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Engineering Design and Technology

Models of the engineering design process (Part 1)

Dr Ashraf Afifi
BSc, MSc, PhD, FHEA

Senior Lecturer
of Engineering Management
Outline
• The engineering design process
• The need for a systematic approach to the design process
• Design process models
– Systematic models: French’s model, Archer’s model, Pahl and
Beitz’s model, VDI 2221 model, Cross’s model
– Stage-gate models: Airbus model, Bombardier model, Engine
manufacturer model
– Concurrent engineering models
– Agile models
– Cyclic models: Boehm’s model
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The engineering design process
• A series of activities
carried out in developing
a design
• Nature and precise
sequence of activities
vary according to
– The complexity of the
design task, and
– The modes of working
• Highly iterative
• Requires decision
Common stages of the
making skills engineering design process
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The need for a systematic approach to the design process
• The increasing complexity of
modern design
• The need to develop teamwork,
with many specialists
collaborating in and contributing
to the design
• The very high risks and costs
associated with modern design
• The need to improve the
efficiency of the design process
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Systematic models
• Describe the series of steps and
the sequences of activities that
typically occur in designing Exploration

• Use heuristic algorithms to Generation

Iteration
guide the designer to the right
Evaluation
direction
Communication
• Developed to be efficient and
effective A simple four-stage model of
the design process (Cross, 2008)

• Can be restrictive if you stick to

them closely
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French’s model
• Design activities:
– Analysis of problem: Takes an initial statement of a need
and produces a statement of the problem with three
elements: the goals, constraints and evaluation criteria of
the design
• There are plenty of examples of excellent solutions to the
wrong problem!

– Conceptual design: Generates broad solutions to the

problem in the form of schemes
– Embodiment of schemes: Works out the schemes in
greater detail and makes a final choice between them
– Detailing: Elaborates and optimizes each aspect of
French’s model of the
the chosen scheme design process
(French, 1985)
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 Archer’s model
• Design activities:
– Programming: Establishes crucial
issues; proposes a course of action

– Data collection: Collects, classifies

and stores data

– Analysis: Identifies sub-problems;

prepares performance (or design)
specifications; reappraises
proposed programme and estimate

– Synthesis: Prepares outline design

proposals

– Development: Develops prototype

design(s); prepares and executes
validation studies

– Communication: Prepares Archer’s model of the design process

manufacturing documentation (Archer, 1984)

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Pahl and Beitz’s model
• Design stages:
– Clarification of the task: Collects information
about the requirements and constraints
– Conceptual design: Establishes function
structures, searches for suitable solutions, and
combines them into concept variants
– Embodiment design: Determines the layout
and forms, and develops a technical product
or system in accordance with technical and
economic considerations
– Detailing: Finalizes arrangement, form,
dimensions and surface properties of all the
individual parts, specifies materials, re-checks
technical and economic feasibility, and
produces all drawings and other production
documents
Pahl and Beitz’s model of the design
process (Pahl et al., 2007)
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VDI 2221 model
• A systematic approach to the design
of technical systems and products
– Uses the same process model of Pahl
and Beitz as its core model but
extends it to deal more with systems
through adding the issues of modules
to the steps

– Pays particular attention to the

specification by constantly reviewing it,
keeping it up-to-date and using it as a
reference in all the subsequent stages

– Emphasises the analysis and

evaluation of several solution variants
at each stage

– Carries out the stages iteratively,

returning to preceding ones to achieve
a step-by-step optimisation
VDI 2221 model of the design process (VDI-
19 September 2023 Engineering Design and Technology Richtlinie 2221, 1993) 9
VDI 2221 model

VDI 2221’s model of development from problem to solution

(VDI-Richtlinie 2221, 1993)
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Cross’s model
• Assumes that designers
– Develop the co-
evolution of problem
and solution together
– Analyse overall
problem into sub-
problems and
synthesising sub-
solutions into overall
solution
• Integrates seven stages
of design and a
symmetrical problem- Cross’s overall design process model (Cross, 2008)
solution model

