Electrical Circuits

Fundamentals of Electric Circuits
Chapter 1
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
One of the most important rules to remember and apply when working in any field
of technology is to use the correct units when substituting numbers into an
equation. Too often we are so intent on obtaining a numerical solution that we
overlook checking the units associated with the numbers being substituted into an
equation. Results obtained, therefore, are often meaningless.
SYSTEMS OF UNITS
The systems of units in the past was commonly used the English and Metric
System , the metric is subdivided into two interrelated standards: MKS system uses
Meters, Kilograms, and Seconds, while the CGS system uses Centimeters, Grams,
and Seconds.
Understandably, the use of more than one system of units in a world that finds
itself continually shrinking in size, due to advanced technological developments in
communications and transportation would introduce unnecessary complications to
the basic understanding of any technical data. The need for a standard set of units
to be adopted by all nations has become increasingly obvious. The International
Bureau of Weights and Measures located in Sèvres, France, has been the host of
the General Conference of Weights and Measures, attended by representatives
from all world nations. In 1960, the General Conference adopted a system called
Le Système International d’Unités (International System of Units), which has the
international abbreviation SI. Since then, it has been adopted by the Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. (IEEE) in 1965 and by the United States
of America Standards Institute in 1967 as a standard for all scientific and
engineering literature.
POWERS OF TEN
It should be apparent from the relative magnitude of the various units of
measurement that very large and very small numbers are frequently encountered in
Chapter 1,2
EE200 - Hakim TREKI 1|Page
the sciences. To ease the difficulty of mathematical operations with numbers of

such varying size, powers of ten are usually employed. This notation takes full
advantage of the mathematical properties of powers of ten. The notation used to
represent numbers that are integer powers of ten is as follows:
1 = 100 1/10 = 0.1 = 10-1

10 = 101 1/100 = 0.01 = 10-2
100 = 102 1/1000 = 0.001 = 10-3
1000 = 103 1/10,000 = 0.0001 = 10-4
Prefixes
Multiplication Factors SI Prefix SI Symbol
18
1 000 000 000 000 000 000 =10 exa E
1 000 000 000 000 000 =1015 peta P
1 000 000 000 000 =1012 tera T
1 000 000 000 =109 giga G
1 000 000 =106 mega M
1 000 =103 kilo K
0.001 =10-3 milli m
0. 000 001 =10-6 micro 𝝁
0. 000 000 001 =10-9 nano n
0. 000 000 000 001 =10-12 pico P
0. 000 000 000 000 001 =10-15 femto F
0. 000 000 000 000 000 001 =10-18 atto a
 CONVERSION BETWEEN LEVELS OF POWERS OF TEN

 CONVERSION WITHIN AND BETWEEN SYSTEMS OF UNITS
 SYMBOLS
 CONVERSION TABLES.
Chapter 1,2
Chapter 2
VOLTAGE AND CURRENT
The foundation for the study of electricity/electronics has been established, the
concepts of voltage and current can be studied.
The term voltage is encountered practically every day. We are aware that most
outlets in our homes are 220 volts. Although current may be a less familiar term,
but we know what happens when we place too many appliances on the same outlet.
Also It is fairly knowledge that current is something that moves through the wire,
Current heats up the coils of an electric heater or the range of an electric stove; it
generates light when passing through the filament of a bulb
In this chapter, the basic impact of current and voltage and the properties of
each are introduced and discussed in some detail.
2.1 ATOMS AND THEIR STRUCTURE

A basic understanding of the fundamental concepts of current and voltage requires
a degree of familiarity with the atom and its structure. The atom made up of two
basic particles, the proton, and the electron, The nucleus also contains neutrons,
which are slightly heavier than protons and have no
electrical charge., in the relative positions shown in
Fig. 2.1(a). The nucleus of the atom is the proton,
a positively charged particle. while the nucleus also
contains neutrons which have a neutral charge
The orbiting electron carries a negative charge
equal in magnitude to the positive charge of the
proton.
If the electron gains sufficient energy from the

surrounding medium to leave the parent atom, it is
called a free electron.
Chapter 1,2
2.2 VOLTAGE:
The positive region created by separating the free electron from the basic
atomic structure is called a positive ion. If the free electron then leaves the vicinity
of the parent atom, regions of positive and negative charge have been established.
This separation of charge to establish regions of positive and negative charge is the
action that occurs in every battery. Through chemical action, a heavy concentration
of positive charge (positive ions) is established at the positive terminal, with an
equally heavy concentration of negative charge (electrons) at the negative terminal.
Every source of voltage is established by simply creating a separation of positive

and negative charges.
If you want to create a voltage level of any magnitude, simply establish a region of
positive and negative charge. The more the required voltage, the greater the
quantity of positive and negative charge.
Since it would be inconsequential to talk about the voltage established by the
separation of a single electron, a package of electrons called a coulomb (C) of
charge was defined as follows:
One coulomb of charge is the total charge associated with 6.242 X 1018 electrons.
A coulomb of positive charge would have the same magnitude but opposite
polarity.
if we take a coulomb of negative charge near the surface of the positive charge and
move it toward the negative charge, energy must be expended to overcome the
repulsive forces of the larger negative charge and the attractive forces of the
positive charge. In the process of moving the charge from point a to point b .
If a total of 1 joule (J) of energy is used to move the negative charge of 1 coulomb
(C), there is a difference of 1 volt (V) between the two points.
The defining equation is

𝑊 V = volts (V)
𝑉= W = joules (J)
𝑄 Q = coulombs (C)
𝑊 = 𝑉𝑄 ( joules, J)
𝑊
𝑄= (Q coulombs , C)
𝑉
Chapter 1,2
2.3 CURRET :
Using the coulomb as the unit of charge, the current in amperes can be determined
using the following equation:
𝑄 I = ampere (A)
𝐼= Q = coulombs (C)
𝑡 t = time (s)
𝑄 = 𝐼𝑡 (Q coulombs)
𝑄
𝑡= (seconds , s)
𝐼
the applied voltage (or potential difference) in an electrical/ electronics system is

the “pressure” to set the system in motion, and the current is the reaction to that
pressure.
Chapter 1,2
Chapter Four
Charge and Current
The concept of electric charge is the underlying principle for explaining all
electrical phenomena. Also, the most basic quantity in an electric circuit is the
electric charge.
‫ضا هي الكمية األساسية في‬ً ‫ أي‬.‫مفهوم الشحنة الكهربائية هو المبدأ األساسي لشرح جميع الظواهر الكهربائية‬
. ‫الدائرة الكهربائية‬
The Charge : is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which matter
consists, measured in coulombs (C).
. (C) ‫ وتقاس بوحدة الكولوم‬، ‫الشحنة هي خاصية كهربائية للجسيمات الذرية التي تتكون منها المادة‬
We now consider the flow of electric charges. A unique feature of electric charge
or electricity is the fact that it is mobile; that is, it can be transferred from one place
to another, where it can be converted to another form of energy.
‫ السمة الفريدة للشحنة الكهربائية أو الكهرباء هي أنها متحركة‬.‫نحن ننظر اآلن في تدفق الشحنات الكهربائية‬
. ‫؛ بمعنى أنه يمكن نقلها من مكان إلى آخر حيث يمكن تحويلها إلى شكل آخر من أشكال الطاقة‬
When a conducting wire (consisting of several atoms) is connected to a battery (a
source of electromotive force), the charges are compelled to move; positive
charges move in one direction while negative charges move in the opposite
direction. This motion of charges
creates an electric current. It is
conventional to take the current flow
as the movement of positive charges.
That is, opposite to the flow of
negative charges, as Fig. illustrates.
This convention was introduced by
Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790), the American scientist and inventor.
‫ فإن‬، )‫عندما يتم توصيل سلك موصل (يتكون من عدة ذرات) ببطارية (مصدر للقوة الدافعة الكهربائية‬
‫الشحنات تضطر إلى التحرك ؛ تتحرك الشحنات الموجبة في اتجاه واحد بينما تتحرك الشحنات السالبة في‬
‫ من المعتاد اعتبار تدفق التيار كحركة شحنات‬.‫تيارا كهربائيًا‬
ً ‫ تولد حركة الشحنات هذه‬.‫االتجاه المعاكس‬
‫ قدم هذه االتفاقية العالم والمخترع‬.‫ كما يوضح الشكل السابق‬، ‫ أي عكس تدفق الشحنات السالبة‬.‫موجبة‬
.)1790-1706( ‫األمريكي بنجامين فرانكلين‬
Chapter 4
Although we now know that current in metallic conductors is due to negatively

charged electrons, we will follow the universally accepted convention that current
is the flow of positive charges.
‫ فإننا‬، ‫على الرغم من أننا نعلم اآلن أن التيار في الموصالت المعدنية ناتج عن إلكترونات سالبة الشحنة‬
.‫سوف نتبع العرف المقبول عالميًا بأن التيار هو تدفق الشحنات الموجبة‬
Electric current due to flow of electric charge in a conductor.

