The meaning of the paragraph:

A paragraph is a group of related sentences that develops one main idea. Although
there is no definite length for a paragraph, it is often from five to twelve sentences
long. A paragraph usually occurs with other paragraphs in a longer piece of writing
an essay, an article, or a letter, for example. In fact, most paragraphs contain one
main idea to which all the sentences relate. The topic sentence states this main
idea. The body of the paragraph develops and supports this main idea with partic-

Topic sentence:
The topic sentence is more general than the other sentences in the paragraph.
The other sentences in the paragraph provide specific information relating to the
topic sentence. Because the topic sentence tells what the entire paragraph is about,
it is usually the first sentence. Sometimes the topic sentence occurs elsewhere in
the paragraph, for example, as the sentence after an introduction or as the last
sentence. Some paragraphs contain only an implied topic sentence but no stated
topic sentence at all. As you develop your writing skills, however, it is a good idea
to write paragraphs that begin with the topic sentence. Once you have mastered
this pattern, you can try variations.

The first sentence of a paragraph is usually called the topic sentence. You may
have noticed in your reading of certain English texts that it is possible to place the
topic sentence at the end of the paragraph (as a kind of conclusion), or even in the
middle (as a kind of link between the two parts). It is even possible not to have a
topic sentence at all; in this case, we say that the topic sentence is implied or
suggested. Be aware of these possibilities when you read; otherwise, you might
miss the point which the author is trying to make. When you write, however,
remember that a topic sentence placed at the beginning of a paragraph is the
clearest kind of paragraph organization- simple, effective, easy for you to manage,
and easy for your reader to understand.

What makes a good topic sentence? The most important thing to remember at this
point is that in a topic sentence, always try to make a statement about your topic
which limits it to a certain extent:

Topic Sentence = TOPIC + LIMITING STATEMENT

Take, for example, the general topic of soccer. There are too many things to say
about soccer to put into a single paragraph. Therefore, your problem as a writer
consists of deciding how you want to write about soccer. In other words, you need
to limit your discussion. In other words, in order to write an effective topic
sentence, you need to limit it.

One good way to limit your topic is to place key words or phrases in the topic
sentence. These words or phrases will let the reader know how you are going to
discuss the topic. These words or phrases are sometimes called controlling words
or phrases, since they control the organization of the paragraph. In a paragraph on
soccer, for example, they will immediately indicate to the reader that you plan to
do one of several things such as:

Discuss the history of soccer

Compare it with another sport
Describe its difficulty
Explain the rules of the game
How do you limit a topic in a topic sentence? There are many ways, but the
following is a list of the most common. Once you understand these examples, you
will find it much easier to write a carefully controlled topic sentence. The topic can
be limited by place, time, quality, showing similarities, showing differences, a
number of things (a list), effects, causes (reasons). Consider the following
examples:

1. Soccer is now played in the United States. (place)

2. Soccer has become more popular within the last five years. (time or period of
time)

3. Soccer is a physically demanding sport. (quality)

4. Soccer and football have a great deal in common. (showing similarities)

5. Soccer is more dangerous than tennis. (showing differences)

6. A soccer player can receive various kinds of penalties during a game.

(a number of things; a list)

7. The World Cup Soccer Champion- ship Games create interest from soccer fans
all over the world. (effect)

8. Soccer is dangerous for several reasons. (cause; reason)

Tips for Writing Effective Topic Sentences

1. Your topic sentence should state the main point of your paragraph. It should
identify your topic and express a view toward it.
2. Be sure to choose a manageable topic-one that is neither too general nor too
specific.
3. Make sure your topic sentence is a complete thought. Be sure your topic
sentence is not a fragment or run-on sentence.
4. Place your topic sentence first in the paragraph. Topic sentences often appear in
other places in paragraphs, but, for now, it will be easier for you to put yours at the
beginning. That way, as you write, you can make sure you stick to your point, and
your readers will immediately be alerted to that point.
5. Avoid announcing your topic. Sentences that sound like announcements are
usually unnecessary. Avoid such sentences as "This paragraph will discuss how to
change a flat tire," or "I will explain why I object to legalized abortion." Instead,
directly state your main point: "Changing a flat tire involves many steps," or "I
object to abortion on religious grounds."

