GATEWAY (ICT) POLYTECHNIC

SAAPADE, OGUN STTAE

SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURAL TECHNOLOGY
COURSE SCHEME

Course Code: ARC 228 Course Title: Basics of Climatology

Course Unit: 2 Level: ND 2 Architecture

Course Lecturer: ADEBAYO K.A. (MR.)

GENERAL OBJECTIVES
On completion of this module, the student will be able to;

1. Understand the various climatic elements affecting building and the built environment.
2. Understand the proper orientation of buildings in respect of wind/rain and solar radiation.
3. Understand the various devices for eliminating unwanted weather conditions.
4. Understand the microclimate effects of a particular site on building.

Lecture Note 1:

INTRODUCTION
Climate, in the architectural context, refers to the average weather conditions of an area over a
long period. The climate of an area dictates the type of building that should be designed to ensure
the safety and comfort of the occupants.
Climatology is the science of climate which is an investigation of causes on which the climate of
an area depends. In general, there are four major factors that determines climate; Sun, Wind,
Precipitation and Temperature (detailed explanations in subsequent section).
Building climatology is the study of the climate and its effects on the design, operation, and
performance of buildings. It is a multidisciplinary field that considers the physical, thermal, and
visual aspects of the indoor and outdoor environment. Building climatology is essential for
architects, engineers, and building professionals to create buildings that function effectively and
efficiently in their local climate, providing a comfortable and healthy indoor environment while
minimizing energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions.

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CLIMATIC ELEMENTS AFFECTING BUILDING
To understand the impact of climate on buildings, it is important to understand the different
variables that define climate, such as temperature, precipitation, wind and humidity.
1. Solar Radiation/Temperature: Temperature is the measure of heat in a given area. The
average temperature over some time will determine the type of insulation, construction materials,
and ventilation requirements for a building. Extreme temperatures, both hot and cold, can impact
buildings by putting a strain on their heating and cooling systems. Temperature fluctuations can
also cause expansion and contraction of building materials, leading to structural damage.
For instance, areas with high temperature will require thicker insulation to ensure the comfort of
the building’s occupants.
2. Humidity: Humidity refers to the water vapor content of the atmosphere. Water vapor enters
the air by evaporation, primarily from the surfaces of the oceans and also from moist surfaces,
vegetation and small water bodies. The vapor is carried and distributed over earth’s surface by
the winds. High levels of humidity can lead to mold growth and wood rot, while low humidity
can cause wood to dry out and crack. This can also affect the overall structural integrity of a
building.
3. Precipitation/Rainfall: precipitation is the amount of water in the atmosphere, divided into
two categories, liquid and frozen. Liquid precipitation includes rain and snow, will affect the
drainage system of a building and its ability to withstand inclement weather. On the other hand,
frozen precipitation, such as hail and sleet, will also affect the integrity of a building’s exterior.
Heavy rainfall can cause flooding and water damage, while prolonged periods of drought can
cause soil to shift, leading to foundation issues.
4. Wind: Wind can simply be defined as air in motion and it is a key factor in building
architecture.
5. Snow and ice: snow is a type of precipitation in which water vapor freezes into ice crystals
before falling to the ground. It is a form of frozen precipitation that is common in colder climates
and during winter weather.

Considering these elements is essential to ensure the long-term durability and efficiency of any
building in different environments.

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KEY AREAS OF BUILDING CLIMATOLOGY
1. Site analysis: The study of the local weather conditions, topography, and natural features that
influence the building's location, orientation, and design.
2. Building envelope: The design and construction of the building shell, including walls,
windows, roofs, and insulation, to maintain a comfortable and energy-efficient indoor
environment.
3. HVAC systems: The selection and sizing of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
(HVAC) systems to regulate indoor temperature, humidity, and air quality.
4. Lighting and shading: The use of natural and artificial lighting and shading systems to
enhance visual comfort and minimize energy consumption.
5. Energy efficiency: The optimization of building performance through the use of passive solar
design, renewable energy sources, and energy-efficient systems and appliances.
6. Sustainability: The integration of environmental, social, and economic considerations into
building design and operation, to minimize the building's ecological footprint and promote long-
term sustainability.

