Research Article

Transportation Research Record

1–13
Ó National Academy of Sciences:
Evaluating the Long-Term Durability of Transportation Research Board 2020
Article reuse guidelines:
Lime Treatment in Hydraulic Structures: sagepub.com/journals-permissions
DOI: 10.1177/0361198120919404

Case Study on the Friant-Kern Canal journals.sagepub.com/home/trr

Pavan Akula1*, Narain Hariharan1*, Dallas N. Little1, Didier Lesueur2,

and Gontran Herrier3

Abstract
The slopes along the Friant-Kern Canal were last treated in the 1970s with 4% quick lime to mitigate issues related to slope
failure caused by expansive Porterville soils. The immediate benefits of lime treatment were well documented by the Bureau
of Reclamation. However, questions remain over the long-term durability of lime-treated materials. In this study, we compare
the engineering properties and changes in the soil mineralogy of treated and untreated sections to establish the effectiveness
of lime after more than 40 years of performance. A geochemical model was developed using the GEM-Selektor program to
simulate the geochemical reactions in the soil-lime system and predict stable pozzolanic products. The experimental results
show a reduction in the plasticity index from 23 to 6 after lime treatment together with a tenfold increase in strength. Lime
addition lowers the risk of volumetric expansion and erosion in soils from moderately high to very low. Further, a pH
increase from 6.30 to 8.90 in lime-treated sections indicates that lime treatment continues to be effective. X-ray fluorescence
analysis shows the presence of Ca2+ ions in quantities similar to the initial treatment dosage indicating negligible leaching of
lime. The geochemical model provides evidence of the formation of pozzolanic products in the soil-lime system which was
validated using thermogravimetry analysis. The performance history of the Friant-Kern Canal together with the findings of
this study affirm the long-term durability of lime treatment on this project and strengthens the case for using lime in the
repair of hydraulic structures.