The Writing Process:

The writing process consists of a set of strategies that will help you proceed from
idea or purpose to the final statement of a paragraph or an essay. As pre- sented
here, the different strategies move from

Stage One: Exploring / Experimenting/Gathering Information to

Stage Two: Writing the Controlling Idea / Organizing and Developing Support to

Stage Three: Writing / Revising/Editing.

The process of writing is recursive, which means "going back and forth." In this
respect, writing is like reading. If you do not understand what you have read, you
back up and read it again. After you reread the entire passage, you may still go
back and reread selectively. The same can be said of your writing. If, for example,
you have reached Stage Two and you are working with an outline only to discover
that your subject is too broad, you may want to back up and narrow your topic
sentence or thesis and then adjust your outline. You may even return to an early
cluster of ideas to see how you can use a smaller grouping of them. Revision, in
Stage Three, is usually the most recursive part of all. You will go over your
material again and again until you are satisfied that you have expressed yourself
the best you can.

BRAINSTORMING

Brainstorming features important words and phrases that relate in various ways to
the subject area or to the specific topic you are concerned with. Brainstorming
includes two basic forms: (1) asking and answering questions and (2) listing.

Big Six Questions

One effective way to get started is to ask the big six questions about your subject:
Who? What? Where? When? Why? How? Then let your mind run free as you jot
down answers in single entries or lists. Some of the big six questions may not fit,
and some may be more important than others, depending on the purposes of your
writing. For example, if you were writing about the causes of a situation, the Why?
question could be more important than the others; if you were concerned with how
to do something, the How? question would predominate. If you were writing in
response to a reading selection, you would confine your thinking to questions
appropriately related to the content of that reading selection. Whatever your focus
for the questions is, the result is likely to be numerous ideas that will provide
information for continued exploration and development of your topic. Thus your
pool of information for writing widens and deepens. Jackson continued with the
topic of bad drivers, and her topic tightened to focus on particular areas.

Listing

Simply making a list of words and phrases related to your topic is another effective
way to brainstorm, especially if you have a defined topic and a storehouse of
information. This strategy is favored by many writers.

Knowing from the outset that she was concerned mainly with the behavior of
drivers, Jackson might have gone directly to making a list indicating what drivers
do or how they drive. She then might have selected perhaps four ideas from this
list for her framework and circled them for future reference.
Even if you do not have a focused topic, you may find a somewhat random listing
useful, merely writing phrases as they occur to you. This exploratory is similar to
freewriting. After you have established such a list, you can sort out and group the
phrases as you generate your topic and find its natural divisions. Feel free to
accept, reject, or insert phrases.

Brainstorming feathers important words and phrases that relate in various ways to
the subject area or to the specific topic you are concerned with. Brainstorming
include two basic forms: (1) asking and answering questions and (2) listing.

Big Six Questions: Who? What? Where? When? Why? How?

Listing: Simply making a list of words and phrases related to your topic is another
effective way to brainstorm, especially if you have a defined topic a storehouse of
information. This strategy is favored by many writers.

CLUSTERING

In clustering, double-bubble your topic-that is, write it down in the middle of the
page and draw a double circle around it-and then respond to the question "What
comes to mind?" Draw a single bubble around other ideas on spokes radiating from
the hub that contains the topic. Any bubble can lead to another bubble or to
numerous bubbles in the same way. This strategy is sometimes used instead of, or
before, making an outline to organize and develop ideas.

The Writing Process: Stage 2

The most important advice this book can offer you is state your controlling idea
and support it. If you have no controlling idea-no topic sentence for a paragraph or
thesis for an essay-your writing will be unfocused, and your readers may be
confused or bored. But if you organize your material well, so that it supports and
develops your controlling idea, you can present your views to your readers with
interest, clarity, and persuasion.

Stating the controlling idea and organizing support can be accomplished effectively
and systematically. How? This chapter presents several uncomplicated techniques
you can use in Stage Two of the writing process.

