phase power supply system, etc.
3. To protect equipment against build up of unduly high voltages by earthing protective
devices like surge arrestors and lightning dischargers.
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4. To ensure safe and reliable operation of equipment by eliminating/limiting voltage and
currents due to EMI and RFI by earthing of metallic sheathing and armoring of cables.
5. To provide path for heavy fault currents to ensure effective and quick operation of
protective devices, as in power supply induced systems.
4.2.1 System Earthing & Equipment Earthing

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Earthing associated with current-carrying conductor is normally essential to the security of the
system and is generally known as system earthing, while earthing of non-current carrying metal
work and conductor is essential to the safety of human life, animals and property, and is
generally known as equipment earthing.
4.3 TERMINOLOGY
For the purpose of this document, the following definitions shall apply.
1. Bonding Conductor - A protective conductor providing equipotential bonding.
2. Earth - The conductive mass of the earth, whose electric potential at any point is
conventionally taken as zero.
3. Earth Electrode - A conductor or group of conductors in intimate contact with and

providing an electrical connection to earth.
4. Earthing Conductor - A protective conductor connecting the main earthing terminal (or
the equipotential bonding conductor of an installation when there is no earth bus) to an
earth electrode or to other means of earthing.

5. Earth Grid - A system of grounding electrodes consisting of inter-connected conductors
buried in the earth to provide a common ground for electrical devices and metallic
structures. (Note: The term ‘earth grid’ does not include earth mat’).
6. Earth Mat - A grounding system formed by a grid of horizontally buried conductors and
which serves to dissipate the fault current to earth and also as an equipotential bonding
conductor system.
7. Electrically Independent Earth Electrodes - Earth electrodes located at such a distance

from one another so that the maximum current likely to flow through one of them does not
significantly affect the potential of the other(s).
8. Equipotential Bonding - Electrical connection keeping various exposed conductive parts

and extraneous conductive parts at a substantially equal potential.
9. Equipotential Line or Contour - The locus of points having the same potential at a given
time.
10. Exposed conductive part - A conductive part of equipment which can be touched and
which is not a live part but which may become live under fault conditions.
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11. Functional Earthing - Connection to earth necessary for proper functioning of electrical
equipment.
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12. Main Earthing Terminal - The terminal or bar (which is the equipotential bonding
conductor) provided for the connection of protective conductors and the conductors of
functional earthing, if any, to the means of earthing.
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13. Mutual Resistance of Grounding Electrodes - Equal to the voltage change in one of
them produced by a change of one ampere of direct current in the other and is expressed
in ohms.
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14. Potential Gradient (at a point) - The potential difference per unit length measured in the
direction in which it is maximum.
15. Protective Conductor - A conductor used as a measure of protection against electric

shock and intended for connecting any of the following parts:-
a. Exposed conductive parts,
b. Extraneous conductive parts,
c. Main earthing terminal, and
d. Earthed point of the source or an artificial neutral.
16. Resistance Area (For an Earth Electrode only) - The surface area of ground (around an
earth electrode) on which a significant voltage gradient may exist.
17. Step Voltage - The potential difference between two points on the earth’s surface,
separated by a distance of one pace that will be assumed to be one metre in the direction
of maximum potential gradient.
18. Touch Voltage - The potential difference between grounded metallic structure and a point
on the earth’s surface separated by a distance equal to the normal maximum horizontal
reach, approximately one meter.

4.4 Soil Resistivity: Soil resistivity can be defined as the resistance of a cube of soil of 1 m
size measured between any two opposite faces. The unit in which it is usually expressed is
ohmmeter.
4.4.1 Effect of nature of soil on Soil Resistivity

The resistivity of soil depends upon the moisture content, chemical composition of the soil and
concentration of salts dissolved in the contained moisture. Grain size, mode of distribution and
closeness of packing also affect the resistivity as these factors control the manner in which the
moisture is held in soil. Many of these factors vary locally and some seasonally, and as such
soil resistivity varies not only from location to location but also from season to season. Besides,
the areas where the soil is stratified, the effective resistivity also depends upon the underlying
geological formation.
4.4.2 Effect of moisture content on Soil Resistivity

Moisture content is one of the controlling factors in earth resistivity. Above about 20 percent
moisture, the resistivity is very little affected; while below 20 percent the resistivity increases
very abruptly with decrease in the moisture content. A difference of a few percent moisture will
therefore, make a very marked difference in the effectiveness of earth connection if the moisture
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content falls below 20 percent. The normal moisture content of soil ranges from 10 percent in
dry seasons to 35 percent in wet seasons, and an approximate average may be perhaps 16 to
18 percent. E
4.4.3 Effect of Temperature on Soil Resistivity
Temperature also affects the resistivity of the soil. However, it is of consequence only around
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and below the freezing point, which means that earth electrodes should be installed at depths
where frost cannot penetrate.
The temperature coefficient of resistivity for soil is negative, but is negligible for temperatures
above freezing point. At about 200C, the resistivity change is about 9 percent per degree
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Celsius. Below 00C the water in the soil begins to freeze and introduces a tremendous increase
in the temperature coefficient, so that as the temperature becomes lower the resistivity rises
enormously. It is, therefore, recommended that in areas where the temperature is expected to
be quite low, the earth electrodes should be installed well below the frost line. Where winter
seasons are severe, this may be about 2 meters below the surface, whereas in mild climates
the frost may penetrate only a few centimeters or perhaps the ground may not freeze at all.
Earth electrodes which are not driven below the frost depth may have a very great variation in
resistance throughout the seasons of the year. Even when driven below the frost line, there is
some variation, because the upper soil, when frozen, presents a decided increase in soil
resistivity and has the effect of shortening the active length of electrode in contact with soil of
normal resistivity.
4.5 Location of Earth Pit:

Where there is an option, site should be chosen in one of the following types of soil in the order
of preference given:-
a) Wet marshy ground;
b) Clay, loamy soil, arable land, clayey soil or loam mixed with small quantities of sand;
c) Clay and loam mixed with varying proportions of sand, gravel and stones;
d) Damp and wet sand, peat.
Dry sand, gravel chalk, limestone, granite and very stony ground should be avoided, and also
all locations where virgin rock is very close to the surface.
A site should be chosen that is not naturally well-drained. A water-logged situation is not,
however, essential, unless the soil is sand or gravel, as in general no advantage results from an
increase in moisture content above about 15 to 20 percent. Care should be taken to avoid a
site kept moist by water flowing over it (for example, the bed of stream) as the beneficial salts
may be entirely removed from the soil in such situations.
4.6 Earth Electrodes:

4.6.1 Effect of shape on Electrode Resistance:
With all electrodes other than extended systems, the greater part of the fall in potential occurs in
the soil within a few feet of the electrode surface, since the current density is highest. To obtain
a low overall resistance, the current density should be as low as possible in the medium
adjacent to the electrode, which should be so designed as to cause the current density to
decrease rapidly with distance from the electrode. This requirement is met by making the
dimensions in one direction large compared with those in the other two, thus a pipe, rod or strip
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has a much lower resistance than a plate of equal surface area. The resistance is not, however,
inversely proportional to the surface area of the electrode.
4.6.2 E
Resistance of common types of Earth Electrodes:
Plate Electrode:
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In case of Plate electrode, electrode to earth resistance is given by:
R = ρ/2πL [ln(8L/T) + ln(L/h)-2+(2h/L)-(h/L)2]
L is length of electrode, h is the depth of laying and T is thickness
As can be seen, L has major influence, T has minor influence.
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For several years, electrical substations were being provided with earthing plates of large area,
which could not solve problems of high ‘electrode to earth’ resistance. Finally, having
understood the implications of the above formula, electrical engineers started providing
electrode-grids for the sub-stations.
Strip or Conductor Electrodes:

These have special advantages where high resistivity soil underlies shallow surface layers of
low resistivity. The resistance R is given by:
R= [(100/2 п l) loge (2l2 / w t)] Ohms

Where
ρ = resistivity of the soil (in Ω.m) (assumed uniform)
l = length of the strip in cm;
w = depth of burial of the electrode in cm; and
t = width (in the case of strip) or twice the diameter (for conductors) in cm.
Care should be taken in positioning these electrodes, especially to avoid damage by agricultural
operations.
Earth resistance decreases first sharply and then after slowly with increase in electrode length.
The effect of conductor size and depth over the range normally used is very small.
If several strip electrodes are required for connection in parallel in order to reduce the
resistance, they may be installed in parallel lines or they may radiate from a point. In the former
case, the resistance of two strips at a separation of 2.4m is less than 65 percent of the
individual resistance of either of them.
4.6.3 Selection of metals for Earth-Electrodes:

