G - ger 1018 - USE OF ENGLISH TIME ALLow; OF G' oD SEM ER EXAMINATION : ALL questions in Section A In the om INSTRUCTION ection Bin the Answer Booklet ONE q Section A: Answer All Questions SOLUTION IN BOLD ITALICS LETTERS ae £5) iTect answers from ictters A The 1. was consulted to know the quantity of 2, 3, and 4 needed to form the re 5 the 6 was shown the 7 at the comers of the land and was told to work within ENERAL STUDIES 2016/2017 acan EMIC E545, ED thr: 30y : Paper nga toc quired concrete the space, He \, given the 8 to enable him the 9. Occasionally, the visited to further repre. his drawing, A B e 1 Agent Landlord Quantity surveyor —_ Surveyor Architect Z Sand Plank Terrazzo Tiles Pebbles 3. Sand Cement Stones Terrazzo Concrete 4 Pebbles Plank Cement Stones Gravel 5, House Bungalow Erection Building Stand 6 Architect sy f Builder Carpenter Joiner 2 Stones Beacons Pillars * Trees Fence 8 Orders Measurements Scaffolding Map Drawing 9. ‘Specification Route Workers Area Measureme aa Surveyor Architect Builder Joiner glazier - + IS used to separate a comment from the rest of the sentence. 2 @ dash (b) comma (c) full stop (d) ellipsis (hati is used in abbreviations a P used Den (c) semicolon (d) bracket = ——— is used to indicate possession ta, @ av astrophe (c) marks (c) hyphen (d) dash Decantey nase bs end of an interrogative sentence 15, The register of science and eee pa ae (a) rigid 16. Mi Register of Arts terete can be Sy peseecate oceans (a) subjective v, "Shut that done” is an (b) exact (©) procedural (d) analytical, (@) interogative ay pspaagg Sentence 16. "The world is round" this is an exam; ia Qeecmatery 9 sme 4 (2) declarative () ple of ____ sentence 9 s Sombie sentence contains inquisitive (€) delimiting (d) examining 2) ee aE, any it os ———______clauses wn, (eerie ahd sdePendent clauses (8) bwo simple clauses 2¢€ did not do the assignment which th, {Py Sorbound and complex oT ch the physics lecturer gave lier" This ic a 2 "oa any compound () complex (c) si the door in order to keep fh " rey (2) meerrogetve a (2) compton Coe! keep ey ay"is an example of a if Parsraoh, the topic sentence is the SP (A) imperative 23. f NY, "in nuteraeoncuding sentence (cj paragresr— - Shar enc aragraph (0) paragraper nthe ong nClusion’, ‘as a result on etc ies amples of 24, Thave never seen (G) binders (isting tah wees (2) 30 talented young a paver E —@® = (b) much a talented young a player25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34, 35. 36. 37. 38. 39, 40. a 42. 43. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. (©) such a talented young player (d) more young a talentediplayer Dr. Adeyemi is the teacher (a) European History modern (b) European modern History (c) modern European History (d) Modern History European, Collins has a appetite (a) vivacious (b) loquacious (c) suspicious (d) voracious The chair belongs to his father (a) blue big plastic —(b) big blue plastic _(c) big plastic blue (d) plastic big blue Our culture does not allow one to when an elderly personiis speaking (a) cut off (b) cutin (©) cut of (d) cut on Maimuna wrote to ask if | could Ta RT O ae a) Putyin b) putfout ¢) put/up : re reabonship te the couple is, for lack of communication (a) tense (b) strained (c) relaxed (d) uneasy She won by because her opponent refused to play. (a) defeat (6) unopposed (c) defiance (d) defense No rson will do that. (a) maturing (b) mature (c) matured (d) mature The director is open ___ criticism. (a)on (b)to (c) about (d) for Yesterday, I__on the beach for half an hour (a) Jay. (b) lain (lie (d) lied A good write up should include an introduction, a body, and a. (a) middle (6) conclusion —(c) topic (4) purpose. called (a) narrative (b) descriptive (cJexpository (d) Argumentative "T came, I saw and J conquered" is an example of a sentences: (a) simple (b) complex () compound (a) ‘compound-complex “This is the man whose mother died". This is an example of a ——__ sentence (a) complex (b) compound (c) impersonal (d) declarative. On that matter, I have Crossed the Rubicon. This is an example of a___ sentence (2) simple (6) compound (¢) complex (A) interrogative “We sleep and wake up because God still needs us in the world". This is an example of a Complex (b) compound complex (¢) simple (d) instructive " Some ladies appreciate you only when you are rich". Thisisa_____ sentence (a) simple (b) compound (©) complex (@) excamatory Can we go now? This is an sentence (a) explanatory (b) interrogative ~ (c) exclamatory (d) declarative The police announced that a number of stolen vehicles ——___recovered (a) hasbeen (b) have been (c) has being (d) is been Indian slimmer is a period of mild weather during the autumn. (a) occurring (b) it occurred (c) it occurred (4) occurs The man walked into his Office sluggishly. Sluggishly is an - (2) adjective (b) adverb (c) verb (d) preposition. John is an intelligent man. John is a (2) proper noun (b) adult (c) adverb The qualities of 900d writing include simplicity. economy and (a) clarity () accuracy (C) differancés 7 |S an example of short duration speech, (a) announcement (b) tutorial (c) essay (4) presentation, choice testing is a form of assessing students’ knowledge" multiple (b) single (c) double (d) theory The following are types of sentence €ccording to structure except (a) simple (b) compound (©) declarative (d) complex Zz (d) prophet. (d) verbosity.on, Theory. A™ ? Ib. State five uses of 5°” B hh connectors 8 Full st section aragrap! b. State five op 1a. vi are tomplex sentence? ‘ “SES Of a comma 08 2b. . ise called transitional words and phras, is. pret eeeaael ransitions suggest is part a paragraphs 10 8c oon, transitions provide col heettee, the next, Within @ Wjea’ Between paragraphs, paragraph transit ions hel on main argument or well a8 the sense of the coherence of the whole essay. Transitionay iW raginning to end, a Wal O8 beginning of. @ santanca and, for more formal writing 4 fo er ff with a comma. Some transition words (for example, “too OF "as ey ta croreme surat the end of even In the middie of a sentence. hows : me chen Ce ice transitional words, here is @ transition word list that shows the Felationgh; i ae plled phrases indicate. As a transition word exercise, revise a Paragraph aggin atciate transition word or phrase. Order : Three © First: « First of all: * Inthe first place: * To start with: | Second paragraph ® the 19 the : * Inthe second place: * Second: * Secondly: © Third: « Thirdly: | Conclusion |e Finally: © In conclusion: * Lastly: * And eventually: Adding information | * apart from: * inaddition; « in addition to: | © Ontop of that: © besides: * What's more: — » moreover * On the one hand: * On the other hand: * and eventually: Contrast ; * allthe same: «however: * instead of: © in spite of / despite: * Nevertheless: 6 onthe contrary: * whereas / while: + though / although: | Reason * because of + noun: * due to + noun; * for this / that reason; * due to the fact that + sentence t * owing to + noun: * Owing to the fact that + sentence Result aS a result: * because of; * consequently: * so: * that's why: * therefore: Expressing facts * actually: * asa matter of fact: * infact: * really: Expressing a Personal opinion : P52 38 1 am concemed * from my point of view * Tagree : Tees n * in my opinion * inmy view ink that * itis true that * personally Explain: : ats (to say): * in other words: * in short: © above all Sees flees 4 * basically * especially s * ingeneral: « 'N particular: . on the whole * toa certain extent ‘ Psat os Exemplitying * ands * forexample: for instance © such 4Summarizing * allinall: * in brief: * in conclusion: * in short: * onthe whole: = * to sum up: uencing eet that: * all of a sudden: « Finally: * First of all: * inthe end: * in the meantime: * meanwhile: © next: + suddenly: * then: + while: 1b. Five uses of a full stop otherwise called @ period IL We use a period at the end of sentences that are statements. A statement is a sentence that states, or tells, Something. Examples: + I like to eat pizza, * School starts on Wednesday, * The baby's name is Grace, li. We use a period at the end of sentences that are commands. A command is a sentence that tells someone to do Something, Examples: Pick up the blue ball. © Turn left at the next light, iii. We use a Period at the end * She asked me why I didn't go to school yesterday, * Tim asked about that book, ol We use periods in abbreviations, An abbreviation is a shortened version of a word or words, Examples: $ © United States of America is abbreviated USA, 6 Mr. is the abbreviation for Mister. * Rd. is the abbreviation for road. jw We use periods in Website addresses, i Examples: * www.dictionary.com * www learnersdictionary.com + www. really-learn-english.com 2a. A complex