. ‫التيار الكهربائي بسبب تدفق الشحنة الكهربائية في الموصل‬
Electric current : is the time rate of change of charge, measured in amperes (A).
. (A) ‫ ويقاس باألمبير‬، ‫ هو المعدل الزمني لتغير الشحنة‬: ‫التيار الكهربائي‬
𝑑𝑞
𝑖≜
𝑑𝑡
1 ampere = 1 coulomb/second
Direct current (DC) is a current that Alternating current (AC) is a current

remains constant with time. that varies sinusoidal with time.
A convention is a standard way of describing something so that others in the profession can understand
what we mean. We will be using IEEE conventions throughout this course.
Chapter 4
Voltage
Moving the electron in a conductor in a particular direction requires some work or
energy transfer.
.‫يتطلب تحريك اإللكترون في موصل في اتجاه معين بعض العمل أو نقل الطاقة‬
This work is performed by an external electromotive force (emf), typically

represented by the battery. This emf is also known as voltage or potential
difference. The voltage between two points a and b in an electric circuit is the
energy (or work) needed to move a unit charge from a to b; mathematically,
emf ‫ يُعرف‬.‫ وعادة ما تمثلها البطارية‬، )emf( ‫يتم تنفيذ هذا العمل بواسطة قوة دافعة كهربائية خارجية‬
‫ في دائرة كهربائية هو الطاقة (أو الشغل) الالزمة‬b ‫ و‬a ‫ضا باسم فرق الجهد أو الجهد بين النقطتين‬ً ‫أي‬
ً ‫ ؛ رياضيا‬b ‫ إلى‬a ‫لتحريك شحنة الوحدة من‬
𝑑𝑤
𝑣𝑎𝑏 ≜
𝑑𝑞
where 𝑤 is energy in joules (J) and 𝑞 is charge in coulombs (C). The voltage 𝑣 is
measured in volts (v), named in honor of the Italian physicist Alessandro Antonio
Volta (1745–1827), who invented the first voltaic battery. Then
1 volt = 1 joule/coulomb = 1 newton-meter/coulomb
‫ الذي سمي على‬، )V( ‫ يُقاس الجهد 𝑣 بالفولت‬.)C( ‫) و 𝑞 شحنة بالكولوم‬J( ‫ هي الطاقة بالجول‬w ‫حيث‬
‫ إذن‬.‫ الذي اخترع أول بطارية فولتية‬، )1827-1745( ‫شرف الفيزيائي اإليطالي أليساندرو أنطونيو فولتا‬
‫ كولوم‬/ ‫ نيوتن – متر‬1 = ‫ كولوم‬/ )J( ‫𝑣 بالفولت = الجول‬
Voltage (or potential difference) is the energy required to move a

unit charge through an element, measured in volts (V).
، ‫الجهد (أو فرق الجهد) هو الطاقة المطلوبة لتحريك شحنة الوحدة من خالل عنصر‬
.)V( ‫مقاسة بالفولت‬
The voltage across an element (rectangular block) connected to points a and b. The
(+) and (-) signs are used to define voltage polarity.
‫( لتحديد قطبية‬-)and (+) ‫ يتم استخدام االشارة‬.b ‫ و‬a ‫الجهد عبر عنصر (كتلة مستطيلة) متصل بالنقطتين‬
.‫الجهد‬
Chapter 4
Power and Energy

Although current and voltage are the two basic variables in an electric circuit, they
are not sufficient by themselves. We need to know how much power an electric
device can handle. We know that a 100-watt bulb gives more light than a 60-watt
bulb. We also know that when we pay our bills to the electric companies with
energy, we are paying for the electric energy consumed over a certain period of
time. Thus, power and energy calculations are important in circuit analysis.
‫ إال أنهما ليسا كافيين في‬، ‫على الرغم من أن التيار والجهد هما المتغيرين األساسيين في الدائرة الكهربائية‬
‫ نحن نعلم أن مصباح‬.‫ نحتاج إلى معرفة مقدار الطاقة التي يمكن لجهاز كهربائي التعامل معها‬.‫حد ذاتهما‬
‫ضا أنه عندما ندفع فواتيرنا لشركات الكهرباء‬ ً ‫ نعلم أي‬.‫ وات‬60 ‫ وات تعطي إضاءة أكثر من مصباح‬100
‫ فإن حسابات‬، ‫ وبالتالي‬.‫ فإننا ندفع مقابل الطاقة الكهربائية المستهلكة خالل فترة زمنية معينة‬، ‫بالطاقة‬
.‫الطاقة والطاقة مهمة في تحليل الدائرة‬
Power : is an indication of how much WORK can be accomplished in a specified

amount of time “ a rate of doing work “
It is the rate , per unit time , at which electrical energy is transferred by an
electrical circuit , measured by watt , one joule per second
1 watt (W) = 1 joule per second (J/s)
"‫ هي إشارة إلى مقدار العمل الذي يمكن إنجازه في فترة زمنية محددة "معدل أداء العمل‬:‫القوة‬
، ‫ التي يتم عندها نقل الطاقة الكهربائية بواسطة دائرة كهربائية‬، ‫ لكل وحدة زمنية‬، ‫ هو المعدل‬:‫تعريف أخر‬
‫ جول واحد في الثانية‬، ‫مقاسة بالوات‬
The term power is applied to provide an indication of how much work (energy
conversion) can be accomplished in a specified amount of time; that is, power is a
rate of doing work.
، ‫مصطلح الطاقة لتوفير إشارة إلى مقدار العمل (تحويل الطاقة) الذي يمكن إنجازه في فترة زمنية محددة ؛‬
.‫القوة هي معدل إنجاز العمل‬
Energy : is the flow of electric charge. It is a rate of doing work or applying force
to produce energy to move an object over a period of time.
‫ هو معدل العمل أو تطبيق القوة إلنتاج الطاقة لتحريك جسم خالل فترة‬.‫الطاقة هي تدفق الشحنة الكهربائية‬
.‫زمنية‬
Energy measured in joules or watt-second
Chapter 4
James watt introduce horsepower (hp) who was instrumental in establishing the
standards for power measurements. He introduced horsepower (hp) as a measure of
the average power of a strong dory horse over a full working day.
1 horsepower ≅ 746 watts
𝑊
𝑃=
𝑡
𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉 = 𝐼𝐸
𝑉2
𝑃=
𝑅
𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝑊ℎ) = 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑤) ∗ 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑡)
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑤) ∗ 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑡)