Although electrode material does not affect initial earth resistance, care should be taken to
select a material that is resistant to corrosion in the type of soil in which it will be used. Tests in
a wide variety of soils have shown that copper, whether tinned or not, is entirely satisfactory
(subject to the precautions given in this sub clause), the average loss in weight of specimens
150mm x 25mm x 3mm buried for 12 years in no case exceed 0.2 percent per year.
Corresponding average losses for unprotected ferrous specimens (for example, cast iron,
wrought iron or mild steel) used in the tests were as high as 2.2 percent per year. Considerable
and apparently permanent protection appears to be given to mild steel by galvanizing. The test
showing galvanized mild steel to be little inferior to copper with an average loss not greater than
0.5 percent per year. Only in a few cases, there was any indication in all these tests that
corrosion was accelerating and in these cases the indications were not very significant.
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4.6.4 Current Density at the surface of an Earth Electrode:
An earth electrode should be designed to have a loading capacity adequate for the system of
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which it forms a part, i.e, it should be capable of dissipating the energy in the earth path at the
point at which it is installed under any condition of operation on the system without failure.
Failure is fundamentally due to excessive temperature rise at the surface of the electrode and is
thus a function of current density and duration as well as electrical and thermal properties of the
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soil.
In general, soils have a negative temperature coefficient of resistance, so that sustained current
loading results in an initial decrease in electrode resistance and consequent rise in the earth
fault current for a given applied voltage. As soil moisture is driven away from the soil-electrode
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interface, however, the resistance increases and will ultimately become infinite if the
temperature-rise is sufficient.
Three conditions of operation require consideration, that is, long-duration loading as with normal
system operation; short-time overloading under fault conditions in directly earthed system, and
long-time over loading under fault conditions in systems protected by arc-suppression coils.
The little experimental work which has been done on this subject by experts at the international
level has been confined to model tests with spherical electrodes in clay or loam of low resistivity
and has led to the following conclusions:
a) Long-duration loading due to normal unbalance of the system will not cause failure of earth-
electrodes, provided that the current density at the electrode surface does not exceed
40A/m2. Limitation to values below this would generally be imposed by the necessity to
secure a low-resistance earth.
b) Time to failure on short-time overload is inversely proportional to the specific loading, which
is given by i2, where i is the current density at the electrode surface. For the soils
investigated, the maximum permissible current density, i is given by
i = 7.57 x 103 / √ (ρ t) A/m2

Where
t = duration of the earth fault (in s) and
ρ = resistivity of the soil (in Ω .m)
Experience indicates that this formula is appropriate for plate electrodes.
4.6.5 Cross Sectional Area Of Protective Conductor:

The cross sectional area of every protective conductor which does not form part of the supply
cable or cable enclosure shall be, in any case, not less than:
a) 2.5 mm2, if mechanical protection is provided and

b) 4 mm2, if mechanical protection is not provided.
4.7 Measurement of Earth Resistance:

• Earth resistance is measured using Earth tester.
• Earth tester is a four terminal instrument with a voltage source and a meter to show
resistance value in ohms.
• It gives soil resistance and electrode resistance but earth electrode resistance can be
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neglected as it is negligible.
• It also consists of accessories like spikes or rods, connecting wires, etc.
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Fig. 4.1. Earth testers
4.7.1 Practical methods of measuring earth resistance:

Following are the methods used in measuring earth resistance
• Fall of potential method which is a three terminal method
• Dead earth method which is a two terminal method
• Clamp on test method
4.7.2 Principle of earth testing:

Earth resistivity is measured using four terminal instruments. Four small sized electrodes are
driven to the same depth and equal distance apart in a straight line as in Fig 4.2. The terminals
C1 & C2 are called current reference electrodes, P1 & P2 are called potential reference
electrodes. Four separate lead wires connect the electrodes to the four terminals of the
instrument. Hence, the name, four terminal method.

Fig. 4.2. Principle of Earth testing
4.7.3 Fall of Potential (3-Terminal) method of measuring Earth Resistance:

In the three terminal method, C1 and P1 are shorted. If the distance between actual earth
electrode (C1) and current reference electrode C2 is 100 feet then the distance between C1 and
P2 should be 62 feet.
The resistance ‘R’ is given by

R=V / I, V is the reading of voltmeter in volts and I is the reading of the ammeter in amperes.
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Fig. 4.3. Fall of potential or three terminal method
Fig. 4.4. Three terminal method of earth resistance method

4.8 Sphere of influence of earth electrode:

The volume of earth mass surrounding the earth electrode in which spreading of electrical
charges takes place is called the sphere of influence and the current radiates in all directions
from the earth electrode. The earth mass surrounding the earth can be imagined to be made up
of shells of equal thickness. The shell closest to the electrode has the smallest area, hence it
has the highest earth resistance and as the shells distance increase from the electrode, the
surface area also increases with decreasing earth resistance.
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Fig. 4.5. Sphere of influence of earth electrode
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Hence care shall be taken while measuring earth resistance that placing of earth rods should be
outside the influence of one another. And even while providing multiple earth pits for reducing
the earth resistance value, the same rule should be followed.
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Fig. 4.6. Wrong placing of C Fig. 4.7. Correct placing of C
4.8.1 Earth resistance with two electrodes

When two earth electrodes are to be provided, then the separation distance between the
electrodes must be equal to twice the length of the electrode or greater than that.
Fig. 4.8. Correct placing of earth electrodes

4.8.2 Dead earth method of measuring earth resistance: (Two terminal method)
This is the simplest method of measuring earth resistance in which water pipe is used as the
second terminal.
In this method C1 is shorted with P1 and P2 with C2. Earth electrode is connected to C1P1 and
water tap is connected to C2P2.
With this method, resistance of two electrodes in series is measured - the driven rod and the
water system.
4.8.3 Precautions to be taken in Dead Earth method are:
1. The water pipe system must be extensive enough to have a negligible resistance.
2. The water pipe system must be metallic throughout, without any insulating couplings or
flanges.
3. The earth electrode under test must be far enough away from the water-pipe system and
to be outside its sphere of influence.
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Fig. 4.9. Earth resistance by Dead Earth method
Note – In most cases, there will be stray currents flowing in the soil and unless some steps are
taken to eliminate their effect, they may produce serious errors in the measured value. If the
testing current is of the same frequency as the stray current, this elimination becomes very
difficult and it is better to use an earth tester incorporating a hand-driven generator. These earth
testers usually generate direct current, and have rotary current-reverser and synchronous
rectifier mounted on the generator shaft so that alternating current is supplied to the test circuit
and the resulting potentials are rectified for measurement by a direct reading moving-coil ohm-
meter. The presence of stray currents in the soil is indicated by wandering of the instrument
pointer, but an increase or decrease of generator handle speed will cause this to disappear.
The source of current shall be isolated from the supply by a double wound transformer.
At the time of test, where possible, the test electrode shall be separated from the earthing
system.

The auxiliary electrodes usually consist of 12.5mm diameter mild steel rod driven up to 1 m into
the ground.
All the test electrodes and the current electrodes shall be so placed that they are independent of
the resistance area of each other. If the test electrode is in the form of rod, pipe or plate, the
auxiliary current electrode C shall be placed at least 30m away from it and the auxiliary potential
electrode B midway between them.
4.8.4 Earth resistance measurement by Clamp-on method:

The fall of potential method of earth testing so far discussed is extremely reliable and highly
accurate. But it has its own drawbacks and they are:
• It is time consuming and labour intensive.
• Individual ground electrodes must be disconnected from the system to be measured.
• There are situations where disconnection is not possible.
The Clamp-on test method performs a stake less test, i.e. no earth probes (spikes) are used.
This is done without disconnecting the earth conductor from the equipment. In this method a
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known voltage is induced in a loop circuit and measures the resultant current flow and calculate
the loop resistance of the circuit. Clamp on earth testing is employed in large electrical and
electronic installations, where earth resistance of large number of earth locations have to be
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measured with minimum labour and without consuming much time.
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Fig. 4.10. Clamp-on earth tester

Code of Practice for Earthing & Bonding
System for S&T Equipments
CODE OF PRACTICE FOR EARTHING AND BONDING SYSTEM

FOR S&T EQUIPMENTS
(RDSO SPECIFICATION NO. RDSO/SPN/197/2008)
5.1 Scope
This document covers earthing & bonding system to be adopted for signalling equipments with
solid state components which are more susceptible to damage due to surges, transients and
over voltages being encountered in the system due to lightning, substation switching, etc. These
signalling equipments include Electronic Interlocking, Integrated Power supply equipment,
Digital Axle counter, Data logger, etc.
5.2 References for Earthing & Bonding Practices
IS 3043 Code of practice for earthing

ANSI/UL 467 Grounding & bonding equipment
IEEE 80 IEEE guide for Safety in AC substation grounding
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Standard for qualifying permanent connections used in
IEEE 837
substation grounding
IEC 62305 E Protection against lightning
Table 5.1 References for Earthing & Bonding Practices
5.3 Characteristics of Good Earthing System

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(a) Excellent Electrical Conductivity
1. Low resistance and electrical impedance.