sentence is a Sentence with an ind 's one of the four main types of sentence st Clause shares the main information, an Sentences let us share iots of informatio * Twondered why Bob wasn't there, tructures, In a complex sentence, id the dependent Clause(s) provide details. Complex n with just one sentence, 2b. The Comma G) The comma is useful i in @ sentence when the writer wishes to; Pause before Proceeding » adda Phrase that does not contain any new subject * Separate items on a list * use more than one adjective (a describing word, like beautiful) For example, in the following sentence the Phrase or clause between the commas gives us more information behind the actions of the boy, the subject of the sentence: The boy, who knew that his mother was about to arrive, ran Quickly towards the opening door. Note that if the phrase or cla there would be a loss of infor The boy ran qui use were to be removed, mation. Alternatively, two the sentence would still make sense although ckly towards the opening door sentences could be used: He knew that his mother was about to arrive,SI SECOND cST 1018 - RUCTIONS: ONE question re sat mn STUDIES 2016/2017 ACADEMIC gp ON =<, ER EXAMINATION MISE OF ENGLISH TIME ALLOWED thr; 30M; In the OMR p, In, stions in Section A ‘Aer ang SB nh ‘the Answer Booklet any See Soy SOLUTION IN BOLD ITALICS LETTERS letters A to E the following passage with correct answers from lett Fill in the gaps in Tire ital livia ate reguiar 2. of hiiyht 3. The 4 is caused by 5, which are Carrie i iat 2. of high 3. The 4 is causes ianheled 1 ult, T : 7 10sq ito 's 7 when it bites a man who is already carrying the ma Tie ae anopheles mosqui Y the 6 lara 8 in hg disease is immediately 19 tohim, rson after two weeks, the 9. If the mosquito bites another bas a m A OVEN SwNe 12. F nals Signs Pain wea neon mrebens Disturbances Tiredness a & Mood Tension fever ime foaue e set ismantled Re ng, ean Parasites Wa Flies Female Mature Ordinary Living eed Dangerous Poisoned /nfected Gutted Parasites Germs Worms Larva Poison Eyes Blood Body drain Legs Tumed Directed Transmitted Supplied Returned Bimpe does not like beans is an example of (4) declarative sentence (b) instructive sentence (c) excess sentence (A) inductive sentence What is your name? is an example of (a) positive sentence 0 SN (b) adjective clause (¢) interrogative sentence ~(d) exclamatory sentence ee A sentence that expresses strong emotional feelings of anger, grief or Joy or surprise is called (2) surprise sentence (b) an exclamatory sentence (c) an interrogative sentence (d) a simple sentence ‘Rose is inteligent and Coline is ignorant", This is an example of a (2) compound sentence (b) complex sentence (C) negative sentence (4) declarative sentence, ‘ie election was rigged" This is an example of a sentence (a) complex sentence (6) simple Sentence (©) positive sentence (d) narrative sentence The work stops when it rains but the tools are kept handy" this Sentence is an example 3 sentence (2) complex Compound (c) simple (a) compound complex 1 Ural parts of a Paragraph except are the mayu Porting sentence r (2) by illustration; ) i Using sp eve (©) clauses (d) concluding sentence i NG paragraphs except ei teats’ (€) by elimination (4) by story tell ) Simpessom but te teacher coulg Not See him" is an example of ©) complex (dy clause enem) (b) ward of "Y attacks (2) ward off Stand in fo7-—>—- Tough use, 0 be very tidy but then ©) stan (d) stand up for Out of (6) grown Wen it now ©) town, away ith ——.their leaders, for goo, is (2) looked up (©) looked on to “°° &xamples ® (©) looked at (d) looked forward to. (d) grown by2B. 30. 31 32, 33. 4 a. 42, 43. 45, 46. 47. Wwe waited, AYO read the letter over Gog Bae aaa gain 7a) while (b) when (cy where (d) te sone had we gat the Journey uo" haa hare @ n (d) than uuja witnessed the largest Of writers at a en a (6) turn out (c) turn eer NO tam is enventon Neither Bunmi tope will attend the party, (2) or (b) and (¢) nor d Gein dome to do what they demand on faye (6) than (©) unless (4) but Hardly had we arrived __he left (a) so (6) when (then (a) that The president ___—__the corruption charges presene” against him 2 (aj refuted, (0) refused (©) rejected (A) resuscitated So far, scientists have found little Of life outside our planet @ theory Bs (b) srwence ‘ (©) hypothesis (d) assumption Paragraph connectors are words or