16

Number: Counting,
accuracy, powers
and surds

This chapter is going to show you:

• how to work out a reciprocal
• how to convert fractions to terminating or recurring decimals, and
vice versa
• how to estimate powers and roots of positive numbers
• how to work with negative and fractional powers
• how to calculate with surds
• how to work out the error interval for rounded numbers
• how to use limits of accuracy in calculations
• how to use the product rule for counting.

You should already know:

• how to round numbers to the nearest 10, 100 or 1000
• how to round numbers to a given number of decimal places (dp)
• how to round numbers to a given number of significant figures (sf)
• squares of integers up to 15 × 15 = 225 and corresponding roots
• cubes of integers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 10 and corresponding roots
• what indices, square roots and cube roots are
• how to divide by a fraction
• what terminating and recurring fractions are.

About this chapter

In everyday life most numbers that you use are whole numbers, simple
fractions or decimal values written with, at most, three decimal places.
Nobody could possibly cut a plank of wood to a length of 163.2647 cm. You
may buy a ‘quarter of a kilogram of potatoes’, but you would never ask for
‘five-elevenths of a kilogram of potatoes’. In daily life, you round numbers to
something sensible.
However, engineers and scientists need to work to a much greater accuracy.
That is why the area of a circle with a radius of 10 cm has an approximate area
of 314 cm2 but an accurate area of 100π cm2. This chapter will show you some
ways of writing numbers accurately and how to manipulate numbers written
this way.

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 16.1 Rational numbers, reciprocals,
terminating and recurring
decimals
This section will show you how to: Key terms
• recognise rational numbers, reciprocals, terminating
rational number
decimals and recurring decimals
recurring decimal
• convert terminal decimals to fractions
• convert fractions to recurring decimals terminating decimal

• find reciprocals of numbers or fractions.

Rational numbers
1 10
A rational number is a number that can be written as a fraction, for example, 4
or 3
.
When a fraction is converted to a decimal it will either be:
• a terminating decimal or
• a recurring decimal.
1 1
A terminating decimal has a finite number of digits. For example, 4 = 0.25, 8 = 0.125.
1
A recurring decimal has a digit, or block of digits, that repeats. For example, 3
= 0.3333…,
2
11
= 0.181 818…
You can write recurring digits by putting a dot over the first and last digit of the group that repeats.
• • • • •
0.3333… becomes 0. 3 0.181 818… becomes 0. 18 0.123 123 123… becomes 0. 12 3
• • • • •
0.583 33… becomes 0.58 3 0.618 181 8… becomes 0.6 18 0.412 312 312 3… becomes 0.4 12 3

Converting fractions into decimals

A fraction will convert to a terminating decimal or a recurring decimal. You may already know that
•
1
3 = 0.333… = 0. 3 . This means that the 3s go on forever and the decimal never ends.
To convert a fraction, you divide the numerator by the denominator. If the denominator only has
2 and/or 5 in its prime factorisation, then the decimal will terminate; otherwise it will recur. You can
use a calculator to divide the numerator by the denominator if you need to. Note that calculators
round the last digit so it may not appear as a true recurring decimal in the display.
Use a calculator to check these terminating decimals.
9 7 96
16
= 0.5625   40
= 0.175   125
= 0.768

Use a calculator to check these recurring decimals.

• • • • •
2 4 8
11
= 0.181 818… = 0. 18    15
= 0.2666… = 0.26    13
= 0.615 384 615 384 6… = 0. 6 15 38 4

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 Converting terminal decimals into fractions
To convert a terminating decimal to a fraction, take the decimal part of the number as the numerator.
Then the denominator is 10, 100, 1000, … depending on the number of decimal places. Because a
terminating decimal has a specific number of decimal places, you can use place value to work out
exactly where the numerator and the denominator end. For example:

7 23 45
0.7 = 10
0.23 = 100
0.045 = 1000
234 9
2.34 = 100
= 200
117 625
= 50
0.625 = 1000
5
= 2 17
50
= 8

Converting recurring decimals into fractions

You need to use an algebraic method to convert a recurring decimal to a fraction, as shown in the
next two examples.

•
Example 1

Convert 0. 7 to a fraction.
Let x be the fraction. Then:
x = 0.777 777 777… (1)
Multiply (1) by 10: 10x = 7.777 777 777… (2)
Subtract (2) – (1): 9x = 7
7
⇒x= 9

• •
Example 2

Convert 0. 556 4 to a fraction.