The Friant-Kern Canal (FKC) in California was con-
structed in the 1940s. The irrigation canal was designed
to operate at a peak water flow rate of 4000 ft3/sec and
has a total span of 152 mi extending from the Friant
Dam on the southeast of Fresno to the Kern River near
Bakersville (Figure 1). About one-third (54 mi) of the
FKC was built using expansive clays belonging to the
Porterville formation and lined with either earth or con-
crete (1). The earth-lined sections were built on a 2:1 side
slope while the concrete-lined sections of the canal were
built flatter with a 3:2 side slope. The onset of failures
and maintenance issues from shrinkage cracks, sliding,
and sloughing of the slopes was reported in both sections
within two to three years of the construction of the canal
(2). The problems were further compounded by the dis-
persive nature of the soils which lead to erosion in many
parts of the FKC.
In the early 1970s, the Bureau of Reclamation
(USBR) used lime to treat the native clays along the
banks of the canal as part of a major effort to control
further deterioration and to restore the damaged sections
of the FKC. This operation was mostly carried out in
the winter months and involved removing and replacing
the original lining with a compacted soil-lime mixture
prepared using 3.0%–4.0% quicklime (CaO). Current
engineering practice for determining the lime content
required for soil stabilization does not directly consider
the potential for lime leaching and is essentially based on
finding the optimum lime content to achieve the target
properties such as compressive strength and plasticity
reduction (Little 1995). The lime content used at FKC
was chosen based on plasticity and swell measurements
(1). Two additional lime treatment projects were under-
taken by the USBR in the mid-1970s to restore damaged
1
Zachry Department of Civil Engineering, Texas A&M University-College
Station, College Station, TX
2
Lhoist Southern Europe, Grenoble, France
3
Lhoist Research and Development, Nivelles, Belgium
*Joint first authors.
Corresponding Author:
Pavan Akula, pavan.akula@tamu.edu
2 Transportation Research Record 00(0)
Figure 1. Location of the Friant-Kern Canal.
earth-lined sections and in the mid-1980s in response to
failure of portions of the concrete-lined sections that had
been left untreated during the initial operation.
The performance of the lime-treated sections of the
FKC have been monitored periodically since construc-
tion (2–5). Gutschick (3) reported that no known slips or
slides occurred in the lime-treated sections and that the
strength of the treated soils continued to increase with
time even after sustained exposure to water flow.
Fleming (5) testified that the use of lime was both benefi-
cial to repair slough slides and considerably more eco-
nomical compared with the traditional repair method of
flattening the slopes. More recently, Herrier (2) stated
that the FKC served as a standout example for the suc-
cessful application of lime in hydraulic structures based
on feedback from the Friant Water Authority (FWA) on
its remarkable maintenance history, essentially non-exis-
tent, of the lime-treated sections since rehabilitation in
the 1970s. However, there has been no recent qualitative
or quantitative evaluation of the lime-treated soils at the
FKC until this study. A review of the average annual
historical climate data for Fresno obtained from the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA) database indicated sustained periods of heavy
rainfall, two or three freeze-thaw cycles, and some
extended periods of drying, all of which raised curiosity
about the long-term durability of lime-treated canal
slopes.
Lime is a versatile material and has been successfully
used in infrastructure construction all over the world in
soil treatment applications including pavement base and
subgrades, airports, rail-road beds, and so forth for
thousands of years (6). Lime has been especially effective
in providing a workable soil platform in construction
operations thanks to its ability to alter the physical prop-
erties of clays and to reduce the plasticity and expansion
indexes. Furthermore, lime treatment can increase the
pH of soils to as high as 12.45 through the release of
hydroxyl ions to solubilize and interact with the
silicates and aluminates released from the clay minerals,
resulting in long-term strength-building pozzolanic
reactions (6).
The use of lime in stabilizing hydraulic levees and
embankments is relatively less popular than pavement
subgrade stabilization using conventional and temporary
repair techniques such as dewatering, importing replace-
ment materials from local borrow pits, flattening the
slopes (4), and less commonly adopting electrochemical
methods to stabilize the soils (1). In addition, questions
arise concerning the sustainability of lime treatment
because of the high-pH levels and the potential for leach-
ing. However, the McGee Creek dam and the FKC serve
are examples of the successful use of lime for hydraulic
purposes to control erosion-related issues resulting from
dispersive soils (7). Although lime has been used in the
treatment of some major hydraulic structures in the U.S.
and in most cases produced satisfactory results, there has
been limited documentation on the mechanisms that con-
tribute to the long-term durability of lime treatment for
soils in constant or intermittent, long-duration contact
with water.
For owners and administrations in charge of the
maintenance of hydraulic structures, their safety and
operation, as well as the durability of their constituent
materials, are of significant concern. The durability of a
structure is defined as its ability to retain the required
properties to maintain its designed functions. The dur-
ability of materials on the other hand can be defined as
the resilience of their properties over time, while facing a
series of stresses both mechanical and environmental. A
major component of the stresses affecting the FKC is
linked to the contact of the soils with water which can
lead to the risk of lime leaching, erosion, and a decrease
of strength, leading ultimately to a compromise in
Akula et al
Figure 2. Average annual climatic data for Friant Kern Canal (8).
long-term durability of the lime-treated soils and the sta-
bility of the canal as a whole. Moreover, the climate sig-
nificantly affects the long-term aging related
performance of the lime-treated soils in FKC. The FKC
region has experienced several freeze-thaw and flood-
drought cycles since 1970 as shown in Figure 2 (8).
Most of the follow-up performance evaluations in
such projects are limited to reporting mechanical proper-
ties focusing mainly on the strength of the soils immedi-
ately or soon after lime treatment. There appears to be
no open literature, even from pavement durability stud-
ies, that evaluates the mineralogical evolution of lime-
treated soils concurrently with changes in engineering
properties over a performance period of nearly five
decades, the length of time since the construction of the
FKC. The work performed in this study is therefore
aimed at assessing the long-term behavior of lime treated
materials in the specific context of hydraulic canals such