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Stage-gate models
• Used to minimise risk and provide controls
• Often used for high-value or complex systems and products
• Composed of different stages and gates that are used as
decision points

An example of a stage-gate model

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Airbus stage-gate model
A321-100 go ahead Nov 1989 A321-100 certificate Dec 1993

A321-100 DBD A321-100 first flight Mar 1993 A321-100 in-service Jan 1994

PRODUCTION PHASE
DEFINITION PHASE DEVELOPMENT PHASE
IN-SERVICE PHASE

M0 M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8 M9 M10 M11 M12 M13 M14

End development phase for basic aircraft

Entry into service
Type certification
First flight
Power on
Begin final assembly
First metal cut
Go ahead The stage-gate model used
Authorisation to offer (ATO)
Instruction to proceed (ITP)
by Airbus in the design and
Concept for product selected development of the A321
Definition of basic concept
Top level aircraft specification
model (Altfeld, 2010)
Order released for project
Product idea established

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Concurrent engineering models
• In traditional approaches, tasks
were typically “thrown over the wall”:
When one department finishes its
work at one process, the work is
passed to the next process
– Leads to delay and back tracking
when issues are identified

• Concurrent engineering
parallelises the process where
possible, and sequences tasks
– Allows detailed / specialised input at
earlier stages
– Reduces overall time to complete
– Adds substantial complexity and
increases costs Concurrent vs sequential design
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Agile models
• Appropriate for
design
circumstances
where the market is
dynamic and rapid
development is of
the essence, as in
software
engineering
• Emphasise
adaptation, iteration,
continual feedback,
rapid and flexible Agile model life cycle
response
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The scrum approach
• Key elements of the approach:
– Design teams break work into 3. Project leader
who enables the
6. Regular team
check-in to report
activities with discrete goals work of the team and coordinate
1. Product manager
called sprints of typically two with responsibility Scrum Daily
5. Full-time, self-
Meeting
weeks for product success Master
organizing group
doing the real work
– Progress in sprints is monitored Product
by the team in daily 15-minute Owner Sprint Cycle
Project Stakeholders
Team
meetings called scrums Product 1-4 weeks Evaluation
Backlog √ ––––––––

– Each sprint starts with a √ ––––––––

X ––––––––
planning meeting to establish √ ––––––––
X ––––––––
the goal and allocate resources
Sprint Backlog Incremental Delivery
to the activities
Feedback
– At the end of each sprint, a 2. Prioritized list of
7. Results reviewed
4. Selected list of
review is held to discuss and project deliverables
tasks to execute in by stakeholders at
demonstrate the outputs, reflect and milestones
the current sprint end of each sprint
on performance of the sprint and The scrum development process
identify lessons for future work
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Cyclic models
• Emphasise feedback and
continuous improvement
• Describe activities, typically
following the learn → design →
test → repeat cycle
• Each cycle is typically based
around a single product or
system model that is tested and
evolved against functions,
design parameters and
performance
• Models in different cycles will
evolve and vary, and test
different aspects of the design
A cyclic model life cycle
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Boehm’s model
• Stages of the model:
– Objective setting
– Risk assessment and reduction
– Development and validation
– Planning the next phases
• Benefits & drawbacks:
– Highly flexible, iterative and risk
driven, include feedback loops
Boehm’s spiral model of software development (Boehm, 1986)
– Expensive, quite complex, (Note: design cycles are represented with a spiral path moving
difficult to master time away from the centre; each loop of the spiral from x-axis
clockwise through 360 represents one phase)
management
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Summary
• The engineering design models are all in place to control the
complexity of the design process
• The design activity can be divided into a number of phases or
stages, showing divergent and convergent thinking
• There is often iteration/cyclic repetition of stages, and the
stages may be compressed/overlapped through concurrency
• Sequential models, such as systematic, stage-gate and
concurrent models, are widely used but they have the
tendency to put the intuitive and impulsive designer off
• Agile and cyclic models emphasise adaptation, iteration,
continual feedback, and rapid and flexible response
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 Thank You

Comments and questions to:

Teams, discussion forum, or
Ashraf.Afifi@bristol.ac.uk

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