OUTLINING

Outlining is the tool that most people think of in connection with organizing.
Because it is flexible and widely used, it will receive the most emphasis in this
stage of the writing process. Outlining does basically the same thing that listing
and clustering do. Outlining divides the controlling idea into sections of support
material, divides those sections further, and establishes sequence.

An outline is a framework that can be used in two ways: (1) It can indicate the plan
for a paragraph or an essay you intend to write, and (2) it can show the
organization of a passage you are reading. The outline of a reading passage and the
outline as a plan for writing are identical in form. If you intend to write a summary
of a reading selection, then a single outline might be used for both purposes.

The two main outline forms are the sentence outline (each entry is a complete
sentence) and the topic outline (each entry is a key word or phrase). The topic
outline is more common in writing paragraphs and essays.
In the following topic outline, notice first how the parts are arranged on the page:
the indentations, the number and letter sequences, the punctuation, and the
placement of words. Then read Jackson's outline and see how the ideas in it relate
to one another.

Main Idea (will usually be the topic sentence for a paragraph)

1. Major support
A. Minor support
1. Explanation, detail, example
2. Explanation, detail, example
B. Minor support
1. Explanation, detail, example
2. Explanation, detail, example

II. Major support

A. Minor support
1. Explanation, detail, example
2. Explanation, detail, example
B. Minor support
1. Explanation, detail, example
2. Explanation, detail, example

Defining the Controlling Idea

If you tell a friend you are about to write a paragraph or an essay, be prepared to
hear the question "What are you writing about?" If you answer, "Public schools,"
your friend will probably be satisfied with the answer but not very interested. The
problem is that the phrase public schools offers no sense of limitation or direction.
It just indicates your subject, not what you are going to do with it. An effective
controlling statement, called the topic sentence for a paragraph and the thesis for
an essay, has both a subject and a focus. The subject is what you intend to write
about. The focus is what you intend to do with your subject.

Writing the Controlling Idea as a Topic Sentence or Thesis

The effective controlling idea presents a focus that can be developed with sup-
porting information. The ineffective one is vague, too broad, or too narrow.

Public schools are great.

Topic: Public schools
Focus: are great
The above topic sentence is ineffective, because it is vague. It is better to say:
Public schools do as well academically as private schools according to
statistics. [made more specific]

Subject: Public schools

Focus: do as well academically as private schools according to statistics

In some instances, the subject will follow the focus such as in:
The time has come for a national law legalizing (focus) physician-assisted suicide
for the terminally ill. (subject)

In other instances, the subject will divide the focus:

Four factors establish (focus) Elvis Presley (subject) as the greatest entertainer of
the twentieth century: appearance, singing ability, style, and influence.
Public schools are too crowded.
Subject: Public schools
Focus: are too crowded
The above topic sentence is too broad. It is better to say:
Bidwell Elementary School is too crowded. [limiting the subject to a particular
school]
Subject: Bidwell Elementary School is too crowded
Focus: is too crowded

American public schools were first established in Philadelphia in 1779. [only a

fact]
Subject: American public schools
Focus: were first established in Philadelphia in 1779
The above topic sentence is ineffective, because it is too narrow. It is better to say:
The first public schools in America were founded to meet certain practical
needs. [made more specific by indicating aspects]
Subject: The first public schools in America
Focus: were founded to meet certain practical needs

Revising

The term first draft suggests quite accurately that there will be other drafts, or
versions, of your writing. Only in the most dire situations, such as an in-class
examination when you have time for only one draft, should you be satisfied with a
single effort.

What you do beyond the first draft is revision and editing. Revision includes
checking for organization, content, and language effectiveness. Editing (discussed
later in this chapter) involves a final correcting of simple mistakes and
fundamentals such as spelling, punctuation, and capitalization. In practice, editing
and revising are not always separate activities, although writers usually wait until
the next-to-the-last draft to edit some minor details and attend to other small points
that can be easily overlooked.