phrases used to in a paragray (a) transit ideas (b) delete ideas (c) idea is jomnt dese eae ideas Capitalization can be used to (2) end a sentence (b) disrupt a sentences —_(c) connect sentence (@) begin a new paragraph : Capitalization is used forthe frst letters of Nations rivers ang) (8) words that are related to the holy scriptures (©) comprehension (cy summary (d) food is used at the end of a complete sentence : (2) comma, (6) full stop (c) colon (d) semi-colon : Have you studied him enough? This is an sentence (2) exclamatory (6) interrogative (Cjinstrudtive (4) command : What a nice gift! This is an-~ - i (2) exclamatory _(b) simple sentence _(c) declarative (d) command Frank is a humble giver. This is a sentence (a) declarative (b) imperative (cinterrogative (d) comparative Taste in Nigertan dressing (2) differ (b) differs (©) different (d) different Twenty years too long to be away from home. (2) were (b) are Ols (@) have been The driver, along with the owner, hardly burnt In the accident. (@was (b) were (© must not (d) have {he quality of a good writing include clarity, economy and (achilisa unt (2) difficutty (b) accuracy (¢) simplicity (@) verbosity. One characteristic of the English essay is Sree (2) logical development (b) guesses (c) assumption (A) opinion One of these is an important element of a research Paper. (@) bibliography (b) points (©) prologue (d) epilogue All these key words are used for examination questions except. (8) compare (b) analyses (c) define (d) summon Choice testing is a form ‘assessing students in examinations question. i Single (b) multipie (©) double (d) entry. ( ‘Ill Stop is used for the following except (a) abbreviations (b) end of a sentence ‘names of people (d) snare clauses (@elipss” ° US4 to show possession while writing rss (©) quotation marks (©) bracket (d) apostrophe written by ooo” PE Used to enclose a statement that consist the exact words spoken or @ en by someone else Regressor X'S (6) quotation marks (©) semi colon Cuses readers to —__thereby forgetting what they are reading always to reading what has been read before ( react (d) point to wordsSection B: Theory, ANSWER ONE QUESTION ONLY from this Section, Use the Answer Booklet. Submit separately . WRITE YOUR REGISTRATION NUMBER AND DEPARTMENT CLEARL )' 1a, What is complex sentence? 1b. State five uses of punctuation marks OR 2a What is a paragraph? 2b. State five uses of paragraph connector 1b. A punctuation mark is a mark, or sign, used in writing to divide texts into phrases and sentences : nd make the meaning clear. Some common punctuation marks and thelr uses are: To end a sentence To separate phrases or items To show alternatives period (full stop) (. ) ‘comma (, ) slash (/) question mark ( ?) semicolon (; ) exclamation mark (! ) ellipsis (. . .) To quote or indicate atitie To indicate extra information To begin a list single quotation marks (' parentheses ( ), brackets [] and braces{} — colon(: ) double quotation marks("") em dash (— ) 2a, Paragraphs A Paragraph Is a group of connected sentences that Is generally made up of one main idea and a group of supporting sentences, Paragraphs are the basic unit for bullding longer pieces of writing, e.g. essays, reports, assignments etc. Paragraphs contain three main parts: . A topic sentence - contains the main idea of the paragraph. It's often but not always the first sentence of the paragraph, It helps the reader to understand quickly what the paragraph is going to be about, Allows the writer to clearly develop the paragraph that follows. 5 Supporting sentences - these sentences develop or give details about the topic sentence, They car ° ‘expand on the main point ° offer explanations ° give examples oe give additional details. . Acconcluding sentence which summarises the paragraph or may provide a link to the next paragraph. This sentence is not always necessary in a paragraph. Below is a list of useful language that could be used in your concluding statement(s). Finally Therefore Indeed In conclusion Thus Clearly In summary As a result Tt is clear that Paragraph unity — sentence connectors All sentences need to relate to the main idea / topic sentence in the paragraph. The reader should be able to see how each sentence flows from the previous one and how each is connected to the topic sentence. Sentence connectors weave sentences together to create cohesive paragraph. They order and sequence ideas, theory, data etc. The following tables Ist useful connectors,ON OF GENERAL STUDIES 2017/2018 ac, P se NEMESTER EXAMINATION ‘ADEMIC SESSION gsr 1018 - USE OF ENGLISH TIME ALLOWED 1hr: 30Min UCTIONS: Answer ALL questions in Section a In the o| nr uestion from Section B In the Answer Bi ol MR Paper and any jooklet s1urton IN BOLD ITALICS LETTERS ing passage, the numbered gaps indicate missin words. F, - nee ‘vara that is most suitable to fil the gaps, - oe need AG ine and heroin are particularly dangerous =!