2. Conductors of sufficient dimensions capable of withstanding high fault currents with no
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evidence of fusing or mechanical deterioration.

3. Lower earth resistance ensures that energy is dissipated into the ground in the safest
possible manner.
4. Lower the earth circuit impedance, the more likely that high frequency lightning impulses
will flow through the ground electrode path, in preference to any other path.
(b) High corrosion resistance

The choice of the material for grounding conductors, electrodes and connections is vital
as most of the grounding system will be buried in the earth's mass for many years.
Copper is the most common material used. In addition to its inherent high conductivity,
copper is usually universal with respect to other metals in association with grounding
sites, which means that it is less likely to corrode in most environments.
(c) Mechanically Robust and Reliable.
5.4 Acceptable Earth Resistance value

The acceptable Earth Resistance at earth busbar shall not be more than 1 ohm.

5.5 Components of Earthing & Bonding system

The components of Earthing & Bonding system are:
(a) Earth electrode
(b) Earth enhancement material
(c) Earth pit
(d) Equipotential earth busbar
(e) connecting cable & tape/strip and
(f) All other associated accessories.
5.6 Design of Earthing & Bonding system

5.6.1 Earth Electrode
Fig. 5.1. Earth electrode
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(a) The earth electrode shall be made of high tensile, low carbon, steel circular rods,
molecularly bonded with copper on outer surface to meet the requirements of Underwriters
Laboratories (UL) 467-2007 or latest. Such copper bonded steel rod is preferred due to its
effectiveness.
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overall combination of strength, corrosion resistance, low resistance path to earth and cost
(b) The earth electrode shall be UL listed and of minimum 17.0mm diameter and minimum
3.0mtrs. long.
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(c) The minimum copper bonding thickness shall be of 250 microns.
(d) Marking: UL marking, Manufacturer’s name or trade name, length, diameter, catalogue
number must be punched on every earth electrode.
(e) Earth electrode can be visually inspected, checked for dimensions and thickness of copper
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coating using micron gauge. The supplier shall arrange for such inspection at the time of
supply, if so desired.
5.6.2 Earth Enhancement Material
Fig. 5.2. Earth enhancement Material
Earth enhancement material is a superior conductive material that improves earthing

effectiveness, especially in areas of poor conductivity (rocky ground, areas with moisture
variation, sandy soils, etc.). It improves conductivity of the earth electrode and ground contact
area. It shall have the following characteristics:

(a) Shall mainly consist of Graphite and Portland cement. Bentonite content shall be negligible.
(b) Shall have high conductivity, improves earth’s absorbing power and humidity retention
capability.
(c) Shall be non-corrosive in nature, having low water solubility but highly hygroscopic.
(d) Shall have resistivity of less than 0.2 ohm-meters. Resistivity shall be tested by making a
20cm cube of the material and checking resistance of the cube at the ends. The supplier
shall arrange for such testing at the time of supply, if so desired. Necessary certificate from
National/ International lab for the resistivity shall also be submitted.
(e) Shall be suitable for installation in dry form or in a slurry form.
(f) Shall not depend on the continuous presence of water to maintain its conductivity.
(g) Shall be permanent & maintenance free and in its “set form”, maintains constant earth
resistance with time.
(h) Shall be thermally stable between -100 C to +600 C ambient temperatures.
(i) Shall not dissolve, decompose or leach out with time.
(j) Shall not require periodic charging treatment nor replacement and maintenance.
(k) Shall be suitable for any kind of electrode and all kinds of soils of different resistivity.
(l) Shall not pollute the soil or local water table and meets environmental friendly requirements
for landfill.
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(m) Shall not be explosive.
(n) Shall not cause burns, irritation to eyes, skin, etc.
(o) Marking: The Earth enhancement material shall be supplied in sealed, moisture proof bags.
These bags shall be marked with Manufacturer’s name or trade name, quantity, etc.
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5.6.3 Backfill Material
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The excavated soil is suitable as a backfill but should be sieved to remove any large stones and
placed around the electrode taking care to ensure that it is well compacted. Material like sand,
salt, coke breeze, cinders and ash shall not be used because of its acidic and corrosive nature.
5.7 Construction of Unit Earth Pit: Refer typical installation drawing no.
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SDO/RDSO/E&B/001.
(a) A hole of 100mm to 125mm dia shall be augured /dug to a depth of about 2.8 meters.
(b) The earth electrode shall be placed into this hole.
(c) It will be penetrated into the soil by gently driving on the top of the rod. Here natural soil is
assumed to be available at the bottom of the electrode so that min. 150 mm of the electrode
shall be inserted in the natural soil.
(d) Earth enhancement material (minimum approx. 30-35 kg) shall be filled into the
augured/dug hole in slurry form and allowed to set. After the material gets set, the diameter
of the composite structure (earth electrode + earth enhancement material) shall be of
minimum 100mm dia covering the entire length of the hole.
(e) Remaining portion of the hole shall be covered by backfill soil, which is taken out during
auguring /digging.
(f) A copper strip of 150mmX25mmX6mm shall be exothermically welded to the main earth
electrode for taking the connection to the main equipotential earth busbar in the equipment
room and to other earth pits, if any.
(g) Exothermic weld material shall be UL listed and tested as per provisions of IEEE 837 by
NABL/ ILAC member labs.
(h) The main earth pit shall be located as near to the main equipotential earth busbar in the
equipment room as possible.

5.8 Construction of Loop Earth by Providing Multiple Earth Pits
(a) At certain locations, it may not be possible to achieve earth resistance of ≤1 ohm with one
earth electrode /pit due to higher soil resistivity. In such cases, provision of loop earth
consisting of more than one earth pit shall be done. The number of pits required shall be
decided based on the resistance achieved for the earth pits already installed. The
procedure mentioned above for one earth pit shall be repeated for other earth pits.
(b) The distance between two successive earth electrodes shall be min. 3mtrs. and max. upto
twice the length of the earth electrode i.e. 6 mtrs. approx.
(c) These earth pits shall then be inter linked using 25X2 mm. copper tape to form a loop
using exothermic welding technique.
(d) The interconnecting tape shall be buried at a depth not less than 500mm below the
ground level. This interconnecting tape shall also be covered with earth enhancing
compound.
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Fig. 5.3. Exothermic welded earth terminal

The earth resistance shall be measured at the Main Equipotential Earth Busbar (MEEB) with all
the earth pits interconnected using Fall of Potential method as per para 37 of IS: 3043 shown
below.
37. MEASUREMENT OF EARTH ELECTRODE RESISTANCE (As per IS: 3043 – 1987)
37.1 Fall of Potential Method - In this method two auxiliary earth electrodes, besides the test
electrode, are placed at suitable distances from the test electrode. A measured current is
passed between the electrode A to be tested and an auxiliary current electrode C and the
potential difference between the electrode A and the auxiliary potential electrode B is measured.
The resistance of the test electrode A is then given by:
R = V/I, where
R = resistance of the test electrode in ohms,
V = reading of the voltmeter in volts, and
I = reading of the ammeter in amperes.
37.1.1 If the test is made at power frequency, that is, 50 c/s, the resistance of the voltmeter
should be high compared to that of the auxiliary potential electrode B and in no case should be
less than 20,000 ohms.
37.1.2 The source of current shall be isolated from the supply by a double wound transformer.
37.1.3 At the time of test, where possible, the test electrode shall be separated from the
earthing system.
37.1.4 The auxiliary electrodes usually consist of 12.5 mm diameter mild steel rod driven up to 1
m into the ground.
37.1.5 All the test electrodes and the current electrodes shall be so placed that they are
independent of the resistance area of each other. If the test electrode is in the form of rod, pipe
or plate, the auxiliary current electrode C shall be placed at least 30 m away from it and 'the
auxiliary potential electrode B midway between them.
37.2 Alternative Method
37.2.1 The method described in 37.1 may not give satisfactory results if the test electrode is of
very low impedance (one ohm or less). This applies particularly, while measuring the combined
resistance of large installations. In these cases, the following method may be adopted.
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37.2.2 Two suitable directions, at least 90 degrees apart, are first selected. The potential lead is
laid in one direction and an electrode is placed 250 to 300 meters, from the fence. The current
lead is taken in the other direction and the current electrode located at the same distance as the
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potential electrode. A reading is taken under this condition. The current electrode is then moved
out in 30-m steps until the same reading is obtained for three consecutive locations. The current
electrode is then left in the last foregoing position and the potential electrode is moved- out in
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30-m steps until three consecutive readings are obtained without a change in value. The last
reading then corresponds to the true value of earth resistance.
5.10 Inspection Chamber