as the FKC with continuous water flow so as to unearth
the technical locks linked to the lack of knowledge and
feedback about the long-term behavior of such materials.
In addition, the study provides literature on the engineer-
ing, mineralogical, and geochemical changes that can be
expected in lime-treated soils over a long period.
We utilized the opportunity provided by FWA to
extract both native and lime-treated soils from the FKC
slopes to perform a field evaluation of the long-term dur-
ability of lime treatment at the FKC from an engineering
as well as mineralogical standpoint. While it is possible
to simulate in a laboratory the effects of aging caused by
climatic factors and water contact, the motivation behind
conducting a field study was to model and evaluate the
durability of pozzolanic reactions taking place in the
soil-lime system considering the effect of leaching and
3
carbonation. Calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) is the pri-
mary pozzolanic product that holds the soil matrix
together contributing to the strength and durability of
lime-treated soils (9). CSH is highly disordered with a
gel-like structure and forms when lime initiates a geo-
chemical reaction in clay-rich soils at a pH of 12.4 (6).
Part of this case study considers a hypothesis of the for-
mation of CSH using the Gibb’s energy minimization
selector (GEM-Selektor) program.
The GEM-Selektor program was developed to model
geochemical reactions (10, 11) based on Gibb’s energy
minimization and has been used extensively to simulate
the hydration process in cement and fly ash and quantify
the pozzolanic products (12–16). Little used thermody-
namic modeling to evaluate ettringite formation in sul-
fate bearing soils (17). A detailed description of the
approach, assumptions, and principles involved in using
GEM-Selektor to model the formation of CSH and
other mineral phases in the lime-treated FKC soils is pre-
sented in this paper to solidify the long-term efficacy of
lime treatment.
Objectives
The primary objective of this study was to investigate the
changes in the engineering and mineralogical properties of
lime-treated sections of the FKC and to substantiate the
durability of lime treatment in hydraulic structures. To
supplement the experimental data, the long-term geo-
chemical changes occurring in the soil-lime system were
modeled using GEM-Selektor and validated using analyti-
cal methods. The performance of lime-treated soils at
the FKC was evaluated through the following specific
actions:
4 Transportation Research Record 00(0)
1. Procure native and 40-year-old lime-treated sam-
ples from the FKC embankment slopes and per-
form basic engineering characterization including
determining the Atterberg limits, particle size dis-
tribution, and optimum moisture content (OMC)
along with basic chemical characterization includ-
ing determining soil pH, lime fixation point, and
cation exchange capacity (CEC).
2. Compare the current engineering properties
namely compressive strength, expansion index
and erosion resistance of the native and lime-
treated FKC soils.
3. Evaluate the transformation in mineralogy of the
native soils more than 40 years after lime treat-
ment using X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray fluor-
escence (XRF), and thermogravimetric analysis
(TGA).
4. Model the long-term geochemical reactions occur-
ring in the soil-lime system placing special empha-
sis on validating the strength development from
the formation of CSH and calcite.
Soil Sampling and Characterization
Soil samples were collected from the lime-treated sections
of the FKC slopes using a rotary drill (Figure 3). The
gradient of the slope and the built-up strength of the
lime-treated soils made it challenging to recover undis-
turbed cores that could be used for compressive strength
Figure 3. (a) Collection of soil samples from the lime-treated sections of the Friant-Kern Canal slopes using a rotary drill and (b) lime
treated sample.
and erosion resistance tests. The lime-treated soil sam-
ples were extracted from areas more than 3 ft above the
existing water line following an extended drought at
depths of 1–2 ft below the surface of the canal slope. The
chosen sampling location was regarded by FWA as the
average water line level and falls well within the water
line when the canal operates at full capacity. The pres-
ence of lime in the treated sections was confirmed on-site
by testing for reaction caused by increased pH using a
phenolphthalein indicator. The brittle nature of the lime-
treated soils combined with the mechanical disturbance
caused during the coring process meant that approxi-
mately 20% of the material recovered was collected as a
fine fraction and the rest as odd-shaped chunks as shown
in Figure 3. The fine fraction was used for basic engi-
neering and chemical characterization tests performed
on the lime-treated soils.
Native soil samples were extracted from the same
depth as the lime-treated samples using a hand auger at
sections of the canal that had been left untreated at the
time of construction. The native soil samples were
visually identified as moderately plastic clays.
Basic engineering characterization of the samples
included determining the Atterberg limits by ASTM
D4318 (18), soil classification after particle size distribu-
tion analysis by ASTM D7928-17, and moisture-density
relationship testing to determine the OMC following
ASTM D1557 (19). A summary of the average soil prop-
erties of the native and lime-treated soils recovered is
Akula et al
Table 1. Basic Engineering Characterization of Friant-Kern Canal Soils
Sample Liquid limit (%) Plastic limit (%)
Untreated soils 41 18
Lime treated soils 34 28
Note: USCS = unified soil classification system; CL = lean clay; ML = silt; OMC = optimum moisture content.
Figure 4. Particle size distribution of untreated and lime-treated
Friant-Kern Canal soils.
presented in Table 1. All the tests were replicated to
ensure consistency in results.
The USBR reported the FKC soils had an average
plasticity index (PI) of 36 before lime treatment and that
the PI of the soils dropped to 9, 72 h after mixing with
4% quick lime (1). The considerably lower current PI of
the lime-treated soils sampled during the current study in
comparison with the untreated soils is testimony to the
permanent textural modification of the treated FKC
soils from lean and fat clays to inorganic low plasticity
silts as identified at the time of construction and shown
in Table 1.
The cumulative particle size distribution of the FKC
soils is shown in Figure 4 to highlight the textural
changes to the soils as a result of lime treatment.
The untreated samples are composed of nearly 33%
sands (0.05–2 mm), 37% silts (0.002–0.05 mm) and 30%
clays (\0.002 mm). The silt and clay fractions in the
lime-treated samples drop to 31% and 9%, respectively,
while the sand fraction increases to nearly 60%. The par-
ticle size distribution trends confirm the sustained effect
of lime on coagulating the clays.
Soil pH and CEC are two of the most basic and indi-
cative measurements of soil chemical properties (20). The
pH of the FKC soils was measured in accordance with
ASTM D4972 (21), while the CEC of the native soil was