__ people who are _- 2__on them take rain ther ves. When __3_is under the influence of the drug. oa Ato use acologuiar | phrase, his behaviour change s and he can easily endanger his own life and other people's. If an | dais nt abe o obtain the drug he craves, he begins to sutfers. t (@medicines = (b) drugs (c) Inject (d) symptoms 2 (a) content b) concentrated — (¢) dependent (4) heightened . 3 (2) a suspect (b) a trafficker (c) a participant (d) an addict 4 (a) a high (b) a journey (©) a dose (4) an excursion, 5 (2) departure (b) aggressive (c) perception () withdrawal. | 6 The qualities of good writing include simplicity, economy and __ | (a) difficulty (b) clarity (c) pointers (€) verbosity (d) reduction | a You can read up a topic for writing from (2) dreams (b) heavens (c) Journals _(d) letters | & You are a rare gem!!! is an sentence, | (a) simple {b) compound (¢) exclamatory (4) complex 8 Don't go out at night. This is an example of an sentence (@) instructive (b) exclamatory _- (c) question (d) imperative 10. Some ladies are shameless is a sentence. (a) declarative (b) imperative __(c) opinion (d) interrogative \1, This is the man who stole the car. This is an example of a sentence. (a) compound (b) complex (c) compound-complex .(d) simple 12. Eatwell but don't over eat, This is a sentence. 8 o simple (b) complex (¢) compound (a) compound-complex 'S08a bought that book. This is’a sentence. 14 ( simple (b) complex () compound —(d) compound-complex in you are criticized, examine yourself but don't reply your detractors so that they don't feel important. This is a sentence. 8 (@) complex (b) compound-complex (c) simple (d) compound Tr gies '9 indicate pauses in writing 6 stop (6) comma (c) semicolon (d) colon (d) marks Tay era th example of compound word 7 levee (b) occasionally (¢) boys (4) buyer a anny which does not have a _ accepted definition. Islam Sane ey (c) collectively (a) commonly ; 8 (ai sone 8 a serious business and Leadership as ¥ te a = The love (c) trust aN s py aes pciance rearing bees is calles : Seine ps (b) horticulture (c) sericulture (@) equacuture (2) Question a Of a direct question (b) exclamation mark (c) Ellipsis (d) colon2. 22. 23. 24 25, 26. 27. 28. 29, 30, 31 32, 33. 34. 35, 36. 37, 38. 39, 40. 41 42, 43, 44 45, 46. is used to show possession (a) Apostrophe —_(b) Colon (c) Semi-colon (4) comma can be used to separate main clauses in @ compound sentence (a) Semi-column (b) Ellipsis (c) Hyphen (d) Dash — iS used at the beginning of a new sentence (a) Capitalization (b) Full stop (c) First word (¢) Brackets They kept quiet allthe (a) where (b) period (c) while (d) interval | maintain that the Property in question is. My sister told me all was said at meeting ( Gi what (Sj which (2) who Kofiis too . he wants to know about everybody's business (a) Inquisitive (b) friendly (c) concerned (4) busy Some political leaders love who always praise their governments. (a) sycophants (b) parasites _(c) (2) favorite Although we pleaded for long with our father, he remained ___ that we should not go to the Stadium. (a) callous (b) adamant = (c) curious (4) candid The new car is very attractive but | doubt its (a) style (b) complexity (¢) durability (4) longevity His appointment was __ because of irregularities in his credentials. (3) annuiled (tj terminated (c) suspended _(d) dismissed When the solicitor told Awa to wait outside, she considered it to her dignity (@) draw back (b) an affront —(c) constrain (d) withdrawal The government has imposed an on the imposition of used vehicles. (@) order (b) edict (¢) embargo (d) act Opportunity we now have to rick the nation of corruption () what excellent (b) what an excellent (c) how excellent The student's week was rounded with a dinner (a) off (b) up (©) out The sick ma in bed for three mouths. (a) lay ‘She