ASSIGNMENT NO.

3
FUNDAMENTAL TYPES OF TISSUES: Epithelial Cells and Tissues

At the end of the course the students should be able to:

I. Describe the four fundamental types of tissues.

The four fundamental types of tissues in the human body are epithelial tissue, connective tissue,
muscle tissue, and nervous tissue. These tissues serve distinct functions and are composed of
specialized cells with unique characteristics.

II. Discuss the Epithelial tissues and its subtypes.

1. Enumerate the structural and functional characteristics of epithelial tissue.

Epithelial Tissue:

Location: Covers the body's surfaces, lines body cavities, and forms the lining of organs and
glands.

Structure: Composed of tightly packed cells with little to no extracellular matrix. Cells are often
arranged in layers.

Functions: Epithelial tissue serves as a protective barrier, facilitates absorption and secretion, and
can be specialized for various functions such as sensing or transporting substances.

Connective Tissue:

Location: Found throughout the body, including in bones, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, blood,
and adipose tissue (fat).

Structure: Comprised of cells dispersed within an extracellular matrix, which can be gel-like
(in cartilage), fibrous( in tendons), or fluid (in blood).

Functions: Connective tissue provides structural support, connects and anchors body parts, stores
energy, and participates in immune responses and blood clotting.

Muscle Tissue:

Location: Primarily in the skeletal muscles, cardiac muscle of the heart, and smooth muscle in
organs such as the intestines and blood vessels.

Structure: Composed of elongated cells called muscle fibers that contain contractile proteins
(actin and myosin).
Functions: Muscle tissue is responsible for generating force and facilitating movement. Skeletal
muscles allow voluntary movement, while cardiac and smooth muscles function involuntarily to
pump blood and move substances through organs.

Nervous Tissue:

Location: Mainly in the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves.

Structure: Consists of specialized cells called neurons, which transmit electrical signals, and
supporting cells called glial cells.

Functions: Nervous tissue is responsible for transmitting and processing information in the form
of electrical impulses. Neurons communicate with each other and with other tissues, allowing for
sensory perception, motor control, and higher cognitive functions.

These four types of tissues work together to form the complex structure and functions of organs
and systems in the human body. Additionally, some organs may contain a combination of these
tissue types, enabling them to perform their specialized functions efficiently.

4. Nervous Tissue:
- Location: Primarily found in the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves.

- Function: Nervous tissue is essential for transmitting and processing information in the body.
It consists of neurons (nerve cells) that transmit electrical signals and glial cells that support and
protect neurons.

- Types: Nervous tissue is primarily composed of neurons and glial cells. Neurons transmit
nerve impulses, while glial cells provide support and insulation.

2. Discuss the different subtypes of epithelial tissues and its bases for their
classification.

1. Simple Squamous: Single layer of flattened cells for diffusion; found in blood vessel linings
and lung air sacs.

2. Simple Cuboidal: Single layer of cube-shaped cells for absorption; seen in kidney tubules and
glands.

3. Simple Columnar: Single layer of tall cells for absorption and secretion; lines digestive and
respiratory tracts.
4. Pseudostratified Columnar: Single-layer appearing stratified with cilia; lines respiratory
passages and male reproductive tract.

5. Stratified Squamous: Multiple layers for protection; forms skin, oral cavity, esophagus,
vagina, and anal canal.6. Stratified Cuboidal/Columnar: Rare, multilayered for protection; found
in sweat gland ducts and some glandular ducts.

6. Transitional: Multilayered with changing cell shape for stretching; lines urinary bladder,
ureters, and part of urethra.

3. Identify the sites or locations of the different types and forms of epithelial
tissues.

Certainly, here are the locations of different types of epithelial tissues in the human body:

1. Simple Squamous Epithelium:

- Endothelium: Lines blood vessels.
- Alveoli: Forms lung air sacs.

2. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium:

- Kidney Tubules: Involved in filtration.
- Glands: Lines gland ducts.
- Ovaries: Covers the ovarian surface.

3. Simple Columnar Epithelium:

- Stomach: Lines stomach walls.
- Small Intestine: Involved in nutrient absorption.
- Large Intestine: Functions in water absorption.
- Respiratory Tract: Present in bronchioles.

4. Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium:

- Trachea: Lines the trachea.
- Epididymis: Part of male reproductive tract.