Let x be the fraction. Then:
x = 0.564 564 564… (1)
Multiply (1) by 1000: 1000x = 564.564 564 564… (2)
Subtract (2) – (1): 999x = 564
564 188
⇒x= 999
= 333

As a general rule, multiply by 10 if one digit recurs, multiply by 100 if two digits recur, multiply by
1000 if three digits recur, and so on.

Finding reciprocals of numbers or fractions

You know that the reciprocal of any number is 1 divided by the number, so:
1
• the reciprocal of 2 is 1 ÷ 2 = 2
= 0.5
• the reciprocal of 0.25 is 1 ÷ 0.25 = 4.
You can find the reciprocal of a fraction by inverting it. For example:
2 3
• the reciprocal of 3
is 2

• the reciprocal of 7
is 74 .
4

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 Exercise 16A
1 Work out each fraction as a terminating decimal or recurring decimal, as appropriate.
1 1 1 1 1
a 2
b 3
c 4
d 5
e 6

1 1 1 1 1
f 7
g 8
h 9
i 10
j 13
MR 2 There are several patterns to be found in recurring decimals. For example:
1
7
= 0.142 857 142 857 142 857 142 857…
2
7
= 0.285 714 285 714 285 714 285 714…
3
7
= 0.428 571 428 571 428 571 428 571…

a Write down the decimals for 74 , 75 , 6

7
to 24 decimal places.
b What do you notice?
3 Work out the ninths, 91 , 29 , 3
9
and so on, up to 89 , as recurring decimals.
Describe any patterns that you notice.

4 1 2 3 10
Work out the elevenths, , ,
11 11 11
and so on, up to 11
, as recurring decimals.
Describe any patterns that you notice.

5 Write each fraction as a decimal. Use your results to write the list in order of size,
smallest first.
4 5 3 9 16 6
9 11 7 22 37 13

6 Convert each terminating decimal to a fraction.

a 0.125 b 0.34 c 0.725 d 0.3125
e 0.89 f 0.05 g 2.35 h 0.218 75
7 Use a calculator to work out the reciprocal of each number in decimal form.
a 12 b 16 c 20 d 25 e 50

8 Write down the reciprocal of each fraction.

3 5 2
a 4
b 6
c 5
7 11 4
d 10
e 20
f 15
MR 9 a Write the fractions and their reciprocals from question 8 as terminating decimals
or recurring decimals as appropriate.
b Is it always true that a terminating decimal has a reciprocal that is a recurring
decimal?

CM 10 Explain why zero has no reciprocal.

MR 11 a Work out the reciprocal of the reciprocal of 10.

b Work out the reciprocal of the reciprocal of 2.
c What do you notice?

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 EV 12 x and y are two positive numbers. Given that x is less than y, which statement is true?
A: The reciprocal of x is less than the reciprocal of y.
B: The reciprocal of x is greater than the reciprocal of y.
C: It is impossible to tell.
Give an example to support your answer.

EV 13 Explain why a number multiplied by its reciprocal is equal to 1. Use examples to show
that this is true for negative numbers.

14 x = 0.242 424…
a What is 100x?
b By subtracting the original value from your answer to part a, work out the value
of 99x.
c What is x as a fraction?
15 Convert each recurring decimal to a fraction.
• • • • • • • • •
a 0. 8 b 0. 3 4 c 0. 45 d 0. 56 7 e 0. 4 f 0.0 4
• • • • • • • • •
g 0.14 h 0.0 4 5 i 2. 7 j 7. 6 3 k 3. 3 l 2. 0 6
1 1
EV 16 a 7
is a recurring decimal. ( 71)2 = 49
is also a recurring decimal.
Is it true that when you square any fraction that is a recurring decimal, the answer
is another fraction that is also a recurring decimal? Try this with at least four
numerical examples before you make a decision.
1 1
b 4
is a terminating decimal. ( 41 )2 = 16
is also a terminating decimal.
Is it true that when you square any fraction that is a terminating decimal, you get
another fraction that is also a terminating decimal? Try this with at least four
numerical examples before you make a decision.
c What type of fraction do you get when you multiply a fraction that gives a recurring
decimal by another fraction that gives a terminating decimal? Try this with at least
four numerical examples before you make a decision.
•
CM 17 a Convert the recurring decimal 0. 9 to a fraction.
•
b Prove that 0.4 9 is equal to 0.5.

16.2 Estimating powers and roots

This section will show you:
• how to estimate powers and roots of any given positive number.