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝑘𝑊ℎ) =
1000
Efficiency
Input Energy = output Energy + lost Energy
𝑃𝑖/𝑝 = 𝑃𝑜/𝑝 + 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑦 ( 𝜂 ) = 𝑥 100
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝜂𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝜂1 ∗ 𝜂2 ∗ 𝜂3 ∗ … … .∗ 𝜂𝑛
Power Example 4.6 - 4.9
Efficiency Example 4.10 - 4.14
Energy Example 4.16 - 4.19
Chapter 4
OHM’S LAW
‫إن أي فعل له فعل معاكس وينتج عنهما تأثير ذلك الفعل‬
𝐶𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 =
𝑂𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
In electric circuits, the effect is the flow of charge or current. The

potential difference, or voltage, between two points, is the cause
(“pressure”), and the opposition is the resistance encountered. ‫مثلث أوم‬
‫ أو الجهد‬، Potential Difference ‫ فرق الجهد‬.‫ التأثير هو تدفق الشحنة أو التيار‬، ‫في الدوائر الكهربائية‬
‫ والتأثير المعاكس هو الذي يسمي بالمقاومة‬، )"‫ هو السبب ("الضغط‬، ‫ بين نقطتين‬، Voltage
.‫ التي واجهتها‬Resistance
‫ أو‬، Potential Difference ‫في الدوائر الكهربائية إن الفعل ما بين نقطتين يعطي فرق في الجهد يسمي‬
‫ ذلك الجهد يؤدي الي سريان الشحنات الكهربائية‬Resistance ‫والذي يسبب في المقاومة‬Voltage ‫الجهد‬
. Current ‫والذي يعطي تيار‬
Ohm’s law : State the current through a conductor between two points is directly
proportional to the voltage across that two points.
Potential Difference
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
Resistance
𝐸 =𝐼∗𝑅 ( volts, V )
𝐸
𝐼=𝑅 (amperes, A)
𝐸
𝑅= (ohms, Ω)
𝐼
‫ يعرف بأن التيار المار من خالل موصل بين نقطتين يتناسب طرديًا مع الجهد عبر هاتين‬: ‫قانون أوم‬
.‫النقطتين‬
Example 4.1 - 4.4
Chapter 4
Chapter Five
SERIES NETWORKS
Series Circuits
The battery in Fig. below , by virtue of the potential difference between its
terminals, has the ability to cause (or “pressure”) charge to flow through the simple
circuit. The positive terminal attracts
the electrons through the wire at the
same rate at which electrons are
supplied by the negative terminal. As
long as the battery is connected to the
circuit and maintains its terminal
characteristics, the current (dc) through
the circuit will not change in magnitude or direction.
‫ بالقدرة على التأثير (أو "الضغط") في‬، ‫ بحكم فرق الجهد بين أطرافها‬، ‫تتمتع البطارية في الشكل العلوي‬
‫ يجذب الطرف الموجب اإللكترونات عبر السلك بنفس معدل تزويد‬. ‫تدفق الشحن عبر الدائرة البسيطة‬
‫ طالما أن البطارية متصلة بالدائرة‬.‫اإللكترونات من خالل الطرف السالب‬
‫) عبر الدائرة لن يتغير في‬dc( ‫ فإن التيار‬، ‫وتحافظ على خصائصها الطرفية‬
.‫الحجم أو االتجاه‬
If we consider the wire to be an ideal conductor (that is,
having no opposition to flow), the potential difference V
across the resistor equals the applied voltage of the battery:
V (volts) = E (volts).
‫ا‬
‫ عبر‬V ‫ فإن فرق الجهد‬، )‫موصال مثالياا (أي ليس لديه مقاومة‬ ‫إذا اعتبرنا السلك‬
.)‫ (فولت‬E = )‫ (فولت‬V :‫المقاومة يساوي الجهد المنبعث من البطارية‬
𝐸
𝐸 =𝐼∗𝑅 ( volts, V )
𝐸
𝑅= (ohms, Ω)
𝐼
The current is limited only by the resistor R. The higher the resistance, the less the
current, and conversely, as determined by Ohm’s law.
‫ على النحو الذي‬، ‫ والعكس بالعكس‬، ‫ قل التيار‬، ‫ فكلما زادت المقاومة‬.R ‫يقتصر التيار فقط على المقاومة‬
.‫يحدده قانون أوم‬
Chapter 5
For voltage source dc circuits, The current flow always

from a low potential to a high potential when passing
through a voltage source, as shown in Fig .
‫ ينتقل التيار من الجهد المنخفض إلى الجهد‬، ‫ بطارية‬dc ‫بالنسبة للدوائر الكهربائية التي لديها مصدر الجهد‬
. ‫ كما هو موضح في الشكل السابق‬، ‫المرتفع عند مروره عبر مصدر جهد‬
However, The current flow always from a high potential to a low potential when
passing through a resistor for any number of voltage sources in the same circuit, as
shown in Fig.
‫بينما يمر التيار دائ اما من الجهد المرتفع إلى الجهد المنخفض عند مروره عبر‬
‫ كما هو موضح في‬، ‫المقاومة ألي عدد من مصادر الجهد في نفس الدائرة‬
. ‫الشكل‬
SERIES RESISTORS :
In series circuits , the elements are series

if : End terminal of the first element is
connected to the starting terminal of
the second element.
.‫في الدوائر المتصلة على التوالي يتم توصيل طرف نهاية العنصر األول بطرف بداية العنصر الثاني‬
𝑅𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 +………….. + 𝑅𝑁
𝐸
𝑇
𝐼 = 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼3 =……………= 𝐼𝑁 (amperes, A)
𝑣𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 𝑣3 +…………..+𝑣𝑁 (volts, V )
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑣1 = 𝐼 ∗ 𝑅1 , 𝑣2 = 𝐼 ∗ 𝑅2 , 𝑣3 = 𝐼 ∗ 𝑅3 (volts, V )
Chapter 5
EXAMPLE : Determine the total resistances of the series dc circuit shown in Fig
below , and v1 , v2 , v3 , and v total , also Is .
𝑅𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 = 10Ω + 30Ω+ 100Ω

8.4 𝑉
𝑅𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 140 Ω , 𝐼𝑠 = 100 Ω = 0.06 A = 60 mA
𝑣1 = (60 mA) ∗ 10Ω = 0.6 V ,
𝑣2 = (60 mA) ∗ 30Ω = 1.8 V ,
𝑣3 = (60 mA) ∗ 100Ω =6.0 V
𝑣𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 0.6 + 1.8 + 6.0 = 8.4 𝑉 ( 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠)
Chapter 5
VOLTAGE SOURCES IN SERIES

Voltage sources can be connected in series, as shown in Fig., to increase
or decrease the total voltage applied to a system. The net voltage is determined
by summing the sources with the same polarity and subtracting the total of
the sources with the opposite polarity. The net polarity is the polarity of the
larger sum.
𝐸𝑇 = 10 + 6 + 2 = 18 𝑉 ( 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠) 𝐸𝑇 = 9 + 3 − 4 = 8 𝑉 ( 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠)
Current flow counterclockwise Current flow anti-counterclockwise
POWER DISTRIBUTION IN A SERIES CIRCUIT

In any electrical system, the power
applied will equal the power dissipated
or absorbed.
The power applied by the dc supply

must equal that dissipated by the
resistive elements.
𝑃𝐸 = 𝑃𝑅1 + 𝑃𝑅2 + 𝑃𝑅3
𝑃𝐸 = 𝐸 ∗ 𝐼𝑆
Chapter 5
KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW:

State that : the algebraic sum of the potential rises and drops around a closed path
(or closed-loop) is zero.
‫ المجموع الجبري لفرق الجهود حول دائرة مغلقة‬: ‫تعريف‬
. ‫تساوي صفرا ا‬
where Σ represents summation,

A the closed-loop, and V the potential
drops and rises.
+ E – V1 – V2 = 0
E = V1 + V2
Chapter 5
VOLTAGE DIVISION IN A SERIES CIRCUIT

in a series resistive circuit, the larger the resistance, the more of the applied voltage
it will capture.
The largest resistor of 6 Ω captures the bulk of
the applied voltage, while the smallest resistor,
R3, has the least. In addition, note that since the
resistance level of R1 is six times that of R3, the
voltage across R1 is six times that of R3. The fact
that the resistance level of R2 is three times that of
R1.
Voltage Divider Rule (VDR): The voltage
divider rule states that :
The voltage across a resistor in a series circuit is
equal to the value of that resistor times the total
applied voltage divided by the total resistance of
the series configuration.
where Vx is the voltage across the resistor Rx, E is the impressed voltage across the
series elements, and RT is the total resistance of the series circuit.
Chapter 5
VOLTAGE REGULATION AND THE INTERNAL RESISTANCE

OF VOLTAGE SOURCES
The Voltage regulation of a supply between the limits of the full load and no load
condition.
Voltage Regulation
𝑉𝑁𝐿− 𝑉𝐹𝐿
VR % = 100%
𝑉𝐹𝐿
EX 5.28-5.29
Chapter 5
INTERCHANGING SERIES ELEMENTS