5. Stratified Squamous Epithelium:

- Epidermis: Forms the skin.
- Oral Cavity: Lines the mouth.
- Esophagus, Vagina, Anal Canal: Respective linings.

6. Stratified Cuboidal and Stratified Columnar Epithelium:

- Cuboidal: Found in sweat gland ducts.
- Columnar: Located in parts of the male urethra and glandular ducts.

7. Transitional Epithelium:
- Urinary Bladder: Lines the bladder.
- Ureters: Covers ureteral surfaces.
- Part of Urethra: Present in the urethra
4. Describe the different forms of glandular epithelial tissues and its distribution.

Exocrine Glands:

Structure: Exocrine glands have ducts that transport their secretions to specific target areas. The
secretory cells can be simple or complex in structure.
Function: They secrete various substances, such as enzymes, mucus, sweat, oil, and digestive
juices, into ducts or onto the body's surfaces.
Distribution:
Salivary Glands: Found in the mouth, they secrete saliva for digestion.
Sweat Glands: Distributed throughout the skin, they produce sweat to regulate body
temperature.
Sebaceous Glands: Located in the skin, they secrete sebum (oil) to lubricate hair and skin.
Pancreas: Releases digestive enzymes into the pancreatic duct, which leads to the small
intestine.
Liver: Produces bile, which is transported through bile ducts to the gallbladder and small
intestine.
Mammary Glands: Found in the breasts, they produce milk.
Mucous Glands: Present in the respiratory and digestive tracts, they secrete mucus for lubrication
and protection.

Endocrine Glands:

Structure: Endocrine glands lack ducts and release their secretions (hormones) directly into the
bloodstream.
Function: They regulate various physiological processes and maintain homeostasis by signaling
target cells or tissues.
Distribution:
Pituitary Gland: Located in the brain, it secretes hormones that control other endocrine glands.
Thyroid Gland: Found in the neck, it produces hormones that regulate metabolism.
Adrenal Glands: Situated on top of the kidneys, they release hormones like adrenaline and
cortisol.
Pancreas: In addition to its exocrine function, the pancreas contains islets of Langerhans that
release hormones like insulin and glucagon.
Ovaries and Testes: These reproductive organs secrete sex hormones.
Pineal Gland: Located in the brain, it produces melatonin, which regulates sleep-wake cycles.
Parathyroid Glands: Embedded in the thyroid, they regulate calcium levels in the blood.
III. Discuss the cell cohesion.

1. Enumerate the different junctional complexes.

1. Tight Junctions (Zonula Occludens:
- Function: Form a barrier between adjacent cells, preventing the leakage of fluids and
molecules between them.
- Structure: Composed of transmembrane proteins like claudins and occludins, which seal the
intercellular space.
- Location: Common in epithelial tissues, such as the lining of the digestive tract, to ensure
selective permeability.

2. Adherens Junctions (Zonula Adherens):

 - Function: Provide mechanical strength to tissues and help cells adhere to one another.
- Structure: Cadherin proteins link adjacent cells, connecting the actin cytoskeletons of each
cell.
- Location: Found in various tissues, including the heart, where they play a role in maintaining
tissue integrity.

3. Desmosomes (Macula Adherens):

- Function: Act like spot-welds, anchoring cells together and distributing mechanical stress
evenly.
- Structure: Cadherin proteins attach to intermediate filaments (keratin) within the cell, creating
strong connections.
- Location: Abundant in tissues subject to mechanical stress, such as the skin and cardiac
muscle.

In addition to these three primary junctional complexes, there are other junctions that serve
specific functions:

4. Gap Junctions (Nexus):

- Function: Allow for direct cell-to-cell communication by permitting the exchange of ions,
small molecules, and signaling molecules.
- Structure: Composed of connexin proteins that form channels between adjacent cells.
- Location: Found in various tissues, including the heart, where they coordinate contractions.

5. Hemidesmosomes:
- Function: Anchor cells to the extracellular matrix (ECM) by connecting integrin proteins to
intermediate filaments.
- Structure: Integrins link the cell membrane to proteins in the ECM.
- Location: Common in epithelial tissues, such as the skin, to maintain cell-ECM adhesion.