determined by measuring the concentration of extracted
sodium ions using ammonium acetate (1N, pH 7.0) after
saturating the exchange sites of the inherent clays using
sodium acetate (1N, pH 8.2).
5
Plasticity index (%) % Passing 74 mm USCS classification OMC (%)
23 69.2 CL 21.4
6 48.5 ML 18.1
The pH of the native FKC soils was found to be 6.30.
The lime-treated soils had a pH of 8.90, indicating a con-
siderable presence of hydroxyl ions released from lime.
The quick lime demand required to raise the pH of the
native soils to 12.40 (22) was found to be 3.4% indicat-
ing that the lime dosage used in the 1970s during initial
repair operations was targeted to promote long-term
strength-building pozzolanic reactions (6). The relatively
high current pH of the treated FKC soils indicates that
lime treatment continues to be effective and has assisted
in the formation of new mineral phases which are investi-
gated at depth in this study.
The USBR has reported the presence of highly expan-
sive clays across the FKC canal linings (1). The CEC of
the native soils was measured to confirm the presence of
expansive clay minerals such as montmorillonites at the
location where the soils were sampled. The CEC of the
untreated FKC soils was found to be 27.5 mEq/100 g
indicating that the native soils extracted for the current
study contained significant enough amounts of expansive
clay minerals and were representative of the soils treated
with lime in the 1970s.
Methods
The durability assessment of lime-treated soils at the
FKC included laboratory methods to evaluate the engi-
neering properties of the soils as well as methods to
understand the mineralogical transformation of the
treated FKC soils. A brief description of the choice of
method, sample preparation procedures, and key test
specifications for all test methods used in this study is
presented in this section.
Methods Used to Evaluate the Engineering Properties
of FKC Soils
Three engineering properties of soils critical in the assess-
ment of soils in constant contact with water were investi-
gated in this study: unconfined compressive strength
(UCS), the expansion index, and erosion resistance. The
challenges described during soil sampling did not allow
us to follow standard testing protocols for determining
the strength and erosion properties of the FKC soils. We
intend to extract intact cores for these tests from the
6 Transportation Research Record 00(0)
bottom of the canal during the winter of 2020 when the
FKC is scheduled to be emptied for routine maintenance.
Unconfined Compressive Strength. The UCS test was per-
formed in accordance with ASTM D2166 (23). The soil
specimens recovered from our sampling exploration at
the FKC were not suitable to be trimmed and used for a
UCS test. The lime-treated FKC soils were remolded at
OMC (Table 1) and compacted using a Harvard minia-
ture compaction apparatus to obtain samples that were
1.3 in. in diameter by 3.9 in. in height. The moisture con-
tents of the untreated and lime-treated samples before
remolding at OMC were recorded to be 13.8% and 8.7%
respectively which were within 6 1 % of the moisture
contents as recovered from the site. The samples were
then cured at 40°C for seven days at a relative humidity
of 70% before running the UCS test. In this study, we
report the current remolded strength of the native and
lime-treated FKC soils and interpret the results with ref-
erence to the actual strengths of the soils reported within
a year of initial repair.
Expansion Index. The expansion index (EI) of the
untreated and treated FKC soils was determined in
accordance with ASTM D4829 (24) using 4 in. diameter
by 2 in. height samples cured to reach an initial degree of
saturation of 50%.
Erosion Resistance. The susceptibility of the FKC soils to
erosion was tested indirectly by measuring the turbidity
of a 1% suspension of the fine clay fraction (\45 mm)
prepared with distilled water using a UV-vis spectro-
meter. Turbidity of the samples was compared as a func-
tion of absorbance of the fine clay suspension to light
near the visible wavelength range (380–800 nm).
Standard procedures to measure the erodibility of soils
such as the jet erosion test and the erosion function appa-
ratus test could not be executed as intact undisturbed
samples were unavailable.
Methods Used for Mineralogical Investigation of FKC
Soils
The mineralogical evolution of the FKC soils after lime
treatment was investigated by three analytical methods
namely X-ray diffraction (XRD) to determine the minera-
logical composition of the soils, XRF to quantify the total
oxide composition in the soils, and TGA to identify poz-
zolanic products and to complement the XRD analysis.
Powdered samples were used for XRD, XRF, and TGA
analysis by grinding the FKC soils using a mortar and pes-
tle followed by sieving to pass through a 45 mm sieve.
X-Ray Diffraction. The soil minerals present in the pow-
dered native and lime-treated FKC samples were
determined using a Bruker D-8 X-ray diffractometer
using CuKa radiation powered to 40 kV at 40 mA. Phase
identification was done by matching against the mineral
collection data from the International Center for
Diffraction Data (ICDD).
Exactly 4.50 g of the samples tested were mixed with
0.5 g of ZnO (internal standard) and 15 mL of ethanol
followed by milling for 5 min in a micronizer to eliminate
preferential orientation of the particles. The suspension
was then spray-dried (25) in a heated chamber to gener-
ate spherical aggregates. The spray-dried samples were
then side loaded before XRD analysis. In addition, the
clay fraction of the samples (passing 2 mm) was extracted
and analyzed to identify the cations saturating the inter-
layer of swelling clay minerals. The samples were scanned
from 3° to 80° (2u) for 60 min at 0.02°/s.
X-Ray Fluorescence. The powdered sample was pressed
into a pellet applying a force of 30 tons for 45 s in a XRF
pellet press to minimize errors in data measurement. The
pelletized samples were tested for the elemental total
oxide composition using a high-power (200 W) sequential
Rigaku Supermini 200 wavelength dispersive XRF spec-
trometer instrument operated at a tube voltage of 50°kV
and energy resolution of 140 eV.
Thermogravimetric Analysis. The thermal analysis system
‘‘SDT Q-600’’ manufactured by TA Instruments was
used to record the weight change of the samples from
100°C temperature to 1000°C with a ramp rate of 10°C/
min. A precise quantity of 50 mg of powdered sample
was used for all measurements. To minimize any errors
from hygroscopic effects on the moisture sensitivity of
expansive clay minerals present in the FKC soils, the
samples were preheated to 100°C for 48 h before taking
TGA measurements.
Results and Discussion
This section discusses the experimental results pertinent
to demonstrating the long-term durability of lime treat-
ment at the FKC. The effect of lime on the engineering
properties of the soils is discussed first and is followed by
a discussion of the results substantiating the mineralogi-
cal transformation of the lime-treated soils.
Effect of Lime on Engineering Properties of FKC Soils
A concurrent increase in long-term strength, reduction in
EI, and erodibility of the FKC soils 40 years after lime