EFFECTS OF SOLAR RADIATION/TEMPERATURE ON BUILDINGS

Solar radiation can be defined as the electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun. Solar
radiation can be captured and turned into useful forms of energy, such as heat and electricity,
using a variety of technologies. In other words, solar radiation refers to the energy or heat that is
emitted by the sun and reaches the Earth in the form of electromagnetic waves. This includes
visible light, ultraviolet rays, and infrared radiation.
Solar radiation can have both positive and negative effects on buildings, these include;
1. Thermal effect: solar radiation on buildings can impact the thermal performance of the
building. It can cause increased in indoor temperature, leading to increased cooling loads and
energy cost.
2. Illumination: solar radiation can provide natural illumination into buildings, reducing
energy consumptions and increasing occupants’ comfort.
3. Fading and discoloration: direct solar radiation can cause fading and discoloration of
building materials, such as carpets, curtains, paints, upholstery, and general finishes. Ultraviolet

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radiation from the sun can degrade dyes, pigments, and plastics, resulting in unsightly and faded
surfaces.
4. Cost of maintenance: buildings exposed to high level of solar radiation may require
more frequent maintenance due to cracking and warping of materials caused by thermal
expansion and contraction.
5. Green Energy Production: solar radiation can also be harnessed to produce renewable
energy, reducing building’s reliance on traditional power sources.
In summary, while solar radiation can provide several benefits to buildings, its negative effects
should be considered during design and maintenance to improve efficiency and longevity.

EFFECTS OF HUMIDITY ON BUILDINGS

1. Mold growth: high humidity levels encourages mold spores’ growth on walls and
ceilings. Mold not only affects aesthetics but also can cause respiratory issues.
2. Dampness: high humidity levels can lead to dampness in the building, especially in
basements and crawl spaces. Dampness can cause damage to structures and finishes, such as
paint or wallpaper.
3. Corrosion: high humidity levels can speed up metal corrosion, which can lead to
structural damage.
4. Flooring damage: high humidity levels can damage wooden floors and cause warping,
buckling, and cupping. This can lead to uneven and unstable surface, which can be dangerous to
walk on.
5. Odors: high humidity levels can cause unpleasant odors in buildings, especially in areas
where water has accumulated.
6. Electrical issues: high humidity levels can cause electrical systems to malfunction,
which can be dangerous and costly to repair.
In summary, high humidity levels in building can cause significant damage to buildings and
negatively impact indoor air quality. Proper ventilation, dehumidification, and maintenance can
help prevent these problems.

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EFFECTS OF PRECIPITATION/RAINFALL ON BUILDINGS
1. Water damage: rainwater that is not properly drained away from a building can seep
through the walls, roof, and foundation, leading to water damage and mold growth.
2. Erosion and foundation damage: heavy rainfall can cause soil erosion around the
foundation of a building, making it unstable and susceptible to cracks, settlements, or movement.
3. Roof damage: strong wind and heavy rainstorms can damage the roof of a building by
dislodging tiles, shingles, or flashings, which can lead to leaks and water infiltration.
4. Flooding flash floods can occur when there is an intense downpour of rain, causing water
to accumulate in low-lying areas around buildings and leading to property damage and even loss
of life.
5. Ice damage: during winter, freezing rain or snow can cause nice buildup on roofs,
gutters, and downpours, causing them to collapse or break off from the building.
6. Structural damage: excessive amounts of precipitation can cause saturation of the
ground and put additional weight and pressure on the building’s foundation and structure,
potentially leading to cracks or collapse.

EFFECTS OF WIND ON BUILDINGS

High-speed winds can cause structural damage to buildings and even cause them to collapse.
Wind can also increase the rate of temperature loss or gain in a building, leading to increased
energy consumption. Areas with strong wings require stronger structures to ensure stability and
safety. Fast winds will also affect ventilation systems of a building, as well as the wind turbines
and solar panels used for renewable energy.
Proper building orientation should be ensured, in order to make use of the prevailing winds
direction in the area for natural ventilation, thus reducing the cost of mechanical/artificial
ventilations such as fans, air-conditioners etc.
1. Structural damage: strong winds can cause structural damage to buildings, particularly
in areas with high wind speeds. The wind can cause windows to shatter, roofs to lift off, and
walls to collapse.

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2. Air pressure: wind creates a difference in air pressure on either side of the building. This
difference creates a suction force on the leeward side of the building, which can pull the building
away from its foundation.
3. Vibrations: wind can cause vibrations that can damage buildings over time. These
vibrations can cause cracks in the walls or foundation of the building.
4. Noise: strong winds can create a significant amount of noise as they pass over buildings.
This noise can be disruptive to the occupants of the building and can cause damage to the
structure over time.
5. Energy consumption: high wind can result to high energy consumption and leading to
high cost of heating in order to regulate the indoor temperature for the comfort of the occupants.