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(a) A 300X300X300 mm (inside dimension) concrete box with smooth cement plaster finish
shall be provided on the top of the pit. A concrete lid, painted black, approx. 50 mm. thick
with pulling hooks, shall be provided to cover the earth pit.
(b) Care shall be taken regarding level of the floor surrounding the earth so that the connector
is not too deep in the masonry or projecting out of it.
(c) On the backside of the cover, date of the testing and average resistance value shall be
written with yellow paint on black background.
5.11 Equipotential Earth Busbars

There shall be one equipotential earth busbar for each of the equipment rooms i.e. IPS/Battery
charger room and EI/Relay room. The equipotential earth busbars located in individual rooms
shall be termed as Sub equipotential busbars (SEEB). The equipotential earth busbar located in
the IPS /Battery charger room and directly connected to Class ‘B’ SPDs and the main earth pit
shall be termed as Main equipotential earth busbar (MEEB).
The EEBs shall have pre-drilled holes of suitable size for termination of bonding conductors.
The EEBs shall be insulated from the building walls. Each EEB shall be installed on the wall
with low voltage insulator spacers of height 60mm. The insulators used shall have suitable
insulating and fire resistant properties for this application. The EEBs shall be installed at a
height of 0.5m from the room floor surface for ease of installation & maintenance. All
terminations on the EEBs shall be by using copper lugs with spring washers.
5.12 Bonding Connections

To minimize the effect of circulating earth loops and to provide equipotential bonding, “star type”
bonding connection is required. As such, each of the SEEBs installed in the rooms shall be
directly connected to MEEB using bonding conductors. Also, equipment/racks in the room shall
be directly connected to its SEEB. The bonding conductors shall be bonded to their respective
lugs by exothermic welding.
5.12.1 All connections i.e., routing of bonding conductors from equipments to SEEB & from
SEEBs to MEEB shall be as short and as direct as possible with min. bends and separated from
other wirings. However, connection from SPD to MEEB shall be as short as possible and
preferably without any bend.
5.12.2 Materials and dimensions of bonding components for connection of individual

equipments with equipotential busbar and earth electrode shall be as given below.
Component/Bonding Material Size

Main equipotential earth busbar Copper 300X25X6 mm
(MEEB) (min.)
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Sub equipotential earth busbar Copper 150X25X6 mm
(SEEB) (min.)
Individual equipments to SEEB Multi-strand single core PVC 10 sq.mm
steel nuts and bolts.

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using copper lugs with stainless
SEEB to MEEB using copper lugs

insulated copper cable as per
IS:694
Multi-strand single core PVC 16 sq.mm
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with stainless steel nuts and bolts. insulated copper cable as per
IS:694
Surge protection devices (SPD) to Multi-strand single core PVC 16sq.mm
MEEB using copper lugs with insulated copper cable as per
stainless steel nuts and bolts. IS:694
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MEEB to main earth electrode Multi-strand single core PVC 35sq.mm

insulated copper cable as per
IS:694 (Duplicated)
Main earth pit to other earth pit in Copper tape 25X2 mm
case of loop earth
Table 5.2 Materials & Dimensions of Bonding
Warranty
The supplier shall be responsible for complete supply, installation & commissioning of earthing
& bonding system. The warranty of such system shall be 60 months from the date of
commissioning. During this period, any failure of earthing system due to improper materials &
bad workmanship shall be attended free of cost by the supplier.
Maintenance of earthing & bonding system

The maintenance schedule should cover verification of earthing system conductors and
components, verification of electrical continuity, measurement of earth resistance, re-fastening
of components and conductors, etc.

5.13 Drawing of Earthing & Bonding System

The complete layout with dimensions of earthing & bonding system shall be submitted by the
supplier after commissioning.
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Fig. 5.4. Earthing arrangement for S & T installations

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Fig. 5.5. Typical earthing and bonding arrangement for signalling installation
Fig. 5.6 Components of Earthing and Bonding

Surge Protection Devices for
Telecommunication Equipments
SURGE PROTECTION DEVICES FOR

TELECOMMUNICATION EQUIPMENTS
(RDSO/SPN/TC/98/2011 Rev.0)
This specification covers selection and testing of surge protection devices for protection of
telecommunication/data line side equipments of Indian Railways. The nomenclature used in this
specification is generally as per IEC 61643-21.
6.1 General Requirements

6.1.1 The device shall conform to IEC 61643-21/ ITU-T K11/12/30 or other equivalent
International/national standards for all the relevant clauses of that standard/recommendation
and generally covering the parameters (or equivalent parameters) given in this specification.
6.1.2 Radioactive materials or other harmful material must not be adopted for protective
devices.
6.1.3 Temperature rise in the operation of device shall not endanger personal safety.
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6.1.4 Electrical characteristics: The manufacturer shall submit the following parametric values
for each model of SPD wherever they are applicable. These values shall be such that they will
•
• Series resistance
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not affect the normal working of intended application:
Insulation resistance
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• Capacitance
• Insertion loss
• Return loss
• Near End crosstalk
• Current response time
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6.2 Terminal and connectors: Terminal and connectors of the SPD shall meet the
requirements as per IEC 61643-21 or other equivalent International/ National standards.
All the surge protective components used in the SPD (like GD tube, PTC, etc.) shall conform to
the relevant ITU/ IEC or any other similar standard/recommendation.
• The pluggable SPDs shall conform to vibration tests in plugged in condition.

• The pluggable SPD shall hold firmly when inserted in the base or IDC module, giving good
electrical connection.
• Insulating parts of the housing shall be non-flammable / self extinguishing.
• The SPD shall reach its overstressed fault mode in a safe manner without causing a fire
hazard, an electrical hazard or emission of toxic fumes.
• All earth leads shall be connected together inside the SPD and extended to the earth when
inserted into the IDC module.
• Plugging in and plugging out the SPD shall not result in degradation of SPD performance.
6.3 Parameters of SPDs to be provided on telecom/data line side of the equipments:

Protection device for the subscriber line of the exchange for protection of subscriber line card.
(To be provided at the first cable termination point nearest to the entry to Exchange room i.e. at
MDF).
The device shall have voltage switching device like GD tube (voltage limiting device) and self
restoring current limiting device like PTC as minimum components.
a) The arrester shall be pluggable into IDC module (insulation displacement connection
module) commonly known as LSA disconnection block or KRONE type MDF/IDF. The
device shall be complete with all accessories like arrangement for extending earth terminal
etc.
b) Maximum Continuous DC voltage: 170 V
c) Nominal Current: 120 mA
d) Total nominal discharge current (8/20 μs pulse): 10 kA
e) Nominal AC discharge / AC durability between line to earth both for current limiting and
voltage limiting devices: 2.5 A rms for 1 sec.
f) Impulse limiting voltage/ Let through Voltage Line – Ground tested at 1 KV/μs pulse: 1000
V
g) DC spark over voltage: 230 V (-20% to +30%)
h) Operating temperature range: -10ºC to +60ºC
i) Relative humidity: 5% to 95%
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j) Degree of ingress protection: IP 20.
k) Bandwidth: 2.3 MHz minimum
l) No of wires: One pair / 10 pairs
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m) The voltage limiting device shall fail in short circuit mode and current limiting device shall
fail in high resistance or open circuit mode.
n) Optional feature (if required by purchaser): Indication for High resistance/ open circuit state
of current limiting device.
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6.4 Protection device for analog ports (2 wire/ 4 wire) of Primary digital Mux (For FXS/
FXO/ hot line/ 4 Wire E & M) to be provided at the first cable termination point nearest to the
entry of PD Mux room. This device can also be used for protection of voice frequency circuits
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working like 2W/4W DTMF telephone, 2W gate telephone. For 4 wire circuits, two 2 wire
devices or one 4 wire device to be used. These devices are to be used for Modems, LAN
Extender also.
Connection method: Screw/ screw less termination / Pluggable device along with base / LSA
termination/ RJ11 (As per purchaser’s requirement).
a) Maximum Continuous DC voltage: 170 V

b) Total nominal discharge current (8/20 μs pulse): 10 kA
c) Impulse limiting voltage/ Let through Voltage Line-Ground tested for 1 KV/μs pulse: 1000 V
d) DC spark over voltage of voltage limiting component: 230 V (-20% to +30%)
e) Operating temperature range: -10ºC to +60ºC
f) Relative humidity: 5% to 95%
g) Degree of ingress protection: IP 20.
h) Bandwidth: 2.3 MHz minimum
i) No of wires : 2 wire / 4 wire
j) The voltage limiting device shall fail in short circuit mode.
k) Nominal load current: Not less than 120 mA.