treatment were used as the criteria to establish the geo-
mechanical stability of the lime-treated soils from an
engineering standpoint. The results obtained in support
of this assertion are summarized in Table 2 and discussed
in this section. The UCS and EI measurements were
Akula et al
Table 2. Summary of the Effect of Lime on Engineering Properties of Friant-Kern Canal Soils
Compressive strength, psi
Sample UCS Standard error EI
Untreated soils 15 2.8 54.9
Lime-treated soils 1400 8.7 12.5
Note: psi = pounds per square inch; UCS = unconfined compressive strength; EI = expansion index.
recorded on three samples each and the average values
and standard error are reported.
Unconfined Compressive Strength. The UCS of the native
soils was reported to be around 12 psi (pounds per square
inch) at the time of construction (1). The UCS of the
lime-treated soils recorded a strength of 250 psi immedi-
ately after construction and nearly 500 psi one year after
treatment (2). The average current remolded strength of
the lime-treated samples was found to be 140 psi and
there was no difference in the strength of the native soils
over time (Table 2). The measured remolded strength of
the lime-treated soils is within the 80 psi to 200 psi range
reported after a seven-day curing period for stabilized
clay soils having similar PI (26). As indicated earlier, we
were unable to recover intact soil cores that could be
either used as is or trimmed to report a more accurate
representation of the actual strength of the lime-treated
sections more than 40 years after treatment. It is impor-
tant to note that remolding the lime-treated soils signifi-
cantly disturbed the chemical bonds between calcium
ions from lime and the soil minerals thereby negatively
affecting the strength measurements. The present com-
pressive strength of intact lime-treated cores is, therefore,
expected to be higher than the strength reported in this
study. In fact, it is remarkable that sufficient residual
lime was apparently present to produce this substantial
strength gain in the remolded samples. In any case, a ten-
fold increase in compressive strength of the remolded
lime-treated soils compared with the native soils five
decades after treatment sufficiently demonstrates the
effect of lime in contributing to the long-term strength of
the FKC soils.
Expansion Index. The effect of lime in reducing the EI of
the FKC soils is evident from the results presented in
Table 2. An improvement in volumetric stability of high
plasticity soils after lime treatment serves as a critical
performance measure of long-term durability especially
in hydraulic structures which are subjected to constant
contact with water. A ‘‘very high’’ potential degree of
expansion for the native FKC soils and a ‘‘low’’ EI for
the lime-treated soils was reported after initial repair (1).
7
Expansion potential Relative erosion resistance
Standard error Classification Absorbance intensity Classification
3.5 Moderate 0.23 High
2.2 Very low 0.14 Low
Figure 5. Absorbance patterns of Friant Kern Canal soils
subjected to light in visible wavelength range.
The textural modification of the FKC soils from lean
clays to low plasticity silts after lime treatment lowers
the colloidal clay activity in the soils thereby minimizing
volume change when subjected to climatic cycles. The
‘‘very low’’ risk of expansion in the lime-treated sections
after 40 years of lime treatment provides strong, addi-
tional support for the long-term durability of lime-
treated soils.
Erosion Resistance. The absorbance patterns of the fine
clay particles (\45 mm) subjected to light in the wave-
length range between 380 nm and 800 nm is presented in
Figure 5.
A higher absorbance intensity is a direct function of
the turbidity of the suspensions as reflected by the zero
absorbance observed in distilled water (27). A clear drop
in turbidity of the fine clay suspensions was observed in
the lime-treated soils (Figure 5). The data obtained pro-
vide valuable insight into the effectiveness of lime treat-
ment in controlling the dispersive nature of the native
FKC soils thereby making them less prone to erosion
(28). A more rigorous analysis of the erodibility of the
FKC soils must involve the use of in-situ erosion tests
using the erosion function apparatus (EFA) to track the
scour rate as a function of key parameters such as shear
stresses and velocity of water flow which could not be
performed in this study because of the challenges faced
in recovering undisturbed samples. Nevertheless, when
comparing the absorbance intensities of the native FKC
8 Transportation Research Record 00(0)
Figure 6. XRD pattern of the untreated and treated Friant Kern Canal soil.
Note: XRD = x-ray diffraction.
soils with the lime-treated soils at the same suspension
concentration, lower absorbance intensities observed in
the treated samples would imply a lower scour rate of
the soils as a result of reduced dispersion. This indirect
measure of the erosion resistance of lime-treated soils is
supported by no erosion-related failure being reported
since the initial repair in the 1970s.
Effect of Lime on Mineralogical Transformation of FKC
Soils
The findings pertaining to the changes in mineralogy of
the lime-treated FKC soils over time are presented in this
section. Special emphasis is placed on identification and
quantification of the new mineral phases formed from
the long-term geochemical reactions occurring in the
soil-lime system using three analytical techniques namely
quantitative x-ray diffraction (QXRD), XRF, and TGA.
Quantitative X-Ray Diffraction Analysis. The XRD pattern of
the untreated FKC soils along with the quantification of
soil minerals is presented in Figure 6.
The fitting criteria of Rwp \ 10% and goodness of fit
(GOF) \ 3 validates the accuracy of the quantification.
The presence of 39% smectite in the soils explains the
moderate EI of the native soils and correlates well with
the CEC (27.5 mEq/100 g) obtained. In addition, 7.7% of
the amorphous phases present in the soil was composed
of 4% amorphous SiO2 and other minor phases. This
was calculated by subtracting out the total equivalent
crystalline SiO2 fraction from the total SiO2 obtained
from XRF (29). The amorphous SiO2 serves as a critical
source of silica to assist in the formation of CSH thanks
to its high reactivity. The QXRD results of the untreated
sample were used to model the geochemical reactions in
the soil-lime system.
The XRD pattern of the lime-treated soil indicated
the presence of calcite and a decrease in the peak inten-
sity of soil minerals, quartz and smectite (Figure 6) as a
result of the partial dissolution of the minerals in the
high-pH environment.
X-Ray Fluorescence. The XRF data provide the total ele-
mental composition in equivalent oxide form for both the
native and lime-treated FKC soils. As anticipated, the
lime-treated soils had 3.9% more CaO compared with the
untreated soils (Table 3). There were no major differences
in the oxide composition of the other elements. The
increase in CaO content 40 years after lime treatment
proves that there was no significant leaching of lime or its
associated pozzolanic products over time which substanti-
ates the long-term durability of lime treatment.
Akula et al 9

