PRACTICAL RESEARCH | FINALS 3.
Structured observation
LESSON 15: QUALITATIVE METHODS
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS
• Understands the behavior and perception of the
target audience on a particular subject.
TYPES OF QUALITATIVE METHODS
1. Observations
• Systematically observing participant/s in their
natural setting.
• Researcher can participate or remain an observer.
• Provide rich and detailed information about the
context, social interactions, and behavior of the
participants.
• Documented through notes and audio/video
recordings.
2. Interviews
• Widely used method involving open-ended
questions (How, What, Why).
• May be structured, semi-structured, or
unstructured interviews.
• Conducted face-to-face, over the phone, or
online.
3. Document analysis
• Collecting data by examining written or visual
materials (letters, diaries, newspapers,
photographs, archival records).
• Provides historical or contextual perspective.
• Offers insights into attitudes, beliefs, and values of
the owners of the documents.
• Analyzes content, language, and symbols used.
OBSERVATION
TYPES OF OBSERVATIONS
1. Participant observation
• Researcher actively participates.
• Gains insider perspective.
• Difficulties in maintaining objectivity and
avoiding bias.
2. Non-participant observation
• Researcher studies from a distance
without actively participating.
• Difficulties in understanding the group's
culture, values, and beliefs.
• Maintains objectivity and avoids bias.
• Group is observed according to pre-
determined set of behaviors or events.
• Gathers specific data and may not provide
complete understanding of behaviors and
interactions.
4. Unstructured observation
• Group is observed without pre-
determined set of behaviors or events.
• Gives holistic understanding but is difficult
to analyze due to unstructured format.
OPTION WITHIN TYPES
1. Complete Observer
• Researcher is neither seen nor noticed,
allowing participants to act naturally.
2. Observer as Participant
• Researcher is known and recognized.
• Sometimes, participants know the
research goals.
3. Participant as Observer
• Observation role.
• Researcher is fully engaged and act as a
friend or colleague than a neutral third
party.
• Participants are aware of the researcher.
4. Complete Participant
• Fully embedded observer (like a spy).
• Researcher is fully engaged with unaware
participants.
INTERVIEW
TYPES OF INTERVIEWS
1. Structured interviews
• Pre-determined set of questions in a fixed
order.
• Allows easy comparison between the
participants responses.
• Limits in-depth exploration.
2. Semi-structured interviews
• Follows set of open-ended questions but
allows flexibility in order and wording.
• Allow in-depth exploration.
• Requires more time and effort to analyze.
3. Unstructured interviews
• No pre-determined set of questions or
fixed order.
• Allows the greatest flexibility.
• Requires high level skill and experience to
effectively guide the conversation.
OPTION WITHIN TYPES
1. Telephone/ Call Interview
• Affords certain amount of flexibility.
2. Focus group
• Interviewing participants in groups.
• Between 6 to 8 participants lasting 1 to 2
hours.
• Small groups may lose mutual stimulation,
whilst large groups are difficult to
manage.
3. Email/ Internet interview
• Information is exchanged online within a
particular time-frame.
INTERVIEW PROTOCOL (CRESWELL)
1. Basic Information about the Interview.
2. Introduction.
3. Opening Question.
4. Content Questions (sub-questions based on the
central topic).
5. Closing Instructions.
DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
TYPES OF DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
1. Content analysis
• Examination themes, patterns, and
categories.
• Identifies trends and patterns.
• Limited by document availability and
quality.
2. Discourse analysis
• Examination of language and discourse
(social and cultural context).
• Identifies meanings and interpretationsof
language use.
• Requires high level skill and expertise.
3. Historical analysis
• Examination of documents over time to
understand changes and developments.
• Insights into evolution of concepts.
• Limited by availability and quality of
documents.
OPTION WITHIN TYPES
1. Public Documents – minutes of the meeting or
newspaper references.
2. Private Documents – journals, diaries, or letters.
VALUES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS
• Captures complex and nuanced phenomena.
• Provides contextual understanding.
• Allows flexibility and adaptability.
• Gives voice to marginalized.
LESSON 16: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
SURVEY
• Evaluation of experiences or opinions via
questions as opposed to a questionnaire.
• Collection of written/printed questions with
choices.
QUESTIONNAIRE
• Set of questions used for research purposes.
• Qualitative and quantitative in nature.
• Open-ended questions via email, telephone, or
face-to-face meetings
THREE MAJOR PARTS
• Demographic information
• Background information
• Question Proper
QUALITATIVE DATA
It gathers non-numerical information (words, images,
observations) to understand the meaning behind human
experiences, behaviors, and perspectives.
Characterized by the ff:
• Approximates and characterizes data.
• Observed and recorded.
• Non-numerical in nature.
• Uses of observation, one-to-one interviews, focus
groups, etc.
• Categorical data – data arranged categorically
based on the attributes of a phenomenon.
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS CONSIDER THE FOLLOWING
INDIVIDUAL INTERVIEWS AND THE QUESTIONNAIRE 1. Question development.
• Interview questionnaire — designed to elicit 2. Question Type (Open- and closed-ended).
interviewee’s knowledge or perspective 3. Wording.
concerning the topic. 4. Order
QUALITATIVE SURVEYS LESSON 17: QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
• Collects textual data and uses more open-ended DATA
questions.
• Facts, figures, objects, symbols, and events
• Paper/Online surveys.
gathered from different sources.
• 15 to 20 questions, administered 3-5 (online)
maximum of 20 minutes (face-to-face) QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS INVOLVES
• Identification, examination, and interpretation of
FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSIONS
recurring patterns and themes to answer research
• Audio and tape recording, note-taking, and
questions.
participant observation.
• Acc national science foundation (1997):
RECORD KEEPING ✓ Not guided by universal rules.
• Records data as reliable documents and other ✓ Dependent on the evaluator and the
sources of information (i.e.: interviews, context of the study.
observation, existing documents). ✓ Changes and adapts as study evolves.
OBSERVATIONS BASIC TECHNIQUES OF QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
• Traditional method of collecting qualitative data. 1. Deductive Approach (General to Specific)
• Researcher-defined structure.
Covert — observer is concealed and participants are
• Quick and easy if researcher knows what
unaware they’re being observed.
the sample population will say.
Overt — Participants are aware they’re being watched. Existing Formulate Analyze Accet/reject
Collect Data
Theory Hypothesis data hypothesis
OBSERVATION PROTOCOL
2. Inductive Approach (Specific to General)
• Tool used to record observations during fieldwork.
• No structure or framework.
• Guidelines on what is observed, the context of the
• Used when researcher has little info
observation, and other relevant details.
(bottom-up approach).
• Provide data that illustrate events during
observation. Speci fic Observation Pa ttern Recognition General Conclusion