2. Describe the forms of junctional complexes and enumerate the sites where they
are found.

Tight Junctions (Zonula Occludens):

Structure: Composed of transmembrane proteins like claudins and occludins, forming a barrier
between adjacent cells.
Function: Prevents the leakage of fluids and molecules between cells.
Locations:
Epithelial Tissues: Found in the lining of the digestive tract, urinary tract, and blood vessels,
ensuring selective permeability.

Adherens Junctions (Zonula Adherens):

Structure: Cadherin proteins connect adjacent cells, linking their actin cytoskeletons.
Function: Provides mechanical strength to tissues and helps cells adhere to one another.
Locations:
Cardiac Muscle: Important for maintaining tissue integrity in the heart.
Epithelial Tissues: Found in various tissues to strengthen cell-cell connections.

Desmosomes (Macula Adherens):

Structure: Cadherin proteins attach to intermediate filaments within the cell, creating strong
connections.
Function: Acts as "spot-welds," anchoring cells together and distributing mechanical stress.
Locations:
Skin (Epidermis): Ensures the integrity of the skin's layers.
Cardiac Muscle: Provides strength and cohesion in the heart.

Gap Junctions (Nexus):

Structure: Composed of connexin proteins that form channels connecting adjacent cells.
Function: Facilitates direct cell-to-cell communication by allowing the exchange of ions, small
molecules, and signaling molecules.
Locations:
Cardiac Muscle: Coordinates contractions in the heart.
Nervous Tissue: Enables the rapid transmission of signals between neurons.

Hemidesmosomes:

Structure: Integrin proteins link the cell membrane to proteins in the extracellular matrix (ECM).
Function: Anchors cells to the ECM, providing stability.
Locations:
Epithelial Tissues: Common in tissues like the skin to maintain cell-ECM adhesion.

ASSIGNMENT NO. 3
FUNDAMENTAL TYPE OF TISSUES: Epithelial Cells and Tissues

LABORATORY PROCEDURES

1. Borrow slides or microsections of kidney, thyroid gland, gall bladder, trachea, skin,
esophagus, ureter and liver.

2. After a brief orientation, label completely the structures to be studied under the LPO
and HPO.
 Kidney (LPO)

Kidney (HPO)

a. Give the fundamental types of tissue of the structure being studied.

Renal Parenchyma: This is the functional tissue of the kidney, comprising the cortex and
medulla.
Renal Cortex: This is the outer layer of the kidney.
Renal Medulla: This is the inner portion of the kidney.

b. What is the subtype of tissue of the above structures?

The subtype of tissue in the renal cortex is mainly composed of renal tubules, renal corpuscles
(glomeruli), and renal interstitium
c. Give the specific subtype of tissue of the above structure.

Renal Tubules: These include proximal convoluted tubules, distal convoluted tubules,
and collecting ducts.
Renal Corpuscles (Glomeruli): These are responsible for the initial filtration of blood in
the nephron.
Renal Interstitium: This is the connective tissue between the renal tubules and vessels.

d. How many layer/s of cell does the above structure has.

-The number of cell layers in the renal tubules varies depending on the specific segment
of the tubule. For example, the proximal convoluted tubules have a single layer of
epithelial cells, while the collecting ducts may have multiple layers of epithelial cells.

e. Give the shape of the cell of the above structure.

-The shape of the cells in the renal tubules is typically cuboidal to columnar, depending
on the specific segment. In the collecting ducts, they can be more columnar in shape.

f. Give the number of nucleus of the cell.

-Most renal tubule cells, such as those in the proximal and distal convoluted tubules,
typically have a single nucleus per cell.

g. Give the location of the nucleus of the cell.

-The nucleus of renal tubule cells is located toward the basal (bottom) part of the cell,
near the basement membrane.
 Thyroid Gland (LPO)

Thyroid Gland (HPO)

a. Give the fundamental types of tissue of the above structure.

-The fundamental types of tissue in the thyroid gland are epithelial tissue and connective tissue.

b. Give the subtype of tissue of the above structure

- Epithelial tissue: Specifically, the thyroid follicular cells, which are responsible for producing
and storing thyroid hormones (T3 and T4).

c. Give the specific subtype of tissue of the above structure.

-The specific subtype of tissue in the thyroid gland is thyroid follicular epithelium, which lines
the thyroid follicles and is responsible for thyroid hormone production.

d. Give the number of layers of the cells

-The number of layers of cells in the thyroid follicular epithelium is typically single-layered or
simple epithelium.

e. Give the shape of cell.