Successful revision almost always involves intense, systematic rewriting. You

should learn to look for certain aspects of skillful writing as you enrich and repair
your first draft. To help you recall these aspects so that you can keep them in mind
and examine your material in a comprehensive fashion, this textbook offers a
memory device-an acronym in which each letter suggests an important feature of
good writing and revision. This device enables you to memorize the features of
good writing quickly. Soon you will be able to recall and refer to them
automatically. These features need not be attended to individually when you revise
your writing, although they may be, and they need not be attended to in the order
presented here. The acronym is CLUESS (pronounced "clues"), which provides
this guide: Coherence, Language, Unity, Emphasis, Support, and Sentences.

Each of these features of good writing can be approached with a set of techniques
you can apply easily to your first draft. They are presented here with so details,
examples, and supporting exercises. See the Writer's Guidelines at the end of this
chapter for a concise list of these features and a set of questions can apply to your
own writing and to peer editing.

COHERENCE

Coherence is the orderly relationship of ideas, each leading smoothly and logically
to the next. You must weave your ideas together so skillfully that the reader can
easily see how one idea connects to another and to the central thought central
thought, of course, is expressed in the topic sentence for a paragraph and in the
thesis for an essay. You can achieve coherence efficiently by using the following:

Usage

Usage is the kind or general style of language we use. All, or almost all, of us
operate on the principle of appropriateness. If I used ain't as part of my
explanations in this textbook, you would be surprised and probably disappointed;
you would think about my word choice rather than about what I have to say. Why
would you be surprised? Because ain't is not appropriate for my audience in this
situation. If you write an essay containing slang, you will probably be understood,
but if the slang is not appropriate, you will draw unfavorable attention to your
message. That does not mean that slang does not have its place it does. It can be
imaginative and colorful. Often, though, it is only a weak substitute for a more
precise vocabulary.

Usage is an important part of writing and revising. Judge what is appropriate for
your audience and your purpose. What kind of language is expected? What kind of
language is best suited for accomplishing your purpose?

Tone

Have you ever heard someone say, "Don't talk to me in that tone of voice" or "I
accepted what she was saying, but I didn't like the tone she used when she told
me"? Tone in these contexts means that the sound of the speaker's voice and maybe
the language choices conveyed disrespect to the listener. The tone could have
represented any number of feelings about the subject matter and the audience. Tone
can have as many variations as you can have feelings: it can, for example, be
sarcastic, humorous, serious, cautionary, objective, groveling, angry, bitter,
sentimental, enthusiastic, somber, outraged, or loving.

Let's say you are getting a haircut. Looking in those panoramic mirrors bordered
with pictures of people with different styles of haircuts, you see that the hair stylist
is cutting off too much hair. You could use different tones in giving him or her
some timely how-to instructions. Usually your tone will be consistent throughout
your presentation, although for the informal essay often assigned in college, you
may choose to begin in a light- hearted, amusing tone before switching to a more
serious, objective mode.

Diction

Diction is word choice. If you use good diction, you are finding-the best words for
a particular purpose in addressing a certain audience. There is some overlap,
therefore, between usage and diction. I may look at an area in the subway and
present my reaction in the following way:

Poor Diction:

This part of the subway is really a mess. Everywhere I look I can see things people
have thrown away, which have fallen through the grates above. Along with the
solid items are liquids. On the walls are a hodge- podge of posters and writing. The
whole area is very dirty and very unpleasant.

Note how the scene comes to life with better word choice:

Good Diction:

[Before me I saw] an unspeakable mass of congealed oil, puddles of dubious

liquid, and a mishmash of old cigarette packets, mutilated and filthy newspapers,
and the debris that filtered down from the street above. [The walls were a display
of posters]-here a text from the Bible, there a half- naked girl, here a pair of girl's
legs walking up the keys of a cash register- all scribbled over with unknown names
and well-known obscenities....

The difference between these two passages is obvious. The first is general. Terms
such as "very dirty" and "very unpleasant" carry little meaning. The author has not
made us see. The word very is an empty modifier. The second passage is specific.
You can visualize what the writer is saying through the specific diction, the detail.
The first is general and, for content, hardly goes beyond a single phrase mess in the
subway.