6.5 Data protection device for connection on the Ethernet LAN (10Base-T, 100 Base –
Tx) for protection of nodes.
a) Max. continuous DC Voltage: 6 V DC

b) Total Nominal discharge current line-Ground (8/20 μs pulse): 2.5 kA
c) Impulse limiting voltage/ Let through Voltage Line-line (1kV/μs pulse): 18 V
d) Impulse limiting voltage/ Let through Voltage Line-Ground (1 KV/μs pulse): 1000 V
g) Degree of protection: IP 20.
h) Connection method: RJ45
i) Bandwidth: 100 MHz
j) No. of wires: 4
6.6 Data protection device for connection on the Ethernet LAN (10Base-T, 100 Base-Tx)
with Power over Ethernet for protection of nodes. This device can be used for IP based
passenger amenities applications also.
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a) Max. continuous DC Voltage: 57 V DC
b) Total Nominal discharge current line-Ground (8/20 μs): 5 kA
c)
d)
e)
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Impulse limiting voltage/ Let through Voltage Line-line (1kV/μs pulse): 180 V
Impulse limiting voltage/ Let through Voltage Line-Ground for (1kV/μs pulse): 1000 V
Operating temperature range: -10ºC to +60ºC
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g) Degree of protection: IP 20 for Indoor application and IP54 for outdoor applications.
j) No. of wires: 8
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6.7 Data protection device (as per IEC 61643-21) for connection on the Gigabit Ethernet
(1000Base -T) for protection of nodes.
a) Max continuous DC Voltage: 3.2 V DC

b) Total Nominal discharge current line-Ground (8/20μs): 2.5 kA
d) Impulse limiting voltage/ Let through Voltage Line-Ground for (1kV/μs pulse): 1000V
e) Operating temperature range : -10ºC to +60ºC
g) Degree of protection: IP 20.
j) No. of wires: 8

6.8 Data protection device for connection on the Gigabit Ethernet (1000Base - T) with
Power over Ethernet for protection of nodes. This can be used for other IP based
passenger amenities application also.
a) Max. Continuous DC Voltage: 57 V DC

b) Total Nominal discharge current line-Ground (8/20μs): 5 kA
d) Impulse limiting voltage/ Let through Voltage Line-Ground (1kV/μs pulse): 1000 V
g) Degree of protection: IP 20 for Indoor application and IP54 for outdoor applications.
j) No. of wires: 8
6.9 Device for protection of RS 485 interfaces.

a) Max continuous DC Voltage: 13 V DC
b) Total Nominal discharge current ((8/20μs) line-Ground: 10 kA
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c) Impulse limiting voltage/ Let through Voltage Line-Line (1kV/μs pulse): 40V
d) Impulse limiting voltage/ Let through Voltage Line-Ground (1kV/μs pulse): 1000 V
f)
g)
h)
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Relative humidity: 5% to 95%
Degree of protection: IP 20 for Indoor application/ IP54 for outdoor applications.
Connection method: screw/screwless terminal
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i) Band width: 5 MHz
j) No of wires to be protected: 2
k) Nominal load current: 100 mA
6.10 Device for protection of 25 watt VHF base station sets, to be provided on coaxial
cable.
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a) Max continuous DC Voltage: 180 V

b) Nominal load Current: 1 Amp
c) Nominal discharge current ((8/20μs) Core-Ground: 10 kA
d) Impulse limiting voltage/ Let through Voltage Core-Ground (1kV/μs pulse): 1000 V
g) Degree of protection: IP 20 for providing near the equipment and IP54 for providing near
antenna.
h) Connector: BNC / N / UHF connector or any other connector (As specified by the
purchaser)
i) Bandwidth: 200 MHz Minimum
j) Insertion loss 0.2 dB maximum in 136-174 MHz
k) Power handling: 50 Watts
l) Characteristic impedance: 50 ohms
6.11 For protection of power supply port of telecom devices working on 230 V AC and
kept in users premises like yard masters room, ASM room, etc.,
a) This device shall be housed to provide Min 3 Nos of 3 pin Indian style sockets.
b) It shall be provided with indication regarding faulty/ healthy condition.

Annexure
ANNEXURE – I Back to Content Page
IEC and other standards regarding SPDs:

Protection against lightning electromagnetic impulse:
IEC 61312 – 1: General principles

IEC 61312 – 2: Shielding, bonding and earthing inside structures.
IEC 61312 – 3: Requirement of surge protective devices.
IEC 61312 – 4: Protection of equipments in existing structures.
IEC 62305-1 Part-1: Protection of structures against lightning, general principles: It
introduces terms and definitions, lightning current parameters, damages due to lightning,
protection needs and measures, basic criteria for protection of structures and services as well
as parameters simulating the effects of lightning on LPS components.
IEC 62305-2 Part-2: Risk Management: It introduces the risk assessment method, the
assessment of risk components for structures and the services.
IEC 62305-3 Part-3: Physical damage and life hazard: It is related to lightning protection
systems (LPS), protection measures against injuries of living beings due to touch and step
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voltages and it offers a guideline for design, installation, maintenance and inspection of LPS.
IEC 62305-4 Part-4: Electric and Electronic systems within structures: It considers the
protection against lightning electromagnetic pulses, general principles, earthing and bonding
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inside structures, magnetic shielding and line routing, requirement of surge protective
devices(SPD), protection of equipments in existing structures.
IEC 62305-5 Part-5: Services: Telecommunication lines (fiber optic lines and metallic
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conductor lines), power lines and pipelines are concerned.
IEC 61643-1: SPD performance requirements and testing methods.
IEC 61643-12: SPD selection and application principles.
IEC 62305-LP: Application of SPDs.
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UL 1449- Edition 3: UL 1449 3rd edition applies to devices used to repeatedly limit transient
voltages on 50/60 Hz circuits 1000 volts and below. This is an increase in voltage from 2nd
edition which covered devices 600 volts and below.
ANSI/IEEE C62-41: The recommended practice covers the origin of surge voltages, rate of
occurrence and voltage levels in unprotected circuits, wave shapes of representative surge
voltages, energy, source and impedance.
AS/NZS 1768-2007: Lightning protection: This standard sets out guidelines for the protection
of persons and property from hazards arising from exposure to lightning. The recommendations
specifically cover the following applications.
(a) The protection of persons, both outdoors, where they may be at risk from the direct
effects of a lightning strike, and indoors, where they may be at risk indirectly as a
consequence of lightning currents being conducted into the building.
(b) The protection of a variety of buildings or structures including those with explosives or
highly flammable contents and mines.
(c) The protection of sensitive electronic equipment (e.g. fax machines, modems, computers)
from over voltages resulting from a lightning strike to the building or its associated
services.

Annexure
ANNEXURE - II
Classification & Parameters of SPDs
A.1 INTRODUCTION:
Classes of SPDs depend on the classes of protection, which in turn depend on the LPZ
(Lightning Protection Zone) under consideration. Classes of SPDs are:
Class-A, Class-B, Class-C and Class-D.
Whatever be the class of SPD, the technical parameters listed in table 3.1 are the parameters
of importance for each SPD.
Parameter Symbol Meaning

It corresponds to the nominal voltage of the system
to be protected. The nominal voltage is indicated in
Nominal Voltage U0 case of surge protective devices for IT installations
for type designation purposes. For AC voltages it is
indicated as RMS value.
It is the RMS value of maximum voltage which may
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be applied to the correspondingly marked terminals
of the surge protective device during operation. It is
Rated Voltage UC
the maximum voltage on the SPD in the defined
non-conductive state which ensures that this state
Temporary Over Voltage

E UT
is regained after response and discharge.
Voltage which can be withstood by SPD (or safely
disconnect) when applied for a specific duration (5
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m sec. or 200 m sec.)
The voltage protection level of a surge protective
device is the max. Instantaneous value of the
Voltage Protection Level UP
voltage on the terminals of a surge protective
device.
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Voltage Withstand UW Insulation withstand level (4 levels 1.5/2/4/6 KV)

It is the standardized impulse current curve, with a
waveform 10/350 milli-sec. its parameters (peak
value, charge, specific power) simulate the loads of
natural lightning currents and combined lightning
Lightning Impulse Current Iimp
current and surge protectors must be capable of
discharging such lightning impulse currents several
times without consequential damage to the
equipment.
It is the peak value of an impulse current,
waveform 8/20 milli-sec, which the surge protective
Nominal Discharge Current In
device rated for, according to a certain test
programme.
Current delivered by the distribution system which
Follow-Up Current If
can be safely extinguished by SPD
Response times generally characterize the
Response Time Tr response performance of the individual protection
elements used in surge protective devices.
Table 3.1 Parameters of SPD

Annexure
A.2. Class- A Protection (Lightning Protection)
Class-A protection is essentially an external lightning conductor on top of building connected to

ground through a down conductor.
As can be seen in fig.1.3, surroundings outside the building fall in LPZ 0 (Lightning Protection
Zone-0). In this zone, 50% of lightning energy is transferred to ground. Balance 50% enters the
building through power service cables, Telecom conductors etc.
Regarding class-A protection, it may please be noted that:
1. Lightning conductor can be single spike / multiple spike / dome.