The elements of a series circuit can be interchanged without affecting the total
resistance, current, or power to each element.
𝑅𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 = 4Ω + 4Ω+ 7Ω = 15 Ω
E = E1 + E2 = 50 (v) + - 12.5 (v) = 37.5 (v)
37.5 𝑣
𝐼𝑠 = = 2.5 A
15 Ω
𝑉7Ω = 𝐼𝑅 = (2.5 A) ∗ 7Ω = 17.5 V
Chapter 5
Chapter Six
PARALLEL NETWORK
The term parallel is used so often to describe a physical arrangement between two
elements that most individuals are aware of its general characteristics.
Two elements, branches, or circuits are in parallel if they have two points in
common.
PARALLEL RESISTORS
In parallel circuits, the elements are parallel if: starting terminals are
connected ‎together, and the ending terminals are connected together.‎‎
‫في الدوائر المتصلة على التوازي يتم توصيل طرفي بداية العناصر مع‬
.‫بعض و توصيل طرفي نهاية العناصر مع بعض‬
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + +………….. +
𝑹𝑻 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝑵
Since G =1/R, the equation can also be written in

terms of conductance levels as follows
𝑮𝑻 = 𝑮𝟏 + 𝑮𝟐 + 𝑮𝟑 +………….. + 𝑮𝑵
For equal resistors in parallel, the equation for the

total resistance becomes significantly easier to
apply.
For N equal resistors in parallel, R1 = R2 = R3 =‎………‎RN the Equation becomes:

𝑹𝟏
𝑹𝑻 =
𝑵
Special Case: Two Parallel Resistors :
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
𝑹𝟏𝟐 =
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
Chapter 6
PARALLEL CIRCUITS
A parallel circuit can be established by connecting a supply across a set of parallel
resistors as shown in Fig. The positive terminal of the supply is directly connected
to the top of each resistor, while the negative terminal is connected to the bottom
of each resistor. Therefore, it should be
quite clear that the applied voltage is the
same across each resistor.
E= V1 = V2
If two elements are in parallel, the voltage
across them must be the same. However, if
the voltage across two neighboring
elements is the same, the two elements may
or may not be in parallel.
But ; the total current of the circuit is the current in R1 plus the current R2.
Is = I1 + I2
𝐸
And the total current 𝐼𝑠 =
𝑅𝑇
𝑉1 𝑉2
Where 𝐼1 = , 𝐼2 =
𝑅1 𝑅2
and E= V1 = V2
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + +………….. +
𝑹𝑻 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝑵
𝐸 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉3 =……………= 𝑉𝑁 (volts, V)
𝐼𝑠 = 𝑅𝐸 (amperes, A)
𝑇
𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 +……………+ 𝐼𝑁 (amperes, A)
𝐸 𝑉 𝑉2 𝑉
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐼1 = = 1 , 𝐼2 = , 𝐼3 = 3 (amperes, A)
𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
For single-source parallel networks, the source current (Is) is always equal to the
sum of the individual branch currents .
Chapter 6
Chapter 6
KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW

State that : The algebraic sum of the currents entering and leaving a junction (or
region) of a network is zero.
The sum of the currents entering a junction of a network must equal the sum of the
currents leaving the same junction.
‫ المجموع الجبري للتيارات الداخلة في نقطة تساوي المجموع الجبري للتيارات الخارجة من تلك‬: ‫تعريف‬
. ً ‫النقطة تساوي صفرا‬
at node a at node b 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 at node d

𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 at node c 𝐼2 = 𝐼4 𝐼3 + 𝐼4 = 𝐼5
Chapter 6
Σ 𝐼𝑖 = Σ 𝐼𝑜
Is = I1 + I2 + I3
Is = 8 mA + 10 mA + 2 mA
Is = 20 mA
E = I1 R1
E = 8 (mA)‎*‎2‎(kΩ)‎=‎16 V
𝑉2 𝐸 16 𝑉
𝑅2 = = = = 1.6 𝑘Ω
𝐼2 𝐼2 10 𝑚𝐴
𝑉3 𝐸 16 𝑉
𝑅3 = = = = 8 𝑘Ω
𝐼3 𝐼3 2 𝑚𝐴
𝐸 16 𝑉
𝑅𝑇 = = = 0.8 𝑘Ω
𝐼𝑠 20 𝑚𝐴
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + = = 0.8 𝑘Ω
𝑹𝑻 𝟐 𝒌Ω 𝟏.𝟔 𝒌Ω 𝟖 𝒌Ω 𝟏.𝟐𝟓𝒌Ω
Chapter 6
CURRENT DIVIDER RULE (CDR) :

For parallel elements of different values, the current will split with a ratio equal to
the inverse of their resistor values.
the current through any branch

of a parallel resistive network is
equal to the total resistance of
the parallel network divided by
the resistor of interest and
multiplied by the total current
entering the parallel
configuration.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + = + + , 𝑹𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟕
𝑹𝑻 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟐 𝟔 𝟑 𝟏
𝑅𝑇 0.667 at node 𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3
𝐼1 =
𝑅1
𝐼𝑇 = 9≅ 1A
6
𝑅 0.667 𝐼𝑠 = 1 + 2 + 6 = 9 A
𝐼2 = 𝑇
𝑅2
𝐼𝑇 = 9≅ 2A
3
𝑅 0.667
𝐼3 = 𝑇
𝑅3
𝐼𝑇 = 9≅ 6A
1
Special Case: Two Parallel Resistors

for two parallel resistors, the current through one is equal to the other resistor times
the total entering current divided by the sum of the two
resistors.
Chapter 6
VOLTAGE SOURCES IN PARALLEL

voltage sources can be placed in parallel only if they have the same voltage.
The primary reason for placing two or more batteries or supplies in parallel is to
increase the current rating.
Notes : If for some reason two batteries of different voltages are placed in parallel,
both will become ineffective or damaged because the battery with the larger
voltage rapidly discharges through the battery with the smaller terminal voltage.
OPEN AND SHORT CIRCUITS

OPEN CIRCUITS
An open circuit is two isolated terminals not
connected by an element of any kind.
An open circuit can have a potential difference

(voltage) across its terminals, but the current is
always zero amperes.
SHORT CIRCUITS
A short circuit is a very low resistance,
direct connection between two terminals of
a network.
A short circuit can carry a current of a level
determined by the external circuit, but the
potential difference (voltage) across its
terminals is always zero volts.
Chapter 6
Chapter Seven
SERIES-PARALLEL NETWORKS
If we want to analyze the circuit below, by looking at it, we find that

the ‎resistors ‎R1, ‎R3, and R4 are not series because there is R2 sharing them at point
b. R3 and ‎R4 are in series and together
become parallel with R2, so by adding R1 in
series of the ‎previous resistances, the
amount becomes the RT total resistances of
the network.‎
So,
RT = R1 +( R2 ∥ (‎R3 + R4) )
REDUCE AND RETURN APPROACH
Chapter 7
The reduce and returen Appoach process enables you to reduce the network to its
simplest form across the source and then determine the source current. In the return
phase, you use the resulting source current to work back to the desired unknown.
For most single-source series-parallel networks, the above approach provides a
viable option toward the solution. In some cases, shortcuts can be applied that save
some time and energy.
Chapter 7
BLOCK DIAGRAM APPROACH

You may need to look at groups of elements rather than the individual components.
Once the grouping of elements reveals the most direct approach, you can examine
the impact of the individual components in each group. This grouping of elements
is called the block diagram approach and is used
Blocks B and C are in parallel (points b and

c in common), and the voltage source E is
in series with block A (point a in common) .
The parallel combination of B and C is also
in series with A and the voltage source E
due to the common points b and c,
respectively.
RT = R1 +( R2 ∥ (‎R3 + R4) )
Chapter 7
EXAMPLE 7.4
Chapter 7
DESCRIPTIVE EXAMPLES
: Calculate the indicated currentsand voltages
We can redraw the network after

adding the series resistances R1,2,3
and R8,9
R1,2,3 = 4 + 8 + 12 = 24 kΩ
R8,9 = 3 + 6 = 9 kΩ
R1,2,3 ∥ R4 = 12 kΩ
R7 ∥ R8,9 = 4.5 kΩ
By Ohm’s law
𝐸
𝐼5 =
(𝑅(1,2,3) ∥ 𝑅4 ) + 𝑅5
72 𝑉
𝐼5 =
12𝑘Ω + 12𝑘Ω
𝐸 72 𝑉
𝐼6 = =
𝑅6 + (𝑅7 ∥ 𝑅(8,9) ) 12𝑘Ω + (9 ∥ 9)𝑘Ω
72 𝑉
𝐼6 = = 4.363 𝑚𝐴
12𝑘Ω + 4.5𝑘Ω
Chapter 7
By voltage divider rule :
(𝑅7 ∥ 𝑅8,9 ) (𝐸) (9 ∥ 9)𝑘Ω (72)