CREATING A SURVEYS AND QUESTIONNAIRES STEPS OF QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

1. Identify questions related to your RQs.
2. Determine the target population.
3. Select appropriate…
Survey method - online, telephone, etc.
Questionnaire format - paper/online based.
4. Develop the survey questions.
5. Determine the question format.
6. Avoid leading questions.
7. Consider of question order.
8. Make survey length reasonable.
9. Include demographic questions.
10. Test the survey.
11. Pilot the survey.
12. Obtain ethical approval.
13. Administer the survey.
1. Process and Record Data Immediately
• Things that stuck out to you.
• Time/date details.
• Other observations.
• Highlights from interaction.
2. Begin Analyzing as Data is Being Collected
3. Data Reduction
4. Identify Meaningful Patterns and Themes
• Core of qualitative data analysis.
5. Data Display
• Graphic, table/matrix, or textual display.
6. Conclusion Drawing and Verification
TWO WAYS OF IDENTIFYING PATTERNS AND THEMES • Emphasizes importance of the finding.
1. Content analysis • Brief overview of content and organization.
• Categorizing- coding the data for certain • Offers recommendations for continuation.
words.
• Scanning, discussing, comparing- CONCLUSION
Identifying themes, patterns, and • judgment statements — investigation.
relationships. • Involves summary of findings & issues.
• Summarizing- Interpreting their SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
meanings.
2. Thematic analysis • Brief overview of main findings and results of the
• Grouping data into themes that will study.
answer the research question. • Key insights and implications.
✓ Pre-set before data collection. • Clear and concise.
✓ Naturally emerged as study was DISCUSSION OF ISSUES
conducted.
• Broader implications and issues raised.
LESSON 18
• Includes…
KEY CHAPTERS
✓ Considerations and limitations.
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
✓ Suggestions for further research.
• Background information. ✓ Implications of the findings.
• Research question. • Significance and contribution of the findings to
• Significance and purpose of the study. society.
• Scope and delimitation.
RECOMMENDATIONS
• logical suggestions— result of research.
CHAPTER 2: RRL • Includes…
✓ Key findings and implications.
• Summarizes and synthesizes existing literature. ✓ Broader context of findings.
• Gaps, controversies, and limitations in previous ✓ Actionable recommendations.
literature
• Theoretical framework or conceptual model. REPORTING
• Either orally or in written format presented.

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ORAL

• Used research design and methods. • Presented to an audience verbally.

• Sampling strategy. • Uses visual aids or handouts, and may include an
• Describes data collection and analysis. open forum.
• Allows audience engagement.

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND FINDINGS WRITTEN PRESENTATIONS

• Presents the data and findings. • Includes a research report or manuscript,

• Detailed descriptions and explanations of submitted to a journal or presented as a thesis or
recurring themes and patterns. dissertation.
• Uses quotes or examples from data collected. • Allows researcher to present findings in a detailed
and structured way.

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

BASIC STRUCTURE OF A RESEARCH ARTICLE
• Summarizes main points. 1. Title
• Restates research question and significance. 2. Introduction
3. Methods
4. Results
5. Discussion
6. Conclusion
7. References

IMRAD FORMAT
• I - Introduction
• M - Method
• R - (Analysis) Results
• D - Discussion