EFFECTS OF SNOW & ICE ON BUILDINGS

1. Roof damage: excess weight from heavy snow or ice accumulation can cause structural
damage to a building’s roof. Roof leaks can also occur due to melting snow or ice.
2. Foundation damage: when snow and ice melt and refreeze, it may cause water to seep
into the foundation, leading to cracks in the walls or floor.
3. Pipe damage: cold weather can cause pipes to freeze, and when they thaw, they may
burst, leading to extensive property damage.
4. Structural damage: the weight of the snow and ice coating the walls or window sills of
a building can cause them to bend, warp, or even break.
5. Slip and fall risk: snow and ice on walkways, entrances, and balconies can pose severe
safety hazards for people entering or exiting a building.
6. Moisture damage: as snow and ice melt, the water may seep into the walls and floors of
a building, leading to mold growth and other moisture-related problems.
These are some of the potential effects of snow and ice on buildings. Therefore, it is
recommended to take the necessary measures to protect buildings from the adverse effects of
snow and ice, such as removing excess snow, insulating the foundations and roofs, and repairing
any damages that may arise.

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Lecture Note 2:

BUILDING ORIENTATION
Orientation is how a building is positioned in relation to the sun’s paths in different seasons, as
well as to prevailing wind patterns. In passive design, it is also about how living and sleeping
areas are designed and positioned, either to take advantage of the sun and wind, or be protected
from their effects.
Orientation is simply what compass direction the building faces. Does it face directly south? 80°
east-northeast?
Along with massing, orientation can be the most important step in providing a building with
passive thermal and visual comfort. Orientation should be decided together with massing early in
the design process, as neither can be truly optimized without the other.
Orientation is measured by the azimuth angle of a surface relative to true north. Successful
orientation rotates the building to minimize energy loads and maximize free energy from the sun
and wind.
Proper orientation can also take advantage of other site conditions, such as rainwater harvesting
driven by prevailing winds. It can even help the building contribute to the health and vitality of
the surrounding social, and economic communities, by orienting courtyards or other social
spaces to connect street life.
Building orientation refers to the positioning of a building on its site with respect to the sun,
wind, view, and surrounding environment. The orientation of a building can have significant
impacts on its energy efficiency and comfort level for occupants. For example, a building that is
south-facing can take advantage of passive solar heating, while a building with large windows
facing west may experience significant heat gain in the afternoon. Other factors that are
considered when determining building orientation include prevailing winds, topography, and site
context. By designing buildings with careful consideration of their orientation, architects can
create spaces that are not only beautiful, but also comfortable and sustainable.

Orientation for Visual Comfort

Shading Devices

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Shading devices are elements of the building that prevent the penetration of unwanted climatic
elements from gaining access into the building.
Shading devices are elements of the building that prevent the penetration of solar radiation into
the building in summer, while allowing the needed solar gains in winter, which leads to a better
thermal comfort with significant energy savings. Moreover, they play an important role in
managing visual environment, protecting the openings from atmospheric agent, and providing a
sculptured skin for buildings. However, these devices, if inappropriately designed and selected,
can cause increased need for artificial light and prevent the healthy winter solar radiation.
Shading devices can be classified into two main categories: fixed and mobile devices. Fixed
devices include overhangs, horizontal/vertical louvers, and egg-crates. Mobile devices include
Venetian blinds, vertical blinds, roller shades, and deciduous plants. Mobile shading devices
allow, manually or by automated systems, to control sunlight based on adaptation of solar
radiation, indoor temperature, or illuminance level. Generally, mobile devices generate higher
yearly energy savings since they permit winter sun and block direct summer sun. Fig. 18 shows
roller shades mounted on the interior part of a classroom for controllable solar energy gain and
daylight.
Shading devices on the external side of the window include shutters, awnings, canopies, blinds,
and projecting horizontal and vertical fins. Correctly designed, these sun controls are the most
effective of all for reducing solar radiation since the absorbed heat is dissipated externally. These
devices, which can be fixed, adjustable or retractable, have to be designed to prevent direct
radiation falling on the window at appropriate times of the day and year. Fixed projections are
most suitable in the tropics and subtropics where the sun's altitude is high but less effective in
temperate regions such as Britain. This is because they would have to project a distance further
than the window height to give adequate protection at low sun angles. In so doing, daylight
would be reduced and possibly impair the visual environment. Balconies have been used to good
effect in some buildings, a notable example being Guy's Hospital tower in London, a detail of
which is shown in the figure below. (The balcony also assists with window cleaning.) Adjustable
external louvers can have high maintenance costs; manual operation is impractical if the building
is more than two stories high.