2. Lightning conductor shall not touch the structure.
3. Down conductor shall be cable rated for HV (50 sq.mm cross section of stranded copper
conductors) for structures of 80m or high (if 60 or more lightning days in a year). For other
places, 40 mm X 6 mm MS flat insulated from building to be used as down conductor.
4. Availability of class-A protection for the buildings is to be ensured by coordinating with
electrical counter parts. It cannot be assumed to be present.
5. Provision of class-A protection for microwave or cellular towers is the responsibility of S&T
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department. For these towers, there is no need to provide down conductor. Tower angles
serve the purpose. However, electrodes to be connected to tower legs and ring-earth to be
provided. This ring is to be joined to external ring of equipment room and internal ring.
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6. If rectangular waveguide is used, the waveguide has no sheathing; hence it has galvanic
connection to the tower body and does not cause flow of surge to equipment. If elliptical
waveguide is used, the sheath insulates the waveguide from tower body. So, any surge
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caught up by waveguide at antenna level can flow to the equipment. To safeguard against
this danger, elliptical waveguides are to be connected to tower body using waveguide
earthing kits. Each kit has copper rope of 1 m length with lugs on both ends. One end is
soldered to waveguide exterior by gently peeling the sheath alone. Other end is bolted to
tower body. Waveguide earthing is to be done at 10 m intervals.
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Fig. 3.1. Class ‘A’ protection

Annexure
A.3. Class- B Protection

Please refer fig.1.3 showing LPZ. Class-B protection is the first stage protection, i.e. before the
equipment, at mains distribution panel. These SPDs operate on arc chopping principle
Lightning currents handled are:
– 10/350 micro sec. pulses
– 100 kA amplitude between N & E
– 50 kA amplitude between R/Y/B phases & N
Class-B SPDs are to be provided between each phase & neutral and neutral & earth.
Parameters of class-B SPDs as per RDSO specifications are tabulated in table 3.2
Parameter Value / Limit

Nominal Voltage (U0) 230 V
Maximum Continuous Operating Voltage (Uc) > 253 V
Temporary Over Voltage (Ut) 300 V
> 50 kA, 10/350 micro sec. for
Lightning Impulse Current Between R/Y/B & N
each phase
Lightning Impulse Current Between N & E > 100 kA, 10/350 micro sec.
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Response Time (Tr) <200 n sec.
Voltage Protection Level (Up) <1.5 kV
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Short Circuit Withstand & Follow Up Current
Extinguishing Capacity Without Back-Up Fuse (Isc)
Operating Temperature / RH
>10 kA
70 o C / 95% RH
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Table 3.2 Parameters of class-B arrestors
The following questions arise in the reader's mind as they go through the table.
1. Why neutral to earth protection has higher rating than phase to neutral protection?
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2. What is meant by follow-up current? Why shall follow-up current be extinguished?
The answers are:

1. If there is a nearby direct strike of lightning, the site goes to higher potential w.r.t.
substation or transformer earth. Hence, neutral to earth protection has higher rating than
phase to neutral protection.
2. The SPD closes path to discharge surge impulse. The power supply system also sends
current through this closed path which is known as ‘Follow-up current’. The magnitude of
follow-up current similar to short-circuit current can cause tripping of CBs, fuses and can
strain the conductors. But, follow-up current rises slowly compared to lightning induced
currents; hence can be and shall be extinguished.
A.4. Class- C Protection
Class-C protection comprises of fast acting MOV to provide effective surge protection with low
let through voltage. It is provided between phase and neutral. Surge rating taken care is 50 kA
8/20 micro sec pulses.

Annexure
Class-C SPD shall be a single compact device. More MOVs in parallel shall never be provided.
Class-C SPD shall have the following additional features:

• Indication (shows red) when device failed.
• Thermal disconnection of device when it starts having heavy leakage current due to
ageing / handling several surges.
• Potential free contact for remote monitoring.
Parameters of class-C SPDs as per RDSO specifications are tabulated in table 3.3
Parameter Value / Limit

Nominal Voltage (U0) 230 V
Maximum Continuous Operating Voltage (Uc) 300 V
> 10 kA, 8/20 micro sec.
Lightning Impulse Current Between R/Y/B & N
for each phase
Response Time (Tr) <25 n sec.
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Voltage Protection Level (Up) <1.6 kV
Operating Temperature / RH 70 o C / 95% RH
E Table 3.3 Parameters of class-C SPDs
Provision of class-B and class-C SPDs is illustrated in fig.3.2

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Fig. 3.2. Provision of class-B and class-C arrestors
It may please be noted that:
1. If supply/data/telecom lines (AC/DC) are carried through overhead lines or cables above
ground to any nearby building or any location outside equipment room, additional Class-C
arrestor shall be used at such location.
2. Total length of conductors used on either side of class B or class C SPD should be less
than 50 cm. Else, use V-type connection as shown in fig.3.2

Annexure
Fig. 3.3. Restriction regarding length of conductors used to connect class-B and class-C SPDs
The conductors used to connect these SPDs have distributed inductance of 1 µH per meter.
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This implies, 1 kV voltage build-up for 1 kA rise in 1 micro sec. Hence, such restriction is to be
observed in their lengths.
3. Size of conductor to connect class-B SPD shall be 16 sq.mm and class-C SPD shall be 6
A.5.
sq.mm.
Class-D Protection
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All external data/ power supply (AC/DC) lines connected to electronic equipment are to be
provided with class-D SPDs at both ends of the conductors.
Class-D SPDs comprise of MOVs and GDTs and combinations. Their ratings are given voltage
(supply) wise. These SPDs shall have the following additional features:
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1. Indication (shows red) when device failed.

2. Thermal disconnection of device when it starts having heavy leakage current due to ageing
/ handling several surges.
3. Potential free contact for remote monitoring.
Parameters of class-D SPDs as per RDSO specifications are tabulated in table 3.4
For various circuits

Parameter
24V 48V 60V 110V 230V
Nominal Voltage (U0) 24V 48V 60V 110V 230V
Max. Continuous Operating
30V 60V 75V 150V 253V
Voltage (Uc)
Rated Load Current (IL) 16A 16A 16A 16A 16A
Nominal Discharge Current (In)
≥700A ≥700A ≥700A ≥2KA ≥2KA
8/20 micro sec
Maximum Discharge Current
≥2 KA ≥2 KA ≥2 KA ≥5 KA ≥5 KA
(Imax) 8/20 micro sec
Voltage Protection Level (Up) ≤200V ≤350V ≤500V ≤700V ≤1100V
Response Time (Tr) ≤25 ns ≤25 ns ≤ 25 ns ≤ 25 ns ≤ 25 ns
Table 3.4 Parameters of class-D SPDs

Annexure
A.6. Power Line Protection

The device for power line protection shall be of Class D type. This shall have an indication
function to indicate the prospective life and failure mode to facilitate the replacement of failed
SPDs. This shall be thermal disconnecting type and equipped with potential free contact for
remote monitoring. This protection shall be in compliance to IEC 61643-1 and VDE -0675 Pt. 6
with the following characteristics:
A.7. Signaling / Data Line Protection

These devices shall preferably have an indication function to indicate the prospective life and
failure mode to facilitate the replacement of failed SPDs. If the device has any component which
comes in series with data/ signalling lines, the module shall have "make before break" feature
so that taking out of pluggable module does not disconnect the line. This protection shall be in
compliance to IEC 61643-21 & VDE 0845 Pt. 3 with the following characteristics:
Parameter For Various Circuits

Nominal Voltage(U0) 5V 12V 24V 48V
Arrester Rated Voltage(UC) 6V 13V 28V 50V
Rated Load Current (IL) ≥250mA ≥250mA ≥250mA ≥250mA
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Total Discharge Current, 8/20 µs (Ln) ≥20KA ≥20KA ≥20KA ≥20KA
Lightning Test Current, 10/350 µs ≥2.5KA ≥2.5KA ≥2.5KA ≥2.5KA
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Voltage Protection Level (UP) ≤10V
Table 3.5
≤18V ≤30V ≤70V
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Note: Minor variations from above given parameters shall be acceptable.
A.8. Calculations to select SPDs:

Case-1: Single Exposed Structure (Please refer fig.3.4)
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Considering availability of class-A protection (lightning protection system comprising of lightning

arrester, down conductor and earthing), 50% of surge can be considered to be passed to
ground. In fact, most of the lightning surge is passed to the ground by a well-provided class-A
system. So, in consideration of 50% surge remaining is to take it with high safety margin.
This implies, Is/2 is remaining where ‘Is’ is surge current due to lightning. So, each of the power
supply lines (3 phases, 4 lines) take 25% of Is/2. This implies, for 200 kA 10/350 micro sec.
surge, each power supply line requires protection against 25 kA, 10/350 micro sec. surge. As
already discussed, phase to neutral SPDs are rated 25 kA, 10/350 micro sec. and neutral to
earth SPDs are rated as 50 kA, 10/350 micro sec.
Fig. 3.4. Determination of SPD rating for single exposed structure

Annexure
Case 2: Two Adjacent Structures with Same Earth Resistance (Refer Fig.3.5)
In this case, surge current on incoming utilities for each building is 50% of Is/2 i.e. Is/4 (since
Is/2 is already passed to earth by class-A protection). So, each power supply line has surge of
1/4th of Is/4 i.e. 12.5 kA, 10/350 micro sec. in case of lightning surge of 200 kA,10/350 micro
sec..
Fig.3.5 Finding SPD rating for two adjacent structures with same earth resistance
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Case-3: Two adjacent structures with different Earth Resistances (refer fig.3.6)
Let Ra, Rb be the earth resistances of the structures A and B respectively. Considering 50% of
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Is is taken care by class-A protection, the surge to be taken care by incoming utility lines of
structures A and B are given by :
Ia = (Is/2) / [1+Ra/Rb] Ib= (Is/2) / [1+Rb/Ra]
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So, if structure-B has higher earth resistance, he is not the sufferer but structure-A is the
sufferer!!!
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Fig.3.6. Two adjacent structures with different earth resistances
Hence, we always provide equipotential bonding of earthing (joining earthing-rings) for adjacent
structures. Here, adjacent means separation below 20 m.
A.9. Electromagnetic immunity class of SPDs: In addition to classes of SPDs discussed so

far, IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) defined electromagnetic immunity classes
of SPDs. These are tabulated in table 3.6

Annexure
As per estimated surge based on number of incoming utility lines, one has to choose rating of
SPD of class-B or C or D as well as its immunity class.
UCC ISC
Class As Per (Withstand open circuit (Withstand short circuit
IEC 61000-4-5 voltage level of 1.2/50 current level of 8/20 micro
micro sec. wave-shape) sec. wave-shape)
1 4 kV 2 kA
2 2 kV 1 kA
3 1 kV 0.5 kA
4 0.5 kV 0.25 kA
Table 3.6 Electromagnetic Immunity Classes of SPDs
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Fig. 3.7. Common mode and Differential mode
Common or asymmetric mode: Perturbations between an active conductor and earth (phase-
earth or neutral-earth), with risk of dielectric damage.
Differential or symmetric mode: Perturbations between active conductors, (phase-phase or

phase-neutral), especially dangerous for electronic equipment.
A.10 Some of the surge protection devices are as given below:
• Spark gaps (air gaps)

• Gas discharge tubes (GDTs)
• Zener diodes (avalanche diodes)
• Metal oxide varistors (MOVs)
• Transobers
• Relays
• Fuses
• PTCR (Positive Temperature Coefficient Resistor)
• TBU (Transient Blocking Unit)

Annexure
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Fig. 3.8. Some of the Class-D Surge Protection Devices
Class B SPD Class C SPD

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Class (BC) SPD Class D SPD
Fig. 3.9. Class B, C, (BC) and D SPD’s

Question Bank
QUESTION BANK Back to Content Page
OBJECTIVE
Chapter-1
1) Surges involve voltages and currents which are ___________________ than the working
voltages and currents.
2) Ice crystals are ___________________ charged whereas water droplets are
__________________ charged.
3) In lightning the air gets heated up to ___________________ degrees Kelvin.
4) The magnitudes of electric currents resulting due to lightning are between
_____________.
5) Lightning results in building up of potentials of the order of _______________.
6) Meaning of 200 KA 10/350 surge _______________________________________.
7) Lightning protection zone LPZ 0A means ____________________________.
8) Lightning protection zone LPZ1 means ____________________________.
9) Which lightning protection zone comes under direct strike? ________________________.
10) Positive charge center lies in ______________________and negative charge center lies
in __________________ part of atmosphere.
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Chapter-2
1) Even though the earth is a bad conductor, the reason for choosing earthing as a
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protective means is because __________________________.
2) Resistivity of dry soil_______________________________.
3) Resistivity of wet soil ______________________________.
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4) The fault currents return to the source in case of ____________________ systems.
5) Electrode to earth resistance has to be very ____________________.
6) The parameter which depends on the shape and size of an electrode is ______________.
7) To keep the electrode to earth resistance value low, the length of electrode has to be
_____________________.
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8) By using two electrodes the earth resistance becomes half only if the distance between
the two electrodes is ______________________.
9) When a strip or plate electrode is used which parameter of it has a major influence on
earth resistance? _____________________.
10) The factors which keep soil resistivity to a lower value are ________________________.
Chapter-3
1) International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) headquartered in ____________.
2) IEC 62305 standards is meant for _______________________________.
3) The selection and implementation of the appropriate protection measures detailed in parts
___ and ____ of IEC 62305.
4) How many protection levels have been determined in IEC 62305 standards?
5) Expand LEMP.__________________________.
6) Direct lightning stroke comes in ___________ zone.
7) The higher the number of the zone, the ______ the electromagnetic effects expected.
8) IEC 62305-2 specifically deals with making a ________________.

Question Bank
Chapter-4
1) The RDSO specification applicable for S&T installations is _______________.
2) The main purpose of providing earthing is to _______________ of all non current carrying
parts.
3) Surge arrestors and lightning dischargers offers protection against the buildup of ______.
4) System earthing is associated with ____________________.
5) Equipment earthing is associated with ______________________.
6) The potential difference between two points on Earth's surface separated by a distance of
1 meter is called ______________________.
7) The potential difference between grounded metallic structure and a point on the earthing
surface is known as __________________ voltage.
8) Mention a factor affecting soil resistivity? ________________________.
9) Mention any single soil used for locating an earth electrode? _________________
10) Method used for measuring earth electrode resistance is __________________.
Chapter-5
1) One of the characteristics of a good earthing system is ___________________________.
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2) Sites not suitable for location of earth electrodes ________________________________.
3) Acceptable earth resistance value at busbar is _________________________________.
4) Mention any two components of earthing & bonding system _______________________.
5) E
Earth electrode shall be made of high tensile, low carbon, steel rods molecularly bonded
with __________ on outer surface.
6) Earth enhancement material should be a _________________________ that improves
earthing effectiveness.
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7) The depth of an earth pit shall be about _______________________ meters.
8) Loop earth is constructed using ______________________________earth pits.
9) MEEB stands for _________________________________________________________.
10) Expansion of SEEB_______________________________________________________.
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SUBJECTIVE
Chapter-1
1) What is surge? And what are its causes?
2) How does lightning take place?
3) What are the physical effects of lightning?
4) In how many ways lightning strike takes place?
5) Mention about lightning protection zones? What is to be done after identifying lightning
protection zones?
6) What are the surge parameters and how are they represented?
Chapter-2
1) Why do we go for earthing even though the earth is a bad conductor?
2) What are the factors that determine earth resistance?
3) Give the values of resistivity of different soils.
4) How can the soil resistivity be reduced? And what is the periodicity of this process and why?
5) When a maintenance-free earth does is required? And how is it prepared?
6) Explain about ring earth system.

Question Bank
Chapter-3
1) Briefly explain Lightning Protection Zones.
2) Explain various lightning protection levels
3) Briefly explain Air Termination System.
4) Explain down conductor
5) Explain Earth termination
Chapter-4
1) What is the objective of earthing system?
2) What is the difference between system earthing and equipment earthing?
3) Define the following terms
a) Bonding conductor b) Earth grid c) Earth mat
4) Explain the following terms
a. Electrically independent earth electrodes b. Equipotential bonding
c. Equipotential line
5) Explain these terms
a) Potential gradient b) Protective conductor
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6) What is the difference between the following terms
a) Step voltage b) Touch voltage
7) What is Soil Resistivity? What are the factors affecting soil resistivity?
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8) What factors do you consider for selecting the location of earth electrode?
9) What are the types of earth electrodes used? And mention the advantages of each.
10) How do you measure earth electrode resistance using fall of potential method? Explain with
diagram.
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Chapter-5
1) What is the importance of earthing?

2) Mention the characteristics of good earthing system.
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3) What are the components needed for earthing and bonding system?
4) Explain the design of earthing and bonding system?
5) What is Unit Earth Pit and how do you construct it?
6) Explain the construction of loop earth.
7) Mention the material and their dimensions of bonding components.
8) What are the characteristics of earth enhancement material?
9) Why common bonding is required for S&T installations?
10) What is chemical earthing?
Chapter-6
1) List out the technical parameters of SPDs.