-The shape of the thyroid follicular cells is usually cuboidal or low columnar.

f. Give the number of nucleus of the cell.

-Thyroid follicular cells typically have a single nucleus.

g. Give the location of nucleus of the cell.

-The nucleus of the thyroid follicular cells is located near the base or bottom of the cell, adjacent
to the basement membrane.

Gall Bladder (LPO)

Gall Bladder (HPO)

a. Give the fundamental types of tissue of the above structure.

-Epithelial tissue, which lines the inner surface of the gallbladder.

-Connective tissue, which forms the supporting structure of the organ.

b. Give the subtype of tissue of the above structure.

-The subtype of tissue in the gallbladder primarily refers to the epithelial tissue, which lines the
inner surface of the gallbladder.

c. Give the specific subtype of tissue of the above structure.

- The specific subtype of tissue in the gallbladder is simple columnar epithelium, which lines the
mucosa (inner lining) of the gallbladder.

d. Give the number of layers of the cells.

-The epithelial lining of the gallbladder is typically single-layered or simple epithelium.

e. Give the shape of cell

-The shape of the cells in the gallbladder's epithelial lining is typically columnar.

f. Give the number of nucleus of the cell.

-The cells in the epithelial lining of the gallbladder have a single nucleus per cell.

g. Give the location of nucleus of the cell.

-The nuclei of the gallbladder's epithelial cells are located near the basal (bottom) part of the
cells, adjacent to the basement membrane.
 Trachea(LPO)

Trachea (HPO)

a. Give the fundamental types of tissue of the above structure.

-Epithelial tissue, which lines the inner surface of the trachea.

-Connective tissue, which supports the tracheal structure.
-Smooth muscle tissue, which helps regulate the diameter of the trachea.

b. Give the subtype of tissue of the above structure

-The subtype of tissue in the trachea primarily refers to the epithelial tissue that lines its inner
surface.

c. Give the specific subtype of tissue of the above structure.

-The specific subtype of tissue in the trachea is pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium,
which lines the mucosa (inner lining) of the trachea.

d. Give the number of layers of the cells of the above structure.

-The epithelial lining of the trachea is pseudostratified, which means it appears layered but is
actually a single layer of cells.

e. Give the shape of cell

-The shape of the cells in the pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium of the trachea is
columnar.

f. Give the number of nucleus of the cell.

-Each cell in the pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium typically has a single nucleus.

g. Give the location of nucleus of the cell.

-The nuclei of the cells in the tracheal epithelium are located at different levels within the cells,
giving the appearance of stratification, but they are actually in a single layer, near the basal
(bottom) part of the cells, above the basement membrane.

Esophagus (LPO)
 Esophagus (HPO)

a. Identify the fundamental types of tissue of the above structures.

-Epithelial tissue, which lines the inner surface of the esophagus.

-Connective tissue, which provides structural support.
-Muscle tissue, particularly smooth muscle, which forms the muscular layers of the esophagus.

b. Give the subtype of tissue of the above structure

-The subtype of tissue in the esophagus primarily refers to the epithelial tissue that lines its inner
surface.

c. Give the specific subtype of tissue

-The specific subtype of tissue in the esophagus is non-keratinized stratified squamous

epithelium, which lines the mucosa (inner lining) of the esophagus.

d. Give the number of layers of the cells

-The epithelial lining of the esophagus is stratified, which means it consists of multiple layers of
cells.

e. Give the shape of cell

-The shape of the cells in the esophageal epithelium is squamous (flat), and they are arranged in
layers.

f. Give the number of nucleus of the cell

-The cells in the esophageal epithelium typically have a single nucleus per cell.

g. Give the location of nucleus of the cell.

-The nuclei of the cells in the esophageal epithelium are located near the basal (bottom) part of
the cells, above the basement membrane.
 Skin – epidermis (LPO)

Skin - epidermis (HPO)

a. Give the fundamental types of tissue of the above structures.