𝑉7 = = = 19.63 V
(𝑅7 ∥ 𝑅8,9 ) + 𝑅6 (9 ∥ 9)𝑘Ω + 12𝑘Ω
𝑉7 19.63𝑉
𝐼7 = = = 2.18 mA
𝑅7 9𝑘Ω
I 6 = I 7 + I 8.9 = 2.18 + 2.18 = 4.36 mA
𝑉7 19.63
𝐼8,9 = = = 2.18 mA
𝑅8,9 9𝑘Ω
𝑉7 19.63 𝑉 19.63 𝑉
𝐼6 = = (𝑅 ∥𝑅 = = 4.36 mA
𝑅7 7 8,9 ) ( 9 ∥ 9 )𝑘Ω
(𝑅1,2,3 ∥ 𝑅4 ) (𝐸) (24 ∥ 24)𝑘Ω (72)

𝑉4 = = = 36.0 V
(𝑅1,2,3 ∥ 𝑅4 ) + 𝑅5 (24 ∥ 24)𝑘Ω + 12𝑘Ω
𝑉4 36𝑉
𝐼4 = = 24𝑘Ω = 1.5 mA
𝑅4
I 6 = I 4 + I 1,2,3 = 1.5 + 1.5 = 3.0 mA
𝑉4 36
𝐼1,2,3 = = = 1.5 mA
𝑅1,2,3 24𝑘Ω
𝑉4 36 𝑉
𝐼5 = = = 3.0 mA
𝑅1,2,3 ∥𝑅4 ( 24 ∥ 24 )𝑘Ω
IS = I5 + I6 = 3 mA + 4.35 mA = 7.35 mA
Chapter 7
LADDER NETWORKS
A three-section ladder network appears in Fig. below. The reason for
the ‎terminology is quite obvious for the repetitive structure. There are two
approaches ‎are used to solve ladder network.
Method 1
Calculate the total
resistance RT then find
source current IS , then go
back through the ladder
until the desired current or
voltage is obtained
I5,6 = I3 - I4 = 15 – 5 = 10 A
3
I4 = (15) = 5 A
3+6
I3 = 15 A , I3 = I 456 = 15 A
IS = I1 = I2 + I 3456
𝑅3456 6
I2 = (30) = 30 = 15 A
𝑅2 +𝑅3456 6+6
240
IS = =
8
30 A
RT = 8 Ω .
Chapter 7
Method 2
Strarting form the last branch current of the network , then go back through each
branch and solve the solution
intrems of the last branch until the
desired current is obtained.
The strating branch current is I6
through R6 .
𝑉4 𝑉4 𝑉4
I6 = 𝑅 = =
5 +𝑅6 1+2 3
So, V4 = 3 I6
𝑉4 𝑉4 3 𝐼6
I4 = = = = 0.5 I6 I4= 5A
𝑅4 6 3
I3 = I4 + I6 = 0.5 I6 = I6 = 1.5 I6 I3 = 15 A
And V3 = I3R3 = 4 ( 1.5 I6) = 6 I6 V3= 60 V

V2 = V3 + V4
V2 = 6 I6 + 3 I6 = 9 I6 V2= 90 V
𝑉2 9 𝐼6
I2 = = = 1.5 I6 I2 = 1.5A
𝑅2 6
Is = I2 + I3 = 1.5 I6 + 1.5I6 = 3 I6 IS =30 A
V1 = Is R1 = (3I6)*5 = 15 I6 V1= 150 V
By( KVL ) E= V1+ V2 = 15 I6 + 9 I6 = 24 I6
240
E = 24 I6 ∴ 𝐼6 = = 10 A
24
V6 = I6 R6 = 10 * 2 = 20 V V6 = 20 V
Chapter 7
VOLTAGE DIVIDER SUPPLY (UNLOADED AND LOADED)
No-Load Conditions ( unloaded )

for a voltage divider supply to be effective, the applied resistive loads should be
significantly larger than the resistors appearing in the voltage divider network.
Va = 120 V which is parallel with voltage source E

50 (120)
Vb= 100 V 𝑉𝑏 = = 100 V
50+10
30 (100)
Vc= 60 V 𝑉𝑐 = = 60 V
30+20
Loaded Conditions ( with 20 Ω each terminal a , b , c )

Va = 120 V which is parallel with voltage source E
𝑅𝑇 𝐸 12.31 (120)
𝑉𝑏 = = = 66.21 V
𝑅𝑇 + 𝑅1 12.31+ 10
RT = [(R3 ∥ RL3)+ R2] ∥ RL2
RT = [(30 ∥20)+ 20] ∥ 20
RT = [(12)+ 20] ∥ 20 = 12.31Ω
𝑅𝑇′ 𝐸 12 (66.21)
𝑉𝑐 = = = 24.83 V
𝑅𝑇′ + 𝑅2 12+ 20
𝑅𝑇′ = [(R3 ∥ RL3)]
𝑅𝑇′ = [(30 ∥20)]
𝑅𝑇′ = [(12)] =‎12Ω
Chapter 7
The voltage @ point a

The votage on no load or loaded equal the same as the terminal a parallel
with the voltage source E
The voltage @ point b

The voltage at no load was equal to 100V ,‎on‎load‎of‎20‎Ω‎,‎the‎voltage‎
decrease to 66.21, V if we increase the load‎(high)‎about‎1‎KΩ‎,‎the‎
voltage will be 98.88 V.
The voltage @ point c

The voltage at no load was equal to 60V ,‎on‎load‎of‎20‎Ω‎,‎the‎voltage‎
decrease‎to‎24.83‎V,‎if‎we‎increase‎the‎load‎(high)‎about‎1‎KΩ‎,‎the‎
voltage will be 58.63 V
If we compare current drains established by the applied loads
𝑉𝐿2 66.21 𝑉
On‎20‎Ω‎‎‎ 𝐼𝐿2 = = = 3.31 𝐴
𝑅𝐿2 20Ω
𝑉𝐿2 98.88 𝑉
On‎1‎kΩ 𝐼𝐿2 = = = 98.88 𝑚𝐴
𝑅𝐿2 1𝐾Ω
The more current drain the greater change in the terminal voltage.
Chapter 7
EE200 - Hakim TREKI 10 | P a g e
Chapter Eight
Method of Analysis and Selected Topics
CURRENT SOURCES
The current source is often described as the dual of the voltage source. Just as a
battery provides a fixed voltage to a network, a current source establishes a fixed
current in the branch where it is located.
Further, the current through a battery is a

function of the network to which it is applied,
just as the voltage across a current source is a
Fig 1 (a)
function of the connected network. The term
dual is applied to any two elements in which the traits of one variable can be
interchanged with the traits of another. This is certainly true for the current and
voltage of the two types of
sources.
The current source indicates the direction in which it is supplying current to the
branch where it is located. we find that the voltage
across a current source is determined by the polarity of
the voltage drop caused by the current source.
a current source determines the direction and

magnitude of the current in the branch where it is
located.
the magnitude and the polarity of the voltage across a
current source are each a function of the network to
which the voltage is applied. Fig 1 (b)
SOURCE CONVERSIONS
All sources whether they are voltage sources or current sources have some internal
resistance RS in the relative positions.
For voltage source , If series resistor RS = 0 Ω , if it is so small compared to any
series resistors that it can be ignored, then we have an “ideal” voltage source for all
practical purposes
Chapter 8
For voltage source , If series resistor RS = 0 Ω , if it is so small compared to any

series resistors that it can be ignored, then we have an “ideal” voltage source for all
practical purposes.
the current source, since the
resistor RP is in parallel, if RP = ∞,
or if it is large enough compared to
any parallel resistive elements that
it can be ignored, then we have an
“ideal” current source.
The ideal sources cannot be

converted from one type to
another. That is, a voltage source
Fig 2(a) Fig 2 (b)
cannot be converted to a current
source, and vice versa, the internal resistance must be present.
If the voltage source in Fig.2 (a) is to be equivalent to the source in Fig.2 (b), any
load connected to the sources such as RL should receive the same current, voltage,
and power from each configuration. In other words, if the source were enclosed in
a container, the load RL would not know which source it was connected to.
Fig 3(a) Fig 3(b)