2) What are the classes of SPDs? And explain about class A protection.
3) Explain about class B protection and its parameters
4) Explain about class C protection and its parameters
5) Explain about class D protection and its parameters
6) Why neutral to earth protection has high rating than phase to neutral protection?
7) What is meant by follow-up current? Why shall it be extinguished?
8) What do you mean by first stage and second stage of protections?

Question Bank
Key to Objective Questions:

Chapter 1:
1. Higher; 2. Positively, Negatively; 3.30000; 4. 10-200kA; 5. 1-10 million volts; 6. 200kA
maximum lightning current, 10µS is rise time and 350µS is fall time; 7. External Protection;
8.Internal protection; 9. LPZ 0A ; 10. Upper, lower.
Chapter 2:
1. Earth is an Equipotential surface; 2. 1000ohm-meter; 3. 10 Ohm-meter;
4. Generation/Transmission; 5. Low; 6. Electrode to earth resistance; 7. More; 8. Twice the
length of electrode; 9. Length; 10. Moisture, minerals and temperature
Chapter 3:
1. Geneva; 2. Protection of structure and associated services; 3. 3 and 4; 4. Four; 5. Lightning
Electromagnetic Impulse; 6. LPZ 0A; 7. Lower; 8. Risk assessment;
Chapter 4:
1. RDSO/SPN/197/2008; 2. To provide zero potential; 3. High current and voltage;
4. Current carrying conductor; 5. Non-current carrying conductor; 6. Step voltage; 7. Touch
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voltage; 8. Temperature; 9. Wet marshy soil; 10. Fall off potential
Chapter 5:
1. Low resistance; 2. Dry sand areas; 3. Less than 1 Ohm; 4. Earth electrode and earth
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enhancement material; 5. Copper; 6. Conductive material; 7. 3 meters; 8. Multiple; 9. Main
Equipotential Earth Busbar; 10. Sub Equipotential Earth Busbar
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Abbreviations/Acronyms
ABBREVIATIONS/ACRONYMS Back to Content Page
ANSI - American National Standards Institute

CB - Circuit Breaker
E - Earth
EBB - Earth Busbar
EMI - Electromagnetic Interference
GDT - Gas Discharge Tube
HV - High Voltage
ISDN - Integrated Services Digital Network
IEC - International Electrotechnical Commission
IEEE - Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IS - International Standards
ITU(T) - International Telecommunications Union (Telecommunication Standardisation Sector)
IDC - Insulation Displacement Contact
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KA - Kilo Ampere
KV - Kilo Voltage
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LPZ - Lightning Protection Zone
LPS - Lightning Protection System
MOV - Metal Oxide Varistor
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MEEB - Main Equipotential Earth Busbar
N - Neutral
OFC - Optic Fibre Cable
PTCR - Positive Temperature Coefficient Resistor
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R/Y/B - Red/Yellow/Blue Phases

RH - Relative Humidity
RFI - Radio Frequency Interference
SPD - Surge Protection Device
SEEB - Sub Equipotential Earth Busbar
TBU - Transient Blocking Unit
UL - Underwriters Laboratory
µH - Micro Henry

Glossary
GLOSSARY Back to Content Page
electrified, 38
A electromagnetic, 11, 12, 13, 14, 23, 25
arable, 30 electrotechnical, 2, 11
arc, 1 environment, 23, 26, 38, 40
arrestor, 6 equipotential, 6, 7, 9, 19, 22, 23, 24, 28, 29,
atmosphere, 2 39, 40, 41, 42, 43
auguring, 40 exothermic, 40, 41, 43
external, 6, 9, 13, 14, 15, 19, 20, 22, 25
B
F
bedrock, 7
bentonite, 9 ferrous, 32
bonding, 44, 45 flash, 4, 10, 22
breakdown, 4 frequency, 36, 38, 42, 47
busbar, 6, 9, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43 fuse, 1
C G
T
catenary, 15 galvanic, 5
charcoal, 8 generator, 36
clay, 8, 9, 30, 32 graphite, 40
coefficient, 30, 32
combustible, 15
composition, 30
E gravel, 8, 30, 31
grounding, 8, 29, 38
H
IS
compound, 20, 41
corrosion, 21, 32, 34, 39 hazards, 24
hemisphere, 8
D humidity, 40, 47, 48, 49
damage, 1, 2, 10, 11, 14, 15, 18, 23, 24, 26, hygroscopic, 40
IR
27, 31, 38
I
deterioration, 38
differential, 27 impulse, 11, 12, 14, 23, 26, 38, 47, 48, 49
discharge, 1, 3, 4, 5, 15, 19, 22, 28, 47, 48, ingress, 47
49 ionize, 3
dispersion, 21
displacement, 47 L
disruption, 27 lemp, 11, 12, 13, 14, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27
dissipate, 15, 21, 24, 38, 39 lightning, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14,
dissolve, 30, 40 15, 18, 19, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28,
downtime, 26, 27 38
droplets, 2
M
E
magnitude, 1, 4
earth, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 15, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, malfunction, 1, 27
28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 35, 36, 37, measurement, 33, 36, 37, 41, 43
38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47 microns, 39
earthing, 6, 7, 8, 20, 21, 23, 28, 29, 31, 36,
38, 39, 43, 44
effects, 4, 11, 13, 14, 23, 25, 26
Glossary
P T
parameters, 4, 10, 11, 46 temperate, 2
phase, 28 temperature, 30, 32, 40, 46, 47, 48, 49
portland, 40 transient, 1, 4, 6, 10, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27
protective, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 22, 24, 26,
28, 29, 33, 46 U
pulse, 47, 48, 49 underwriters, 39
R V
resistivity, 7, 8, 9, 30, 31, 32, 33, 40, 41
W
S weld, 40, 43
specification, 6, 28, 38, 46
surge, 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 12, 13, 14, 22, 24,
25, 26, 27, 28, 38, 43, 46
streamer, 3, 4
E T
IS
IR

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EARTHING AND SURGE

The Material Presented in this IRISET Notes is for

INDIAN RAILWAY INSTITUTE OF SIGNAL ENGINEERING

1 Surges and their effects on S&T Installations

Surge Protection Standard IEC 62305

3.7 External zones

4 RDSO Specification for Earthing System for Signal and Telecom

5 Code of Practice of Earthing and Bonding System for S&T

6 Surge Protection Devices for Telecom Equipments 46

7 Annexure-I (IEC standards for SPDs) & Annexure-II (Introduction, 50

CHAPTER-1 Back to Content Page

SURGES AND THEIR EFFECTS ON S&T INSTALLATIONS

1.1 What are surges?

Surges are caused by:

IRISET 1 TC5 - Earthing and Surge Protection Devices

1.1.1 Result of surges:

• Interruption of the service rendered by the equipment.

A study conducted by IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) in several countries

Cause % of Total Loss

1.2 How does Lightning take place?

1. Ice crystals, which are positively charged

IRISET 2 TC5 - Earthing and Surge Protection Devices

Fig.1.2. Types of Lightning

IRISET 3 TC5 - Earthing and Surge Protection Devices

Negative electrical charges build up within clouds

● Positive upward streamer meets the downward step leader

1.3 Physical Effects of Lightning

Lightning has the following physical effects:

1. Heating of air up to 30,0000 K (297270 C)

IRISET 4 TC5 - Earthing and Surge Protection Devices

Fig. 1.4 Parameters of surge current

1.4 Concept of Lightning Protection Zones (LPZs)

Fig. 1.5 Lightning Protection Zones

IRISET 5 TC5 - Earthing and Surge Protection Devices

Table 1.2 Interpretations of Lightning Protection Zones

Having identified the lightning protection zones, what needs to be done is –

1. Provision of equipotential bonding system, comprising of external earthing system joined to

Earthing system is discussed in chapter-2, surge arrestors in chapter-3 and RDSO

IRISET 6 TC5 - Earthing and Surge Protection Devices

CHAPTER-2 Back to Content Page

Table 2.1 Resistivity of various materials

2.2 Earth Resistance

Electrode to earth resistance depends on

2.3. Pipe Electrode

IRISET 7 TC5 - Earthing and Surge Protection Devices

2.4. Plate Electrode

• By adding salt, charcoal and sand mixture to the pit

Resistivity of different Soils

Type of Soil Resistivity in Ohm-m

IRISET 8 TC5 - Earthing and Surge Protection Devices

2.6. Ring Earth System:

Ring earth system comprises of:

IRISET 9 TC5 - Earthing and Surge Protection Devices

CHAPTER - 3 Back to Content Page

SURGE PROTECTION STANDARD IEC 62305

3.0 IEC 62305 - Lightning protection standard

International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland

3.1 Structure of BS EN/IEC 62305

Part 1: General principles,

S1 Flashes to the structure

IRISET 10 TC5 - Earthing and Surge Protection Devices