“Study the past if you would define the future.

” – Confucius
OSTATYTI
Content, Contextual, and Subtext Analyses are methods of data analysis in historical
research.

1. Content/ Textual Analysis

Content analysis is a research method for studying documents and
communication artifacts, which can be texts of various formats, pictures, audio or video.
Social scientists use content analysis to quantify patterns in communication, in a
replicable and systematic manner. One of the key advantages of this research method is to
analyze social phenomena in a non-invasive way, in contrast to simulating social
experiences or collecting survey answers.
Practices and philosophies of content analysis vary between scholarly
communities. They all involve systematic reading or observation of texts or artifacts which are
assigned labels or codes to indicate the presence of interesting, meaningful patterns. After
labeling a large set of media, a researcher is able to statistically estimate the proportions of
patterns in the texts, as well as correlations between patterns.
Computers are increasingly used in content analysis, to automate the labeling (or
coding) of documents. Simple computational techniques can provide descriptive data such as
word frequencies and document lengths. (Wikipedia, 2018)

a. Goals of Content Analysis

Content analysis is best understood as a broad family of techniques. Effective
researchers choose techniques that best help them answer their substantive questions. That
said, according to Klaus Krippendorff, six questions must be addressed in every content
analysis:
1. Which data are analyzed?
2. How are the data defined?
3. From what population are data drawn?
4. What is the relevant context?
5. What are the boundaries of the
analysis? .6. What is to be measured?

The simplest and most objective form of content analysis considers unambiguous
characteristics of the text such as word frequencies, the page area taken by a newspaper
 column, or the duration of a radio or television program. Analysis of simple word frequencies
is limited because the meaning of a word depends on surrounding text.
A further step in analysis is the distinction between dictionary-based
(quantitative) approaches and qualitative approaches. Dictionary-based approaches set up a
list of categories derived from the frequency list of words and control the distribution of
words and their respective categories over the texts. While methods in quantitative content
analysis in this way transform observations of found categories into quantitative statistical
data, the qualitative content analysis focuses more on the intentionality and its implications.
There are strong parallels between qualitative content analysis and thematic analysis.
(Wikipedia, 2018)

There are five types of texts in content analysis:

1. written text, such as books and papers

2. oral text, such as speech and theatrical performance

3. iconic text, such as drawings, paintings, and icons

4. audio-visual text, such as TV programs, movies, and videos

5. hypertexts, which are texts found on the Internet

c. Types of Content Analysis

There are two general categories of content analysis: conceptual analysis and
relational analysis.
1. Conceptual analysis can be thought of as establishing the existence and
frequency of concepts in a text.
2. Relational analysis builds on conceptual analysis by examining the relationships
among concepts in a text.

1. Conceptual Analysis
Traditionally, content analysis has most often been thought of in terms of conceptual
analysis. In conceptual analysis, a concept is chosen for examination and the number of
its occurrences within the text recorded. Because terms may be implicit as well as
explicit, it is important to clearly define implicit terms before the beginning of the counting
process. To limit the subjectivity in the definitions of concepts, specialized dictionaries are
used.
As with most other research methods, conceptual analysis begins with identifying
research questions and choosing a sample or samples. Once chosen, the text must be
coded into manageable content categories. The process of coding is basically one of
selective reduction which is the central idea in content analysis. By breaking down the
contents of materials into meaningful and pertinent units of information, certain
characteristics of the message may be analyzed and interpreted.
An example of a conceptual analysis would be to examine a text and to code it for
the existence of certain words. In looking at this text, the research question might involve
examining the number of positive words used to describe an argument, as opposed to
the number of negative words used to describe a current status or opposing argument.
The researcher would be interested only in quantifying these words, not in examining
how they are related, which is a function of relational analysis. In conceptual analysis,
the researcher simply wants to examine presence with respect to his/her research
question, i.e. whether there is a stronger presence of positive or negative words used with
respect to a specific argument or respective arguments.

2. Relational Analysis

As stated above, relational analysis builds on conceptual analysis by examinino the

relationships among concepts in a text. And as with other sorts of inquiry, initial choices
with regard to what is being studied and/or coded for often determine the possibilities of
that particular study. For relational analysis, it is important to first decide which concept type(s)
will be explored in the analysis. Studies have been conducted with as few as one and as
many as 500 concept categories. Obviously, too many categories may obscure your results
and too few can lead to unreliable and potentially invalid conclusions, Therefore, it is important
to allow the context and necessities of your research to guide your coding procedures.
There are many techniques of relational analysis available and this flexibility
makes for it's popularity. Researchers can devise their own procedures according to the
nature of their project. Once a procedure is rigorously tested, it can be applied and
compared across populations over time. The process of relational analysis has
achieved a high degree of computer automation but still is, like most forms of research,
time consuming. Perhaps the strongest claim that can be made is that it maintains a high
degree of statistical rigor without losing the richness of detail apparent in even more
qualitative methods.