For the voltage source equivalent, the voltage is
determined by a simple application of Ohm’s law to the current source : E = I RP
For the current source equivalent, the current is again determined by applying
Ohm’s law to the voltage source :
𝐸
𝐼=
𝑅𝑠
Chapter 8
SOLUTION:
a) Applying Ohm’s law
𝐸 6𝑉
𝐼𝐿 = = =1𝐴
𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿 2Ω+4Ω
b) Using Ohm’s law again
E 6V
I= = =3A
RS 2 Ω
c) Using the current divider rule:
𝑅𝑝 𝐼 (2 Ω )(3A)
𝐼𝐿 = = =1𝐴
𝑅𝑝 + 𝑅𝐿 2Ω+4Ω
EXAMPLE 8.5 :-
Determine current I2 for the network in
SOLUTION:
1. Conversion source :
convert the voltage source to current source :
E 5V
𝐼2 = = = 2.5 A
RS 2 Ω
Chapter 8
SOLUTION:
2. Conversion source :
convert the current source to voltage source :
E1 = I1 Rp = (4 A ) (3Ω) = 12 V
CURRENT SOURCES IN PARALLEL

Two or more current sources in parallel can be replaced by a single current source
having a magnitude determined by the difference of the sum of the currents in one
direction and the sum in the opposite direction. The new parallel internal resistance
is the total resistance of the resulting parallel resistive elements.
I = 10 – 6 = 4 A in direction of 10 A ( down )
Rp =( R1∥ R2 ) =( 3Ω ∥ 6Ω ) = 2 Ω
CURRENT SOURCES IN SERIES

Voltage sources of different terminal voltages cannot be placed in parallel because
of a violation of Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
Similarly,
Current sources of different values cannot be placed in series due to a violation of
Kirchhoff’s current law.
BRANCH-CURRENT ANALYSIS
Branch Current analysis is a method for solving networks with two or more
isolated source .
The networks with two isolated voltage source cannot be solved using the previse
approached introduced in chapter 7 .
The network shown
Chapter 8
Branch-Current Analysis
Procedure
1. Assign a distinct current of
arbitrary direction to each branch
of the network.
2. Indicate the polarities for each
resistor as determined by the
assumed current direction.
3. Apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law
around each closed, independent loop of the network.
4. Apply Kirchhoff’s current law at the minimum number of nodes that will
include all the branch currents of the network.
5. Solve the resulting simultaneous linear equations for assumed branch
currents .
The best way to determine how many times Kirchhoff’s voltage law has to be
applied is to determine the number of “windows” in the network.
Determining the number of independent closed loops
The minimum number is one less than the number of independent nodes of the
network. For the purposes of this analysis, a node is a junction of two or more
branches, where a branch is any combination of series elements. Fig. below
defines the number of applications of Kirchhoff’s current law for each
configuration.
Determining the number of applications of Kirchhoff’s current law required

It is assumed that the use of the determinants method to solve for the currents I1, I2,
and I3 is understood and is a part of the student’s mathematical background.
Calculators can find the solutions quickly and accurately.
Chapter 8
EXAMPLE :
Apply the branch-current method to the network in Fig below
SOLUTION 1
Loop 1:
E1 – V1 – V3 = 0
Loop 2:
V2 + V3 – E1 = 0
Loop 1:
2 V – 2Ω I1 – 4Ω I3 = 0
Loop 2:
1Ω I2 + 4Ω I3 – 6 V = 0
I3 = I1+ I2
There are three equations and three unknowns (units removed for clarity):
2 I1 + 0 I2 + 4I3 = 2 2 I1 0 I2 4 I3 2
0 I1 + 1 I2 + 4 I3 = 6 0 I1 1 I2 4 I3 6
1 I1 + 1 I2 – 1I3 = 0 1 I1 1 I2 1 I3 0
2 0 4 2 2 4 2 0 2
|6 1 4| |0 6 4| |0 1 6|
0 1 −1 1 0 −1 1 1 0
𝐼1 = 2 0 4 = -1 A , 𝐼2 = 2 0 4 = 2 A , 𝐼3 = 2 0 4 =1A
|0 1 4| |0 1 4| |0 1 4|
1 1 −1 1 1 −1 1 1 −1
2 0 4
D= |0 1 4 | = [ 2(-1-4) - 0 ( 0-4) + 4 ( 0-1 ) ] = [ -10 - 0 - 4]= -14
1 1 −1
|14| |−28| |−14|

𝐼1 = |−14|
= -1 A , 𝐼2 = |−14|
= 2 A , 𝐼3 = |−14|
=1A
Chapter 8
SOLUTION 2
Instead of using third-order determinants as in Solution 1, we can reduce the three
equations to two by substituting the third equation in the first and second
equations:
MESH ANALYSIS (GENERAL APPROACH)

Mesh Analysis Procedure
This method to be described—mesh analysis—is

actually an extension of the branch-current
analysis approach just introduced. By defining a
unique array of currents to the network, the
information provided by the application of
Kirchhoff’s current law is already included when
we apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law. In other words,
there is no need to apply step 4 of the branch-
current method.
The currents to be defined are called mesh or loop
currents. The two terms are used interchangeably.
In Fig. above , a network with two “windows” has had two mesh currents defined.
Note that each forms a closed “loop” around the inside of each window.
Chapter 8
MESH ANALYSIS (GENERAL APPROACH)

1. Assign a distinct current in the clockwise direction to each independent,
closed loop of the network. It is not absolutely necessary to choose the
clockwise direction for each loop current.
In fact, any direction can be chosen for
each loop current with no loss in accuracy,
as long as the remaining steps are
followed properly. However, by choosing
the clockwise direction as a standard, we
can develop a shorthand method for
writing the required equations that will
save time and possibly prevent some
common errors.
2. Indicating the polarities within each loop

for each resistor is determined by the
assumed direction of loop current for that loop. Note the requirement that the
polarities be placed within each loop. This requires, as shown in Fig. above,
that the R3 of 4-ohm resistor has two sets of polarities across it.
3. Apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law around each closed loop in the clockwise
direction. Again, the clockwise direction was chosen to establish uniformity
and prepare us for the method to be introduced.
a. If a resistor has two or more assumed currents through it, the total current
through the resistor is the assumed current of the loop in which
Kirchhoff’s voltage law is being applied, plus the assumed currents of
the other loops passing through in the same direction, minus the assumed
currents through in the opposite direction.
b. The polarity of a voltage source is unaffected by the direction of the
assigned loop currents.
4. Solve the resulting simultaneous linear equations for the assumed loop
currents.
Chapter 8
EXAMPLE :
Apply the Mesh Analysis the network in Fig below
SOLUTION
Loop 1:
E1 – V1 – V3 = 0
2 V – 2Ω I1 – 4Ω( I1 –I2) = 0
2 V – 2Ω I1 – 4Ω I1 + 4Ω I2 = 0
Loop 2:
– V3 – V2 – E1 = 0
– 4Ω( I2 –I1) – 1Ω I2 – 6 V = 0
– 4Ω I2 + 4Ω I1 – 1Ω I2 – 6 V = 0
The equations rewritten as follows (units removed for clarity):

+2 – 2 I1 – 4 I1 + 4 I2 = 0
– 4 I2 + 4 I1 – 1 I2 – 6 = 0
–6 I1 + 4 I2 = – 2 –6I1 +4 I2 –2
+4 I1 – 5 I2 = + 6 +4 I1 – 5I2 6
−2 4 −6 −2
| | | |
6 −5 4 6
𝐼1 = −6 4 = -1 A , 𝐼2 = −6 4 = –2 A ,
| | | |
4 −5 4 −5
|–14| |−28|
𝐼1 = |14|
= –1 A , 𝐼2 = |14|
= –2 A
D= |−6 4 | = [ (-6*-5 )-(4*4)] = 30 – 16 = 14