- Epithelial tissue, which forms the outermost layer of the skin.

b. Give the subtype of tissue of the above structure

-The subtype of tissue in the epidermis refers to stratified squamous epithelium, which is the
primary type of epithelium that makes up the epidermis.

c. Give the specific subtype of tissue

-The specific subtype of tissue in the epidermis is stratified squamous keratinized epithelium.
This subtype is characterized by the presence of keratin, a protein that makes the skin waterproof
and protective.

d. Give the number of layers of the cells

-The number of layers of cells in the epidermis varies depending on the region of the body, but it
typically consists of several layers, including the stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum
granulosum, and stratum corneum.

e. Give the shape of cell

-The shape of the cells in the epidermis varies in different layers but is generally squamous (flat)
in the outer layers and cuboidal/columnar in the deeper layers.

f. Give the number of nucleus of the cell

-Most cells in the epidermis, especially in the outer layers, lose their nuclei as they become filled
with keratin. So, many cells in the outermost layer, the stratum corneum, lack nuclei.

g. Give the location of nucleus of the cell

-The nuclei of cells in the epidermis are typically located in the deeper layers, such as the stratum
basale and stratum spinosum. As cells move towards the surface and undergo keratinization, their
nuclei are lost, and they become flattened, contributing to the skin's protective barrier.

Ureter (LPO)
 Ureter (HPO)
a. Give the fundamental types of tissue of the above structures.

-Epithelial tissue, which lines the inner surface of the ureter.

-Connective tissue, which provides structural support to the ureter.
-Smooth muscle tissue, which forms the muscular layers of the ureter.

b. Give the subtype of tissue of the above structure

-The subtype of tissue in the ureter primarily refers to the epithelial tissue that lines its inner
surface.

c. Give the specific subtype of tissue of the above structure

-The specific subtype of tissue in the ureter is transitional epithelium, also known as urothelium,
which lines the mucosa (inner lining) of the ureter.

d. Give the number of layers of the cells

-The number of layers of cells in the transitional epithelium of the ureter can vary depending on
the degree of distension of the organ. It typically consists of multiple layers, including basal,
intermediate, and superficial cells.

e. Give the shape of cell

-The shape of the cells in transitional epithelium varies with the degree of distension. When the
ureter is relaxed, the cells are more cuboidal or columnar in shape. When the ureter is stretched,
as in a full bladder, the cells become squamous (flattened) in shape.

f. Give the number of nucleus of the cell

-Most cells in transitional epithelium have a single nucleus per cell.

g. Give the location of nucleus of the cell

-The nuclei of the cells in transitional epithelium are typically located at different levels within
the cell layers. In the basal layer, the nuclei are near the basal (bottom) part of the cells, while in
the superficial layer, the nuclei are closer to the apical (top) surface. This arrangement allows for
the stretching and distension of the ureter while maintaining a protective barrier.
 Liver (LPO)

Liver (HPO)

a. Give the fundamental types of tissue of the above structures.

-Parenchymal tissue, which makes up the bulk of the liver and is responsible for its functions.
-Connective tissue, which provides structural support.

b. Give the subtype of tissue of the above structure

-The subtype of tissue in the liver primarily refers to the parenchymal tissue, which is
hepatocytes, the functional cells of the liver.

c. Give the specific subtype of tissue of the above structure

-The specific subtype of tissue in the liver is hepatic tissue, composed of hepatocytes arranged in
lobules and supported by connective tissue.

d. Give the arrangement of the cells

-The arrangement of hepatocytes in the liver is typically organized into hexagonal structural units
called hepatic lobules.

e. Give the shape of cells

-The shape of hepatocytes, which are the main cell type in the liver, is polygonal or cuboidal.

f. Give the number of nucleus of the cell

-Most hepatocytes in the liver have a single nucleus per cell.

g. Give the location of nucleus of the cell

-The nuclei of hepatocytes are typically centrally located within the cell, surrounded by the
cytoplasm. The exact location of the nucleus within the cell may vary slightly but is generally
toward the center.

3. Name the criteria used in the classification of glandular epithelium/epithelia and give
examples of each.

- How many cells make up the gland (single or multiple cells).

- The shape of the secretory part (tubular, sac-like, or a mix of both).
- How they release their secretions (without damage, by shedding a part, or by destroying entire
cells).

4. How are cells, especially the columnar cells, attached with each other? Name the
different forms of junctional complexes and describe each.

- Tight junctions seal cells together.

- Adherens junctions provide strength.
- Desmosomes resist mechanical stress.
- Gap junctions allow communication.
- Hemidesmosomes anchor cells to the base.