won because her opponent refused to play (a) mine (b) our (c) my (d) their (d) so excellent (0) through (b) lain (c) lied (d) lie (2) dete (b) default (c) defence (0) deviance The secretary was from her’ job for absenteeism, (a) evicted (b) dismissed (c) rejected (2) eliminated Government officials have to swear to —_f secrecy, (2) an oath (b) a vow (c) a pledge (a) an act The relationship between the couple is for lack of communication (a) tense (b) trained (c) relaxed (8) uncuttured The team manager looked when lib boys lost the match, (a) down (b) denied (c) dejected (4) deserted iS used in between abbreviations. , (@) coma (6) full stop (c) semi-colon (4) colon 'S an example of short duration speech (a) after dinner speech (b) long speech light 'S a type of sentence according to tinal Siege ol eamagrs tan ) simple (b) compound —(c) complex (ay exclamatory sentence a type of sentence that i maya sen 'at Show strong emotional feelings or joy or angel’ (b) international sentence (¢) exclamation sentence (4) indicative sentence |S a sentence that ask questions, (a) interrupt (b) expository (c) declarative (G) determinants qn1 is South, Ilorin is North" is an example of a ipada 4 : — sentence ound —(b) complex = (¢) compound-cor a (erection was rigged" is an example of a PIOX (A) interrogative ———_Sentence. 4 (gj simple (p) compound (c) question (4) exclamation {paragraph contains atopic sentence, supporting sentences ang a)concluding sentence (b)end (a) structure (a) € 5 used to join two compound words, 8) Jy Hyphen (b) Comma (c) Apostrophe (d Colon B: THEORY (20 marks) SECTION tons Use the Answer Booklet and sul Asie at is aparagraph? (b) State four uses of punctuation marks we What are registers? (b) State four characteristics of the register of arts and humanities E: IN N B same as solution to question 1b and 2a 2016/2017 session on page 8 2a ON 1 Register is a part of sociolinguistics, which is the study of the way in which we use language in a soci a, mt oa the term ‘register’ to refer to particular varieties or styles of speaking and writing. Registers vary because the language is used for different purposes, in different contexts and for different audiences, For example, there is a legal register, a register of advertising, registers of banking and a register of weather forecasting. We commonly recognize registers because of their specialized vocabulary but also because of particular uses of grammar. We also use the term register to refer to whether language is being used formally or informally: Register in linguistics is divided into five basic levels describing different types of register or formality definition in writing and speaking, They are, high formal, formal, neutral, informal and vulgar. ‘These are also sometimes called address registers because we use them to address people in different situations in life as a speaker or writer. They work to increase the variety of a language as well as the appropriateness in writing and speaking The term register also defines the differences between when, why and how we use formal or informal language in our day to day life. The five basic English language register definition levels. High formal * (9) central sentence lbmit separately A the level of language that you would use in spoken English on formal occasions to address the rt an archbishop, president or prime minister. i Tra edo when you speak or write to your boss, a client or in a transactional eter. You areal 'anguage definition is also called the consultative register. You use it when, for example Neutra 2°78 10 or talking to your doctor and using the polite address of Dr. se comma Cr conventional language level you would use in transactional situations. The subject Speaking 14 seude business letters, report writing, business plans, marketing presentations 0” Irma client, ar = famil vac colleagues” “2842! register when you speak to or virile emails and messages to frends, ferily ar ne Vulgar , cnet ? type of $7GUag6 we use wore ,"St the language of a smutty joke. This intimate register refers to the tyP en We talk to 1 is, a child or a family pet 8 one other form or eoaeenmediate family members, very close friend: ! F Static rey _ vm state reaiter anguage that remains unchanged due to custom or etiquette, P eS include biblical ace ht ma Uotations, oaths of office, prayers or a pledge of allegiance