4 −5
Chapter 8
MESH ANALYSIS (FORMAT APPROACH)

writing the mesh equations more rapidly with a technique with fewer errors.
1. Assign a loop current to each independent, closed loop (as in the previous
section) in a clockwise direction.
2. The number of required equations is equal to the number of chosen
independent, closed loops. Column 1 of each equation is formed by
summing the resistance values of those resistors through which the loop
current of interest passes and multiplying the result by that loop current.
3. We must now consider the mutual terms, which, as noted in the examples
above, are always subtracted from the first column. A mutual term is simply
any resistive element having an additional loop current passing through it. It
is possible to have more than one mutual term if the loop current of interest
has an element in common with more than one other loop current. This will
be demonstrated in an example to follow. Each term is the product of the
mutual resistor and the other loop current passing through the same element.
4. The column to the right of the equality sign is the algebraic sum of the
voltage sources through which the loop current of interest passes. Positive
signs are assigned to those sources of voltage having a polarity such that the
loop current passes from the negative to the positive terminal. A negative
sign is assigned to those potentials for which the reverse is true.
5. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations for the desired loop currents.
EXAMPLE :
Write the Mesh Analysis the network in Fig below
SOLUTION
Loop 1:
(1+1) Ω I1– (1Ω ) I2+ 0 = – 2
Loop 2:
(1+2+3)ΩI2 – (1Ω)I1–(3Ω )I3 = 4
Loop 3:
(3+4)Ω I3 – (3Ω ) I2– 0 = 2
2 I1 – 1 I2+ 0 I3 = +2
– 1 I1 + 6 I2 – 3 I3 = + 4
0 I1 – 3 I2 + 7 I3 = + 2
I1= – 0.847 A , I2=0.305A , I3= –0.441 A
Chapter 8
EXAMPLE :
Write the Mesh Analysis the network in Fig below
SOLUTION
Loop 1:
(8+3) Ω I1 –(3Ω )I2+ – (5Ω )I3 = + 15
Loop 2:
(3+5+2)ΩI2 – (3Ω)I1–(5Ω )I3 = 0
Loop 3:
(10+8+5)Ω I3 – (5Ω ) I2– –(8Ω )I1 = 0
11 I1 – 3 I2– 8 I3 = +15
– 3 I1 + 10 I2 – 5 I3 = + 0
– 8 I1 – 5 I2 + 23 I3 = 0
I1=2.633 A , I2=1.399 A , I3= 1.220 A
NODAL ANALYSIS (GENERAL APPROACH)

The methods introduced thus far have all been to find the currents of the network.
We now turn our attention to nodal analysis—a method that provides the nodal
voltages of a network, that is, the voltage from the various nodes (junction points)
of the network to the ground. The method is developed through the use of
Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) in much the same manner as Kirchhoff’s voltage
law (KVL) was used to develop the mesh analysis approach.
Although it is not a requirement, we make it a policy to make ground our reference

node and assign it a potential level of zero volts. All the other voltage levels are
then found with respect to this reference level. For a network of N nodes, by
assigning one as our reference node, we have (N - 1) nodes for which the voltage
must be determined.
The number of nodes for which the voltage must be determined using nodal
analysis is 1 less than the total number of nodes.
In other words, the number of equations required to solve for all the nodal voltages
of a network is 1 less than the total number of independent nodes.
Nodal analysis, like mesh analysis, can be applied by a series of carefully defined
steps. The examples to follow explain each step in detail.
Chapter 8
Nodal Analysis Procedure

1. Determine the number of nodes within the network.
2. Pick a reference node, and label each remaining node with a subscripted
value of voltage: V1, V2, and so on.
3. Apply Kirchhoff’s current law at each node except the reference. Assume
that all unknown currents leave the node for each application of Kirchhoff’s
current law. In other words, for each node, don’t be influenced by the
direction that an unknown current for another node may have had. Each
node is to be treated as a separate entity, independent of the application of
Kirchhoff’s current law to the other nodes.
4. Solve the resulting equations for the nodal voltages.
EXAMPLE :
Apply nodal Analysis to the network in Fig below
Step 1
No. of nodes = 2
Step 2
lower node is reference and upper node
is V1
n-1 = 1
Step 3
Assume currents direction I1 and I2
Step 4
Apply KCL
I1+I = I2 ,
E−𝑉1 V1
, 𝐼2 =
R1 R2
E−𝑉1 V1
+I = →≫
R1 R2
E 𝑉1 V1
− +I =
R1 R1 R2
1 1 E 1 1 24 V
V1 (
R1
+
R2
) =
R1
+I →≫ V1 (
6Ω
+
12Ω
) =
6Ω
+1A
1
V1 ( ) =4A+1A
4Ω
Chapter 8
20
V1 (4 + 1) = 20 V , V1 = = 4V
5
24−20 4V
I1 and I2 𝐼1 = = = 0.667 𝐴
6Ω 6Ω
𝑉1 20V
𝐼2 = = = 1.667 𝐴
R2 12Ω
EXAMPLE :
Apply nodal Analysis to the network in Fig below
Step 1
No. of nodes = 3
Step 2
Bottom node is reference and upper
nodes are V1 and V2 .
n-1 = 2
Step 3
Assume currents direction I1, I2
and I3
Step 4
Apply KCL
@ node no. i @ node no. ii

I1=I2 + 2 A ----і I3=I2 + I ----іі
V𝑅1 E − 𝑉1 64 − 𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
𝐼1 = = = = +𝐼
R1 R1 8Ω R3 R2
𝑉2 𝑉1 𝑉2
V𝑅2 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 64 − 𝑉1 = − +𝐼
𝐼2 = = = R3 R2 R2
R2 R2 8Ω
1 1 𝑉
E−𝑉1 𝑉1 −𝑉2 V2 (R + R2
) − R1 = 𝐼 ----іі
From eq.і = +2 3 2
R1 R2
Chapter 8
E
−
V1
=
V1
−
V2
+2 1 1 1
R1 R1 R2 R2 V2 ( + ) − 𝑉1 = 2 A
10Ω 4Ω 4Ω
64 V1 V1 V2
− = − +2
8Ω 8Ω 4Ω 4Ω
1 1 1
V1 ( + ) − 𝑉2 = 6 A
8Ω 4Ω 4Ω
Equation I Equation II
1 1 1 E 1 1 𝑉1
V1 ( + ) − 𝑉2 = −I V2 ( + ) − =𝐼
R1 R2 R2 R1 R3 R2 R2
1 1 1 1 1 1
V1 ( + ) − 𝑉2 = 6 A V2 ( + ) − 𝑉1 = 2 A
8Ω 4Ω 4Ω 10Ω 4Ω 4Ω
1 1 1
+ − 𝑉1 6
[8Ω 4Ω 4Ω ] [ ] = [ ]
1 1 1
− + 𝑉2 2
4Ω 10Ω 4Ω
0.375 −0.25 𝑉1 6
[ ][ ] = [ ]
−0.25 0.35 𝑉2 2
V1 = 37.818 V , V2 = 32.727 V
E − 𝑉1 V1 −V2 V2
𝐼1 = = 3.273 𝐴 , 𝐼2 = = 1.273 𝐴 , 𝐼3 = = 3.273 𝐴
R1 R2 R3
Chapter 8
NODAL ANALYSIS (FORMAT APPROACH)
In the nodal analysis general approach, it appears that the voltage at the node in
which KCL applied is multiplied by the sum of the conductances attached to that
node, and the other nodal voltages with the same equation are multiplied by the
negative of the conductance between the two nodes.
This will allow writing nodal equations rapidly and in a form that is convenient for
the use of determinations.
The voltage sources must first be converted to current sources before the procedure
is applied.
Nodal Analysis Procedure