UNITY

A controlling idea, stated or implied, establishes unity in every piece of good

writing. It is the central point around which the supporting material revolves. For a
paragraph, the elements are the topic sentence and the supporting sentences. For an
essay, the elements are the thesis and the supporting developmental paragraphs. All
the supporting material should be related to the topic sentence or thesis, and it
should all be subordinate to the topic sentence or thesis. Unity can be strengthened
and made more apparent if you restate the topic sentence or thesis at the end of the
unit and if you repeat key words and phrases from time to time. A good check on
unity is to ask yourself if everything in your paragraph or essay is subordinate to
and derived from the controlling idea.

If a paragraph does all this—that is, (1) if it announces its main idea in the topic
sentence, and (2) if all the supporting sentences contribute to the reader's
understanding of the main idea-we say that a paragraph is unified, or that it has
unity. If the paragraph fails to do this, we say that it lacks unity.

EMPHASIS

Emphasis, a feature of most good writing, helps the reader focus on the main ideas
by stressing what is important. It can be achieved in several ways but mainly
through placement of key ideas and through repetition.

SUPPORT

How much support as evidence or explanation does a piece of writing need? A

good developmental paragraph fulfills its function by developing the topic
sentence. An essay is complete when it fulfills its function of developing a thesis.
Obviously, you will have to judge what is complete. With some subjects, you will
need little supporting and explanatory material. With others, you will need much
more. Incompleteness, not overdevelopment, is more common among beginning
writers. Besides having enough support, be sure the points of support are presented
in the best possible sequence.

SENTENCES

In the revision process, the word sentences refers to the variety of sentence patterns
and the correctness of sentence structure.

Variety of Sentences

A passage that offers a variety of simple and complicated sentences satisfies the
reader, just as various simple and complicated foods go together in a good meal.
The writer can introduce variety by including both short and long sentences, by
using different sentence patterns, and by beginning sentences in different ways

Length

In revising, examine your writing to make sure that sentences vary in length. A
series of short sentences is likely to make the flow seem choppy and the thoughts
disconnected. However, single short sentences often work very well. Because they
are uncluttered with supporting points and qualifications, they are often direct and
forceful. Consider using short sentences to emphasize points and to introduce
ideas. Use longer sentences to provide details or show how ideas are related.

Variety of Sentence Patterns

Good writing includes a variety of sentence patterns. Although there is no limit to

the number of sentences you can write, you may be pleased to discover that the
conventional English sentence appears in only four basic patterns.

Simple: She did the work well.

Compound: She did the work well, and she was well paid.
Complex: Because she did the work well, she was well paid.
Compound-Complex: Because she did the work well, she was well paid, and she
was satisfied.

Variety of Sentence Beginnings

Another way to provide sentence variety is to use different kinds of beginnings. A

new beginning may or may not be accompanied by a changed sentence pattern.
Among the most common beginnings, other than starting with the subject of the
main clause, are those using a prepositional phrase, a dependent clause, or a
conjunctive adverb such as therefore, however, or in fact.

Problems with Sentences

A complete sentence must generally include an independent clause, which is a

group of words that contains a subject and a verb and can stand alone. Some
groups of words may sound interesting, but they are not really sentences. Three
common problem groupings are the fragment, the comma splice, and the run-on.

• A sentence fragment is a word grouping that is structurally incomplete.

Because he left. [This is a dependent clause, not a complete sentence.]
Went to the library. [This has no subject.]
She being the only person there. [This has no verb.]
Waiting there for help. [This has neither subject nor verb.]
In the back seat under a book. [Here we have two phrases but no subject or verb.]

• A comma splice consists of two independent clauses with only a comma between
them.

The weather was bad, we canceled the picnic. [A comma by itself cannot join two
independent clauses.]

• A run-on differs from the comma splice in only one way. It has no comma
between the independent clauses. The weather was bad we canceled the picnic.
Editing, the final stage of the writing process, involves a careful examination of
your work. Look for problems with capitalization, omissions, punctuation, and
spelling (COPS).

Before you submit your writing to your instructor, do what almost all professional
writers do before sending their material along: Read it aloud, to yourself or to a
willing audience. Reading material aloud will help you catch any awkwardness