Table 3. X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis of Friant-Kern Canal Soils modeling approach, geochemistry of reactions occurring
in the soil-lime system, and the results obtained are dis-
Untreated Lime-treated cussed in this section.
Element/composition soils (%) soils (%)

CaO 4.6 8.5

SiO2 55.6 53.9 Approach
Al2O3 20.6 20.1 A two-step modeling approach was used to model the
Fe2O3 12.1 11.2
SO3 0.0 0.0 geochemical reactions in the soil-lime system in GEM-
MgO 2.9 3.0 Selektor (Figure 8). The GEM-Selektor program was ini-
K2O 1.8 1.1 tially developed to assess the formation of hydration
Na2O 0.6 0.6 products present in hydrated cement and fly ash (12, 13).
Total organic carbon 1.8 1.7
The thermodynamic parameters of soil minerals were
manually added in GEM-Selektor using the MINES
database (32, 33) as a reference. The parameters pertain-
ing to the hydration products were added from the
CEMDATA-07 database (34). The model assumes suffi-
cient water for pozzolanic reactions to occur.
In step 1, the model was split into five sub-models.
The inputs for each sub-model comprised the individual
soil minerals present in excess of 3%, determined using
QXRD, and 4% lime in the presence of air (containing
gases O2 and N2) at 25°C and 1 atm pressure. The objec-
tive in this step was to calculate the dissolution of each
soil mineral phase at equilibrium caused by the pH
increase. This was carried out by reacting each soil
mineral with 4% lime. For example, when 26.6% albite
reacted with 4% lime, 4% of the albite dissolved at equi-
librium. The dissolution of other soil minerals was calcu-
Figure 7. Differential TGA analysis of the untreated and treated lated similarly.
soil specimens. In step 2, which is the primary model, the dissolved
Note: CSH = calcium silicate hydrate; TGA = thermogravimetric analysis.
content of all mineral phases were reacted together with
the 4% lime to determine the stability of CSH at equili-
Thermogravimetric Analysis. The peaks observed in the dif- brium. For example, 4% albite and other soluble mineral
ferential thermogram (DTG) of the untreated and lime- phases (calculated from step 1) were reacted with 4%
treated samples were used to confirm the presence of dif- lime to quantify CSH at equilibrium. The two-step mod-
ferent minerals as seen in Figure 7. Minerals with water eling approach helps determine the reactivity of each soil
in the interlayer, such as CSH and smectite and others mineral and its contribution toward the formation of
with hydroxyl functional groups such as amphiboles and hydration products.
biotite, lose weight at different temperatures from water
loss and dihydroxylation, respectively. The CSH phase
shows water loss from 50°C to 600°C (30) with a peak at Geochemistry of Soil-Lime Reactions
150°C as seen in Figure 7. Dehydroxylation of amphi-
In the presence of water, hydrated lime, CaðOHÞ2 dis-
bole and biotite was validated by the peak at 450°C (31)
solves releasing Ca2+ and OH– ions.
in both the treated and untreated samples. In addition,
the calcite formed as a result of lime treatment decarbo- CaðOH Þ2 ! Ca2+ + 2OH  ð1Þ
nates above 600°C to CaO and CO2 and was identified
by the peak at 700°C. The OH– ions released increase the soil pH of the
lime-treated soils to as much as 12.45. Smectite, which is
the primary expansive clay mineral in the FKC soils is
Geochemical Modeling unstable above pH 12 and partially dissolves (35) releas-
ing amorphous silica and alumina in the process.
The primary objective of using geochemical modeling in
this study was to identify stable pozzolanic products, pri-
Smectite + 6H+ + 2H2 O ! 1:4Al3+ + 0:6Mg2+
marily CSH, which can serve as critical evidence to sub- ð2Þ
stantiate the long-term durability of lime treatment. The + 0:6Na+ + SiO2 ðamÞ
10
Figure 8. Geochemical model flowchart.
Note: QXRD = quantitative x-ray diffraction; GEMS = Gibbs energy minimization selektor; TGA = thermogravimetric analysis; XRD = x-ray diffraction;
CSH = calcium silicate hydrate.
CSH precipitates in an alkaline environment (pH 10–
12) when sufficient quantities of the highly reactive SiO2
(am) released from smectite dissolution and Ca2+ ions
released from lime react in the presence of water. The for-
mation of a representative CSH (36) can be written as
1:5Ca2þ þ 4H2 O þ SiO2 ðamÞ !
ð3Þ
ðCaOÞ1:5:ðSiO2 ÞðH2 OÞ2:5ðCSHÞ þ 3H þ
CSH has a chemical formula of (CaO)X.
(SiO2)Y.(4H2O)Z (9). The values of X, Y, and Z can
range from 0.8 to 3.5, 0.6 to 2.5, and 1.5 to 2.5 respec-
tively (36). The varying stoichiometry of CaO, SiO2, and
H2O can be attributed to the solid solution and disor-
derly nature of CSH. The H2O in CSH is also comprised
of equivalent H+ and OH– ions ðH2 O ! H + + OH  Þ.
The OH– ions from lime dissolution (Equation 1) is con-
sumed in the formation of CSH which reduces the pH.
Furthermore, the pH buffering capacity of expansive
clay minerals like smectite can also reduce the pH as
observed in the FKC soils (37, 38). The gel-like CSH
structure holds the soil matrix together and contributes
to the strength and durability of the soil. Therefore, the
stability of CSH at equilibrium is used as the main criter-
ion to substantiate the long-term durability of the lime-
treated FKC soils.
Transportation Research Record 00(0)
Model Results and Validation
In step 1, the dissolution of lime increases the pH and
partially dissolves the soil minerals. The dissolved con-
tent column in Table 4 shows the dissolution proportion
of each soil mineral when reacted with 4% lime. The
results show partial dissolution of smectite (7% of the
39.7%) which is similar to the trend observed by Claret
and Tsutomu (35, 39) under alkaline conditions. The
modeling results also indicate partial dissolution of
amphiboles, biotite, and albite but to a much lesser
extent compared with smectite.
In step 2, the combined reaction of all dissolved miner-
als with 4% lime indicated that 8.3% of CSH and 2.4% of
calcite are the only stable pozzolanic products at equili-
brium. The primary model results prove that the quartz
(am) present in the soil and the dissolved quartz (am) and
smectite provided the source of silica required for the for-
mation of CSH. The model did not indicate the formation
of other common hydration products such as calcium alu-
mina hydrate (CAH) and ettringite but it did indicate alu-
mina complexes to be stable as an aqueous phase. This is
likely a result of the stoichiometric deficiency of Ca2+ ,
Al3+ and SO42– ions available to form CAH and ettrin-
gite, respectively reflected by the lower amounts of free
alumina in the soil minerals compared with silica and the
Akula et al 11

Table 4. Geochemical Modeling Results

Step 1 Step 2
Input Output Input Output
Dissolved
Phase Content (%) content (%) Phase Content (%) Phase Content (%)

Sub-model 1 Quartz (am) 11.31 4.00 Primary Quartz (am) 4.00 CSH 8.31
Atm. N2/O2 (g) 1.00 NA model Albite 1.00 Calcite 2.43
CaO 4.00 NA Biotite 0.31
Sub-model 2 Albite 26.06 1.00 Amphibole 4.00
Atm. N2/O2 (g) 1.00 NA Smectite 7.01
CaO 4.00 NA Atm. N2/O2 (g) 1.00
Sub-model 3 Biotite 5.18 0.31 CaO 4.00
Atm. N2/O2 (g) 1.00 NA CO2 (g) 1.00
CaO 4.00 NA
Sub-model 4 Amphibole 8.26 4.00
Atm. N2/O2 (g) 1.00 NA
CaO 4.00 NA
Sub-model 5 Smectite 39.70 7.01
Atm. N2/O2 (g) 1.00 NA
CaO 4.00 NA

Note: CSH = calcium silicate hydrate; NA = not applicable.