d. How to Use Content Analysis

1. The first step involves preparing a coding schedule. This consists of a table where
each row is a unit for which data is being collected (e.g.an assignment or discussion
contribution might be a unit of data collection). Each column is a dimension or theme for the
analysis that will depend on your evaluation questions. For a discussion contribution for
example these dimensions might be the type of contribution, the contributor, the timing of the
contribution. There should be no overlap in dimensions. Themes are therefore predefined,
unlike the qualitative approach of template analysis where themes may emerge during the
analysis.
 2. A coding manual is then produced to accompany the coding schedule, listing the codes for
each of the categories that are valid for each dimension to ensure reliability and consistency
in the coding. For example, for the contributor dimension, valid codes and categories might
be 1- student, 2-tutor. There should be no overlap in the categories. Codes for each
observation of a category are entered into the appropriate cells in the schedule.

3. Elements of the content are described and organized using these categories. This
process is called coding and, particularly if appropriate software is used to aid the process,
enables more efficient sorting and retrieval of data by each category.

4. Categories are used to describe the information that is emerging from this data. The unit of
analysis may be different than that used for data collection. This is the level at which data is
analyzed and findings reported. In the example of the discussion forum already used, the
purpose of the analysis is to provide insight into the interaction between the participants and
therefore analysis at the level of a single contribution would be meaningless. The unit of
analysis would need to be the whole discussion.

5. The coded content is quantitatively analyzed for trends, patterns, relation similarities,
differences etc. This may suggest further avenues of inquiry sus qualitative approaches that
seek insight into possible reasons for these relationships and trends. (University of Sheffield,
2014)

e. Issues of Reliability and validity

The issues of reliability and validity are concurrent with those addressed in other
research methods. The reliability of a content analysis study refers to its stability, or the
tendency for coders to consistently re-code the same data in the same way over a period of
time; reproducibility, or the tendency for a group of coders to classify categories membership in
the same way; and accuracy, or the extent to which the classification of a text corresponds to a
standard or norm statistically."
The overarching problem of concept analysis research is the challengeable
nature of conclusions reached by its inferential procedures. The question lies in what level of
implication is allowable, i.e. do the conclusions follow from the data or are they explainable
due to some other phenomenon? For occurrence-specific studies, for example, can the
second occurrence of a word carry equal weight as the ninety-ninth? Reasonable
conclusions can be drawn from substantive amounts of quantitative data, but the question of
proof may still remain unanswered.
The generalizability of one's conclusions, then, is very dependent on how one
determines concept categories, as well as on how reliable those categories are. It is
imperative that one defines categories that accurately measure the idea and/or items one is
seeking to measure. Akin to this is the construction of rules. Developing rules that allow one,
and others, to categorize and code the same data in the same way over a period of time,
referred to as stability, is essential to the success of a conceptual analysis. Reproducibility,
not only of specific categories, but of general methods applied to establishing all sets of
categories, makes a study, and its subsequent conclusions and results, more sound.
 f. Advantages of Content Analysis
Content analysis offers several advantages to researchers who consider using it.
In particular, content analysis:
a looks directly at communication via texts or transcripts, and hence gets at the
central aspect of social interaction
b. can allow for both quantitative and qualitative operations
c. can provides valuable historical/cultural insights over time through analysis of
texts
d. allows a closeness to text which can alternate between specific categories and
relationships and also statistically analyzes the coded form of the text
e. can be used to interpret texts for purposes such as the development of expert
systems (since knowledge and rules can both be coded in terms of explicit statements
about the relationships among concepts)
f. is an unobtrusive means of analyzing interactions
g, provides insight into complex models of human thought and language use
h. when done well, is considered as a relatively "exact” research method (based on
hard facts, as opposed to Discourse Analysis).

g. Disadvantages of Content Analysis

Content analysis suffers from several advantages, both theoretical and procedural.
In particular, content analysis:
a. can be extremely time consuming
b. is subject to increased error, particularly when relational analysis is used to attain
a higher level of interpretation
c. is often devoid of theoretical base, or attempts too liberally to draw meaningful
inferences about the relationships and impacts implied in a study
d. is inherently reductive, particularly when dealing with complex texts
e tends too often to simply consist of word counts
f. often disregards the context that produced the text, as well as the state of things
after the text is produced
g. can be difficult to automate or computerize

A contextual analysis is an analysis of a text (in whatever medium, including

multi-media) that helps us to assess that text within the context of its historical and cultural
setting, and also in terms of its textuality-or the qualities that characterize the text as a text.
A contextual analysis combines features of formal analysis with features of
"cultural archeology," or the systematic study of social, political, economic, philosophical,
religious, and aesthetic conditions that were (or can be assumed to have been) in place at the
time and place when the text was created.
 While this may sound complicated, it is in reality deceptively simple: it means
"situating" the text within the milieu of its times and assessing the roles of author, readers
(intended and actual), and "commentators" (critics, both professional and otherwise) in the
reception of the text. (Behrendt, 2008)

a. How to Use Contextual Analysis

A contextual analysis can proceed along many lines, depending upon how
complex one wishes to make the analysis. But it generally includes several key questions:
1. What does the text reveal about itself as a text?
• Describe (or characterize) the language (the words, or vocabulary) and the
rhetoric (how the words are arranged in order to achieve some purpose).
These are the primary components of style.
2. What does the text tell us about its apparent intended audience(s)?