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There are many different reasons to want to control the amount of sunlight that is admitted into a
building. In warm, sunny climates excess solar gain may result in high cooling energy
consumption; in cold and temperate climates winter sun entering south-facing windows can
positively contribute to passive solar heating; and in nearly all climates controlling and diffusing
natural illumination will improve daylighting.
Well-designed sun control and shading devices can dramatically reduce building peak heat gain
and cooling requirements and improve the natural lighting quality of building interiors.
Depending on the amount and location of fenestration, reductions in annual cooling energy
consumption of 5% to 15% have been reported. Sun control and shading devices can also
improve user visual comfort by controlling glare and reducing contrast ratios. This often leads to
increased satisfaction and productivity. Shading devices offer the opportunity of differentiating
one building facade from another. This can provide interest and human scale to an otherwise
undistinguished design.
he use of sun control and shading devices is an important aspect of many energy-efficient
building design strategies. In particular, buildings that employ passive solar
heating or daylighting often depend on well-designed sun control and shading devices.

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During cooling seasons, external window shading is an excellent way to prevent unwanted solar
heat gain from entering a conditioned space. Shading can be provided by natural landscaping or
by building elements such as awnings, overhangs, and trellises. Some shading devices can also
function as reflectors, called light shelves, which bounce natural light for daylighting deep into
building interiors.
The design of effective shading devices will depend on the solar orientation of a particular
building facade. For example, simple fixed overhangs are very effective at shading south-facing
windows in the summer when sun angles are high. However, the same horizontal device is
ineffective at blocking low afternoon sun from entering west-facing windows during peak heat
gain periods in the summer.
Exterior shading devices are particularly effective in conjunction with clear glass facades.
However, high-performance glazing are now available that have very low shading coefficients
(SC). When specified, these new glass products reduce the need for exterior shading devices.
Thus, solar control and shading can be provided by a wide range of building components
including:
 Landscape features such as mature trees or hedge rows;
 Exterior elements such as overhangs or vertical fins;

 Horizontal reflecting surfaces called light shelves;

 Low shading coefficient (SC) glass; and,

 Interior glare control devices such as Venetian blinds or adjustable louvers.

Aluminum architectural sun shade, horizontal sun control device, vertical fins

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Fixed exterior shading devices such as overhangs are generally most practical for small
commercial buildings. The optimal length of an overhang depends on the size of the window and
the relative importance of heating and cooling in the building.
In the summer, peak sun angles occur at the solstice on June 21, but peak temperature and
humidity are more likely to occur in August. Remember that an overhang sized to fully shade a
south-facing window in August will also shade the window in April when some solar heat may
be desirable.

Designing Shading Systems

Given the wide variety of buildings and the range of climates in which they can be found, it is
difficult to make sweeping generalizations about the design of shading devices. However, the
following design recommendations generally hold true:
1. Use fixed overhangs on south-facing glass to control direct beam solar radiation. Indirect
(diffuse) radiation should be controlled by other measures, such as low-e glazing.
2. To the greatest extent possible, limit the amount of east and west glass since it is harder
to shade than south glass. Consider the use of landscaping to shade east and west
exposures.
3. Do not worry about shading north-facing glass in the continental United States latitudes
since it receives very little direct solar gain. In the tropics, disregard this rule-of-thumb
since the north side of a building will receive more direct solar gain. Also, in the tropics
consider shading the roof even if there are no skylights since the roof is a major source of
transmitted solar gain into the building.
4. Remember that shading effects daylighting; consider both simultaneously. For example, a
light shelf bounces natural light deeply into a room through high windows while shading
lower windows.
5. Do not expect interior shading devices such as Venetian blinds or vertical louvers to
reduce cooling loads since the solar gain has already been admitted into the work space.
However, these interior devices do offer glare control and can contribute to visual acuity
and visual comfort in the work place.

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 6. Study sun angles. An understanding of sun angles is critical to various aspects of design
including determining basic building orientation, selecting shading devices, and
placing Building Integrated Photovoltaic (BIPV) panels or solar collectors.
7. Carefully consider the durability of shading devices. Over time, operable shading devices
can require a considerable amount of maintenance and repair.
8. When relying on landscape elements for shading, be sure to consider the cost of
landscape maintenance and upkeep on life-cycle cost.
9. Shading strategies that work well at one latitude, may be completely inappropriate for
other sites at different latitudes. Be careful when applying shading ideas from one project
to another.

Getting Familiar with Solar Shading Devices - Architects Zone

https://architects.zone/solar-shading-devices/

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Shading devices can be classified into two main categories: fixed and mobile devices. Fixed
devices include overhangs, horizontal/vertical louvers, and egg-crates. Mobile devices include
Venetian blinds, vertical blinds, roller shades, and deciduous plants. Shading devices can also be
classified according to their position relative to the frame in external and internal shading
devices. There are three types of solar shading devices: movable opaque shading devices, louvers
(fixed, adjustable, or removable), and fixed overhangs. A wide range of adjustable shading
products is commercially available from canvas awnings to solar screens, roll-down blinds,
shutters, and vertical louvers.

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