absence of sulfates (Table 3). Calcite formation is expected
in lime-treated soils from the reaction of hydrated lime
with atmospheric CO2. The model predicted the formation
of calcite at equilibrium. Calcite contributes to the durabil-
ity of soil-lime system by acting as an inert filler material
by occupying the pore space within the soil matrix (40). In
addition, calcite also assists in strength development by
cementing some of the undissolved smectites. The model-
ing results are validated by the TGA data that confirm the
presence of CSH and calcite in the lime-treated samples
collected for this study.
In conclusion, the calcium from lime ends up in either
calcite or CSH, or remains in calcium hydroxide. In the
case of the FKC soils, the fate of calcium was consumed
in a 1:3.5 proportion between calcite and CSH with a
negligible fraction remaining unreacted. This distribution
is similar to what was observed on a 30-year-old lime
treated embankment by Haas and Ritter (41).
Conclusion
The long-term durability of lime treatment at the FKC
was evaluated from an engineering and mineralogical
standpoint after more than 40 years of performance. The
geochemical model GEM-Selektor was used to simulate
the long-term geochemical reactions occurring in the
soil-lime system and predict the formation of pozzolanic
products. The following conclusions were drawn from
this study:
1. The drop in PI of the lime-treated soils in com-
parison with the native soils was a testimony to
the durable textural modification of the treated
FKC soils from lean clays to inorganic low plasti-
city silts. The particle size distribution trends con-
firmed the sustained effect of lime in coagulating
the clay colloids. The native soil contained 39.7%
smectite.
2. The pH of the native FKC soils was found to
6.30. The lime-treated soils had a pH of 8.90 indi-
cating considerable presence of hydroxyl ions
released from hydrated lime. The pH of the lime-
treated soils dropped from 12.40 to 8.90 during
more than 40 years of performance as a result of
carbonation and mineralogical transformations.
3. A difference of nearly 4% Ca2 + ions in the XRF
analysis and the concomitant high pH of the
lime-treated soils proved that there was negligible
leaching of lime, calcium compounds, or both,
since initial treatment.
4. A concurrent increase in long-term strength,
reduction in expansion potential and erodibility
of the FKC soils was used as the criteria for estab-
lishing the geo-mechanical stability of the lime-
treated soils from an engineering standpoint.
Lime treatment increased the mean UCS strength
of remolded soils from 15 to 140 psi, decreased the
risk of expansion from moderate to very low and
lowered the turbidity of the fine clay suspensions
leading to improved erosion resistance.
12
5. The geochemical model results indicated the for-
mation of CSH and calcite as stable pozzolanic
products. The calcium from lime was consumed
among calcite and CSH in a 1:3.5 proportion.
The model results were validated by the CSH
peak at 150°C and calcite peak at 700°C in the
DTG of the lime-treated soil.
The results obtained shows that the lime content used
at the FKC was appropriate to ensure a lasting effect
even after more than 40 years of service life in constant
contact with water. While more similar case studies are
required before generalizing this important finding, pre-
liminary indications are that leaching of lime remains
limited in hydraulic structures and therefore need not be
assessed at the formulation stages of similar projects.
The findings of this study together with the on-site feed-
back on the remarkable performance history of lime at
the FKC affirm the long-term durability of lime treat-
ment for soils in permanent or intermittent contact with
water for long periods and strengthens the case for the
use of lime in the repair of hydraulic structures.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the contribution of
Tom Fousek and his team from the Friant Water Authority for
their assistance with sample collection and Dr. Youjun Deng
and Bidemi Fashima at Texas A&M for their valuable inputs
on the QXRD analysis of the soils.
Author Contributions
The authors confirm contribution to the paper as follows: study
conception and design: PA, NH, DNL; data collection: NH,
PA; analysis and interpretation of results: PA, NH, DL, DNL,
GH; draft manuscript preparation: NH, PA. All authors
reviewed the results and approved the final version of the
manuscript.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article.
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial sup-
port for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article: This work was supported Lhoist Southern Europe, and
Lhoist Business Innovation Center.
References
1. Howard, A., and J. Bara. Lime Stabilization on Friant-Kern
Canal. Report No. REC-ERC-76-20. Engineering and
Transportation Research Record 00(0)
Research Center Bureau of Reclamation, Denver CO,
1976, p. 53.
2. Herrier, G., R. Berger, and S. Bonelli. The Friant-Kern
Canal: A Forgotten Example of Lime-Treated Structure in
Hydraulic Conditions. Proc., 6th International Conference
on Scour and Erosion, Paris, 2012.
3. Gutschick, K. A. Lime Stabilization under Hydraulic Con-
ditions. Zement-Kalk-Gips, Bauverlag Gmbh Pressehaus,
Am Klingenweg 4a, D-65396 Walluf, Germany, Vol. 32,
No. 2, 1979, p. 91.
4. Garver, L. L. Canal Repair Techniques using Lime-Stabi-
lized Soil. In Lime for Environmental Uses (A. Gutschick,
ed.), ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 1987.
5. Fleming, R., G. Sills, and E. Steward. Lime Stabilization
of Levee Slopes. Proc., 2nd Interagency Symposium on Sta-
bilization of Soils and Other Materials, Metairie, LA, 1992.
6. Little, D. N. Stabilization of Pavement Subgrades and Base
Courses with Lime. Kendal/Hunt Publishing Company,
Dubuque, IA, 1995.
7. Knodel, P. Lime in Canal and Dam Stabilization. Report
No GR-87-10. US Department of the Interior, Bureau of
Reclamation, 1987, p. 21.
8. National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration. Infor-
mation NCFE, editor. Fresno, 2020.
9. Taylor, H. F. Cement Chemistry. Thomas Telford, Lon-
don, 1997.
10. Kulik, D. A., T. Wagner, S. V. Dmytrieva, G. Kosakowski,
F. F. Hingerl, K. V Chudnenko, and U. R. Berner. GEM-
Selektor Geochemical Modeling Package: Revised Algo-
rithm and GEMS3K Numerical Kernel for Coupled Simu-