1. Choose a reference node and assign a subscripted voltage label to the (N-1)
remaining nodes of the network.
2. The number of equations required for a complete solution is equal to the
number of subscripted voltages (N -1). Column 1 of each equation is formed
by summing the conductances tied to the node of interest and multiplying
the result by that subscripted nodal voltage.
3. We must now consider the mutual terms that, are always subtracted from
the first column. It is possible to have more than one mutual term if the
nodal voltage of current interest has an element in common with more
than one other nodal voltage. Each mutual term is the product of the
mutual conductance and the other nodal voltage tied to that conductance.
4. The column to the right of the equality sign is the algebraic sum of the
current sources tied to the node of interest. A current source is assigned a
positive sign if it supplies current to a node and a negative sign if it draws
current from the node.
5. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations for the desired voltages.
Chapter 8
EXAMPLE :
Apply nodal Analysis format approach to the network in Fig below and write the
nodal equations
1 1 1
V1 ( + ) − 𝑉2 = −2 A
6Ω 3Ω 3Ω
1 1 1
V2 ( + ) − 𝑉1 = +3 A
4Ω 3Ω 3Ω
1 1
− 𝑉1 −2
[ 2Ω 3 Ω] [ ] = [ ]
1 7
− 𝑉2 3
3Ω 12Ω
EXAMPLE :
Apply nodal Analysis format approach to the network in Fig below, write the
nodal equations and find the voltage across the 3 Ω resistor .
1
𝐼2 = = 0.1𝐴
10
V 8
𝐼1 = = = 4 𝐴
R 2
Solution :
Converting voltage sources to
current sources
1 1 1 1
V1 ( + + ) − 𝑉2 = 4 A
2 Ω 4Ω 6Ω 6Ω
1 1 1 1
V2 ( + + ) − 𝑉1
10Ω 3Ω 6Ω 6Ω
= −0.1 A
11 −2 V1 48
[ ][ ] = [ ]
−5 18 V2 −3
Chapter 8
BRIDGE NETWORKS
BRIDGE NETWORKS this type of network is used in both dc and ac meters.
Solving the BRIDGE NETWORKS using :

Mesh Analysis with three loops , I1 , I2 and I3
(3 + 4 + 2) −4 −2 𝐼1 20
[ −4 (4 + 2 + 5) −5 ] [𝐼2 ] = [ 0 ]
−2 −5 (5 + 1 + 2) 𝐼3 0
(9) −4 −2 𝐼1 20
[ −4 (11) −5 ] [𝐼2 ] = [ 0 ]
−2 −5 (8) 𝐼3 0
I1= 4 A , I2=2.67 V, I3=2.67 V
Chapter 8
Solving the BRIDGE NETWORKS using :

Nodal Analysis with three loops V1 , V2 and V3
1 1 1 1 1
( + + ) − −
3Ω 4Ω 2Ω 4Ω 2Ω 𝑉1 20⁄
1 1 1 1 1 3
− ( + + ) − [𝑉2 ] = [ ]
4Ω 5Ω 4Ω 2Ω 5Ω 0
𝑉3
1 1 1 1 1 0
[ − − ( + + )]
2Ω 5Ω 1Ω 5Ω 2Ω
13 1 1
( ) − −
12Ω 4Ω 2Ω 𝑉 20⁄
1 19 1 1 3
− ( ) − [𝑉2 ] = [ ]
4Ω 20Ω 5Ω 𝑉 0
3
1 1 17 0
−
[ 2Ω − ( )]
5Ω 10Ω
(1.083) −0.25 −0.5 𝑉1 6.67

[ −0.25 (0.95) −0.2 ] [𝑉2 ] = [ 0 ]
−0.5 −0.2 (1.7) 𝑉3 0
V1= 8 V , V2=2.67 V, V3=2.67 V
Chapter 8
Y- 𝚫 (T- 𝚷) 𝝅 AND 𝚫 -Y 𝝅 (𝚷 -T) CONVERSIONS:

Resistors which do not appear to be in series or in parallel , may be necessary to
convert the circuit to solve , if the circuit can not apply in mesh analysis or nodal
analysis.
The circuit configurations which called wye (Y) or (T) tee and delta (Δ) or
(𝜋 ) pi could converted to each other to solve difficulties of the circuit.
𝑅1 𝑅2 + 𝑅2 𝑅3 + 𝑅3 𝑅1
𝑅𝐴 =
𝑅1
𝑅1 𝑅2 + 𝑅2 𝑅3 + 𝑅3 𝑅1
𝑅𝐵 =
𝑅2
𝑅1 𝑅2 + 𝑅2 𝑅3 + 𝑅3 𝑅1
𝑅𝐶 =
𝑅3
𝑅𝐵 𝑅𝐶
𝑅1 =
𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑅𝐶
𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐶
𝑅2 =
𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐵
𝑅3 =
Chapter 8
𝑅𝛥
If RA=RB=RC 𝑅𝑌 =
3
And R1=R2=R3 𝑅𝛥 = 3 𝑅𝑌
EXAMPLE :
Find the total resistance of the network
R1=R2=R3 = 9 Ω Y
RA=RB=RC = 6Ω 𝚫
Solution
Converting the 𝚫 → Y
Since 𝑅𝛥 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑠 = 6Ω
𝑅𝛥 6
𝑅𝑌 = = =2Ω
3 3
𝑅1 𝑅1 2∗9
𝑅𝑇 = [ ]∗2 = [ ] ∗ 2 = 3.2727 Ω
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 2+9
Converting the Y → 𝚫
Since 𝑅𝑌 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑠 = 9Ω
𝑅𝛥 = 3 𝑅𝑌 = 3(9) = 27 Ω
𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐵 2 6∗9 2
𝑅𝑇 = [ ]∗ = [ ] ∗ = 3.2727 Ω
𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 3 6+9 3
Chapter 8

Electrical Circuits

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Fundamentals of Electric Circuits

the sciences. To ease the difficulty of mathematical operations with numbers of

1 = 100 1/10 = 0.1 = 10-1

 CONVERSION BETWEEN LEVELS OF POWERS OF TEN

2.1 ATOMS AND THEIR STRUCTURE

If the electron gains sufficient energy from the

Every source of voltage is established by simply creating a separation of positive

The defining equation is

the applied voltage (or potential difference) in an electrical/ electronics system is

Although we now know that current in metallic conductors is due to negatively

Electric current due to flow of electric charge in a conductor.

Direct current (DC) is a current that Alternating current (AC) is a current

This work is performed by an external electromotive force (emf), typically

Voltage (or potential difference) is the energy required to move a

Power and Energy

Power : is an indication of how much WORK can be accomplished in a specified

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝑊ℎ) = 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑤) ∗ 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑡)

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑤) ∗ 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑡)

In electric circuits, the effect is the flow of charge or current. The

Example 4.1 - 4.4

For voltage source dc circuits, The current flow always

In series circuits , the elements are series

𝑣𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 𝑣3 +…………..+𝑣𝑁 (volts, V )

𝑅𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 = 10Ω + 30Ω+ 100Ω

𝑣1 = (60 mA) ∗ 10Ω = 0.6 V ,

𝑣2 = (60 mA) ∗ 30Ω = 1.8 V ,

𝑣3 = (60 mA) ∗ 100Ω =6.0 V

𝑣𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 0.6 + 1.8 + 6.0 = 8.4 𝑉 ( 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠)

VOLTAGE SOURCES IN SERIES

POWER DISTRIBUTION IN A SERIES CIRCUIT

The power applied by the dc supply

𝑃𝐸 = 𝑃𝑅1 + 𝑃𝑅2 + 𝑃𝑅3

KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW:

where Σ represents summation,

VOLTAGE DIVISION IN A SERIES CIRCUIT

VOLTAGE REGULATION AND THE INTERNAL RESISTANCE

INTERCHANGING SERIES ELEMENTS

E = E1 + E2 = 50 (v) + - 12.5 (v) = 37.5 (v)

𝑉7Ω = 𝐼𝑅 = (2.5 A) ∗ 7Ω = 17.5 V

Since G =1/R, the equation can also be written in

For equal resistors in parallel, the equation for the

For N equal resistors in parallel, R1 = R2 = R3 =‎………‎RN the Equation becomes:

KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW

at node a at node b 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 at node d

CURRENT DIVIDER RULE (CDR) :

the current through any branch

Special Case: Two Parallel Resistors

VOLTAGE SOURCES IN PARALLEL

OPEN AND SHORT CIRCUITS

An open circuit can have a potential difference

If we want to analyze the circuit below, by looking at it, we find that

REDUCE AND RETURN APPROACH

BLOCK DIAGRAM APPROACH

Blocks B and C are in parallel (points b and

We can redraw the network after

By voltage divider rule :

(𝑅7 ∥ 𝑅8,9 ) (𝐸) (9 ∥ 9)𝑘Ω (72)

(𝑅1,2,3 ∥ 𝑅4 ) (𝐸) (24 ∥ 24)𝑘Ω (72)

And V3 = I3R3 = 4 ( 1.5 I6) = 6 I6 V3= 60 V

VOLTAGE DIVIDER SUPPLY (UNLOADED AND LOADED)

No-Load Conditions ( unloaded )

Va = 120 V which is parallel with voltage source E

D= |−6 4 | = [ (-6-5 )-(44)] = 30 – 16 = 14