What sort of reader does the author seem to have envisioned, as demonstrated
by the text's language and rhetoric?
 What sort of qualifications does the text appear to require of its intended
reader(s)? How can we tell?
 What sort of readers appear to be excluded from the text's intended audiences?
How can we tell?
 Is there, perhaps, more than one intended audience?
3. What seems to have been the author's intention?
 Why did the author write this text? And why did the author write this text in
this particular way, as opposed to other ways in which the text might have been
written?
 Remember that any text is the result of deliberate decisions by the author. The
author has chosen to write (or paint, or whatever) with these particular words
and has therefore chosen not to use other words that she or he might have
used. So, we need to consider:
- what the author said (the words that have been
selected);
- what the author did not say (the words that were not selected);
and
- how the author said it (as opposed to other ways it might or could
have been said).
4. What is the occasion for this text? That is, is it written in response to:
 some particular, specific contemporary incident or event?
 some more "general" observation by the author about human affairs and/or
experiences?
• some definable set of cultural circumstances?
5. Is the text intended as some sort of call to - or for - action?
 • If so, by whom? And why?
 And also, if so, what action(s)
does the author want the
reader(s) to take?
6. Is the text intended rather as some
sort of call to - or for - reflection or
consideration rather than direct action?
 If so, what does the author seem to wish the reader to think about and ta
conclude or decide?
 Why does the author wish the readers to do this?
• What is to be gained, and by whom?

7. Can we identify any non-textual circumstances that affected the creation and
reception of the text?
Such circumstances include historical or political events, economic factors, cultural
practices, and intellectual or aesthetic issues, as well as the particular circumstances of
the author's own life. (Behrendt, 2008)

Importance of Context in Analysis and Interpretation by Grace Fleming,

edited by Stacy Jagodowski
January 28, 2018

Historical context is an important part of life and literature and without it, memories,
stories and characters have less meaning.
But what exactly is historical context? It's essentially the details that surround an
occurrence. In more technical terms, historical context refers to the social, religious,
economic, and political conditions that existed during a certain time and place.
Basically, it's all the details of the time and place in which a situation occurs, and
those details are what enable us to interpret and analyze works or events of the past, or even
the future, rather than merely judge them by contemporary standards.
A strong understanding of the historical context behind a work's creation can give us
a better understanding of and appreciation for the narrative. In analyzing historical events,
context can help us understand what motivates people to behave as they did.
Put another way, context is what gives meaning to the details. It's important,
however, that you don't confuse context with cause. "Cause" is the action that creates an
outcome;" context" is the environment in which that action and outcome occurs. (Fleming,
2010)
... Whether dealing with fact or fiction, historical context is important when interpreting
behavior and speech. (Fleming, 2010)
...No work of literature can be fully appreciated or understood without historical context.
What may seem nonsensical or even offensive to contemporary sensibilities, might
actually be interpreted in a completely different manner by considering the era u n
(Fleming, 2010)
Scholars and educators rely on historical context to analyze and interpret WINS of art,
literature, music, dance, and poetry. Architects and builders rely on it when designing
new structures and restoring existing buildings. Judges may use it to interpret the law,
historians to understand the past. Any time critical analysis is required, you may need to
consider historical context as well.
Without historical context, we are only seeing a piece of the scene and not fully
understanding the influence of the time and place in which a situation occurred.
(Fleming, 2010)

3. Subtext

The subtext of a document or object refers to its secondary and implied meanings. The
subtext embraces the emotional or intellectual messages embedded in, or implied by
the document or object.
The epic poems of the ancient Greeks, for instance, which glorify prowess and physical
courage in battle, suggest that such virtues are exclusively male. The state portraits of
Napoleon Bonaparte carry the subtext of unassailable and absolute power. Andy
Warhol's serial adaptation of soup cans and Coca-Cola bottles offer wry commentary
on the supermarket mentality of postmodern American culture. Identifying the implicit
message of an artwork helps us to determine the values and customs of the age in
which it was produced and to assess those values against others.

Summary
Text
• What is visible/readable, i.e., what information is provided by the source?

Context
 What was going on during the time period? What background informa tion
do you have that helps explain the information found in the source?"

Subtext
• What is between the lines? Ask questions about the following:
Author: Who created the source, and what do we know about that person?
Audience: For whom was the source created?
Reason: Why was this source produced when it was