lation Codes. Computational Geosciences, Vol. 17, No. 1,
2013, pp. 1–24.
11. Wagner, T., D. A. Kulik, F. F. Hingerl, and S. V. Dmy-
trieva. GEM-Selektor Geochemical Modeling Package:
Tsolmod Library and Data Interface for Multicomponent
Phase Models. The Canadian Mineralogist, Vol. 50, No. 5,
2012, pp. 1173–1195.
12. Lothenbach, B., and F. Winnefeld. Thermodynamic Mod-
elling of the Hydration of Portland Cement. Cement and
Concrete Research, Vol. 36, No. 2, 2006, pp. 209–226.
13. De Weerdt, K., M. B. Haha, G. Le Saout, K.O. Kjellsen,
H. Justnes, and B. Lothenbach. Hydration Mechanisms of
Ternary Portland Cements Containing Limestone Powder
and Fly Ash. Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 41, No.
3, 2011, pp. 279–291.
14. Akula, P., D. Little, and P. Schwab. Thermodynamic Eva-
luation of Smectite Treated with Hydrogen Ion Stabilizer.
Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, Vol. 32, No. 5,
2020, p. 04020098.
15. Akula, P., and D. N. Little. Thermodynamic Stability of
Smectite Treated with Chemical Stabilizer. Advances in
Materials and Pavement Prediction, 2018, pp. 507–510.
16. Akula, P., and D. N. Little. Coupled Thermodynamic and
Experimental Approach to Evaluate Ettringite Formation
in a Soil Stabilized with Fluidized Bed Ash By-Product: A
Case Study. Transportation Geotechnics, Vol. 23, 2020, p.
100352.
17. Little, D. N., B. Herbert, and S. N. Kunagalli. Ettringite
Formation in Lime-Treated Soils: Establishing
Akula et al
Thermodynamic Foundations for Engineering Practice.
Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transporta-
tion Research Board, 2005. 1936: 51–59.
18. ASTM D4318. Standard Test Methods for Liquid Limit,
Plastic Limit, and Plasticity Index of Soils. ASTM Interna-
tional, West Conshohocken, PA, 2017.
19. ASTM D1557. Standard Test Methods for Laboratory
Compaction Characteristics of Soil using Standard Effort
(12 400 Ft-lbf/ft3 (600 KN-m/m3)). ASTM International,
West Conshohocken, PA, 2007.
20. McLean, E. Soil pH and Lime Requirement. Methods of
Soil Analysis. Part 2. Chemical and Microbiological Proper-
ties (Methodsofsoilan2). American Society of Agronomy,
Inc., Soil Science Society of America, Inc., Wisconsin, MD,
1982, pp. 199–224.
21. ASTM D4972. Standard Test Methods for pH of Soils.
ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2019.
22. ASTM D6276. Standard Test Method for using pH to Esti-
mate the Soil-Lime Proportion Requirement for Soil Stabili-
zation. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA,
2019.
23. ASTM D2166. Standard Test Method for Unconfined Com-
pressive Strength of Cohesive Soil. ASTM International,
West Conshohocken, PA, 2016.
24. ASTM D4829. Standard Test Method for Expansion Index
of Soils. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA,
2011.
25. Hillier, S. Use of an Air Brush to Spray Dry Samples for
X-Ray Powder Diffraction. Clay Minerals, Vol. 34, No. 1,
1999, p. 127–135.
26. Mahedi, M., B. Cetin, and D. J. White. Performance Eva-
luation of Cement and Slag Stabilized Expansive Soils.
Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transporta-
tion Research Board, 2018. 2672: 164–173.
27. Goodner, K. L. Estimating Turbidity (NTU) from Absorp-
tion Data. Synergy Inspring Taste. Sensus Technical Note
(SEN-TN-0010). Synergy Flavors (OH) LLC., Hamilton,
OH, 2009, pp. 1–3.
28. San Lim, S. Experimental Investigation of Erosion in Vari-
ably Saturated Clay Soils. University of New South Wales,
2006.
29. Bhagath Singh, G., and K. V. Subramaniam. Quantitative
XRD Analysis of Binary Blends of Siliceous Fly Ash and
Hydrated Cement. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineer-
ing, Vol. 28, No. 8, p. 04016042.
30. Scrivener, K., R. Snellings, and B. Lothenbach. A Practical
Guide to Microstructural Analysis of Cementitious Materi-
als. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2018.
13
31. Schulze, D. G. An Introduction to Soil Mineralogy. In Soil
Mineralogy with Environmental Applications (Joe B. Dixon
Darrell, and G. Schulze, eds.), Soil Science Society of
America, Inc., 2002, pp. 1–35.
32. Gysi, A. P. Numerical Simulations of CO2 Sequestration in
Basaltic Rock Formations: Challenges for Optimizing
Mineral-Fluid Reactions. Pure and Applied Chemistry,
Vol.89, No. 5, 2017, pp. 581–596.
33. Gysi, A. P., and A. E. Williams-Jones. Hydrothermal
Mobilization of Pegmatite-Hosted REE and Zr at Strange
Lake, Canada: A Reaction Path Model. Geochimica et
Cosmochimica Acta, Vol. 122, 2013, pp. 324–352.
34. Lothenbach, B., T. Matschei, G. Möschner, and F. P. Glas-
ser. Thermodynamic Modelling of the Effect of Tempera-
ture on the Hydration and Porosity of Portland Cement.
Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 38, 2008, pp. 1–18.
35. Claret, F., A. Bauer, T. Schäfer, L. Griffault, and B. Lan-
son. Experimental Investigation of the Interaction of Clays
with High-pH Solutions: A Case Study from the Callovo-
Oxfordian Formation, Meuse-Haute Marne Underground
Laboratory (France). Clays and Clay Minerals, Vol. 50,
No. 5, 2002, pp. 633–646.
36. Lothenbach, B., D. A. Kulik, T. Matschei, M. Balonis, L.
Baquerizo, B. Dilnesa, G. D. Miron, and R. J. Myers. Cem-
data18: A Chemical Thermodynamic Database for Hydrated
Portland Cements and Alkali-Activated Materials. Cement
and Concrete Research, Vol. 115, 2019, pp. 472–506.
37. Liu, Y., Y. Zhao, J. Dong, P. Liu, Z. Zhu, and Y. Sun. pH
Buffering Capacity of Geological Media on Landfill Lea-
chate. Huan Jing Ke Xue= Huanjing Kexue, Vol. 29, No.
7, 2008, pp. 1948–1954.
38. Yong, R. N., B. P. Warkentin, Y. Phadungchewit, and R.
Galvez. Buffer Capacity and Lead Retention in Some Clay
Materials. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, Vol. 53, No. 1–2,
pp. 53–67.
39. Tsutomu, S., K. Masato, Y. Shingo, and N. Shinichi. Effect
of pH on Smectite Dissolution Rates under Alkaline Condi-
tions. Clays in Natural and Engineered Barriers for Radio-
active Waste Confinement, International Meeting, Reims,
France, 2002.
40. Cao, M., X. Ming, K. He, L. Li, and S. Shen. Effect of
Macro-, Micro-and Nano-Calcium Carbonate on Proper-
ties of Cementitious Composites—A Review. Materials,
Vol. 12, No. 5, 2019, p. 781.
41. Haas, S., and H. J. Ritter. Soil Improvement with Quick-
lime–Long-Time Behaviour and Carbonation. Road Mate-
rials and Pavement Design, 2018, pp. 1941–1951. https//
doi.org/10.1080/14680629.2018.1474793.