You know how to estimate the value of a calculation by rounding the numbers to one significant
figure. For example:

112 × 39 100 × 40
78 − 57 ≈ 80 − 60
2
100 × 40
=
20 1
= 200

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 You can apply the same method to estimate powers and roots but, as powers above three usually lead
to very large numbers, you may need to adjust your answer depending on whether the estimate is
above or below the real answer.
You should know that the square root of 225 is 15, but what about the square root of 2250? A common
error is to give the answer as 150, but it is actually about 47.4 – check on your calculator. The square
root of 22 500 is 150, as 22 500 is 225 × 10 × 10, so the square root is 15 × 10.
You will never need to estimate a root very accurately but you should be able to find the integers
between which a root lies.
These two number lines show some square roots and cube roots.
Square 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 100 121

Square root 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Cube 1 8 27 64 125

Cube root 1 2 3 4 5

As you can see the gap between the cube roots increases rapidly.

a Write these down. i 225 ii 3

27
Example 3

b Work these out. i 28 ii 3 25 + 25

a i You should know the squares up to 15 × 15 and the corresponding roots.
225 = 15
ii You should know the cubes of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 10 and the corresponding roots.
3
27 = 3
b i To work out powers of 2, start with 2 and double each time: 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64,
128, 256. 28 = 256
ii 25 = 32, so 3 2 5 + 2 5 = 3 32 + 32 =
+ = 3
64
=4

a Estimate the value of 820 000 .

Example 4

b Estimate the value of 8.24.

c Estimate the cube root of 3250.
a Split 820 000 into a product of a number and b 8.24 = 8.2 × 8.2 × 8.2 × 8.2
an even power of 10. ≈8×8×8×8
820 000 = 82 × 10 000 = 64 × 64
≈ 60 × 70
Therefore 820 000 = 82 × 10 000
= 4200
≈ 9.1 × 100 (The actual answer is 4521 to 4 sf.)
= 910.
(The actual answer is 905.5 to 4 sf.)

Hints and tips Note that one value of 64 was rounded down and the other was
rounded up, which gave a better estimate. Sometimes you have
to make sensible choices about rounding.

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 c Write 3250 as 3.25 × 1000. You should know that the cube root of 1000 is 10.
Sketch a number line showing the cube roots of 1 and 8. Estimate that the cube root of
3.25 is about 1.4.
Cube 1 3.25 8

Cube root 1 1.4 2

So the answer is 1.4 × 10 = 14. (The actual answer is 14.8 to 3 sf.)

Exercise 16B
1 Write down the answers to these.
a 196 b 3 1 000 000 c 3 10 2 + 52 d 2 × 53 − 9 2

PS 2 A square number and two cube numbers have a sum of 60. What are the numbers?

3 Between which two integers does the square root of 180 lie?

4 Between which two integers does the cube root of 200 lie?

5 a Estimate the value of each number.

i 6600 ii 45 iii 3
40
iv 5.84 v 3 45 000
b Use a calculator to check your answers.

16.3 Negative and fractional powers

This section will show you how to:
• apply the rules of powers to negative and fractional powers
• find and use the relationship between negative powers and roots.

You learned about positive powers and the rules of indices in an earlier chapter. How do these rules
apply to negative and fractional powers?
A negative power is a convenient way of writing the reciprocal of a number or term.
The reciprocal of the integer 5 is 51 . You can write this as 5–1.
1
In general, the reciprocal of x–a = .
xa
Look at some more examples.
1
• 5–2 =
52
1
• 3–1 = 3
5
• 5x–2 = x2

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 Rewrite each number in the form 2n.
Example 5
1 1
a 8 b 4
c –32 d – 64

1 1
a 8 = 2 × 2 × 2 = 23 b 4 = 22

= 2–2
1
c –32 = –25 d – 64 = – 216
= –2–6

Exercise 16C
1 Write down each number in fraction form.
a 5–3 b 6–1 c 10–5 d 3–2 e 8–2
f 9–1 g w–2 h t –1 i x –m j 4m–3

Hints and tips One of the most common errors is to assume that a negative index
means the answer must be negative. Do not make this mistake.

2 Write down each number in negative index form.

1 1 1 1 1
a 32
b 5
c 10 3
d m
e tn

Hints and tips If you move a power from top to bottom, or vice versa, the sign
changes. Negative power means the reciprocal: it does not mean the
answer is negative.

3 Change each expression into an index form of the type shown.

a All of the form 2n
1 1
i 16 ii 2 iii 16 iv – 8
b All of the form 10n
1 1
i 1000 ii 10 iii 100 iv 1 million

c All of the form 5n

1 1 1
i 125 ii 5
iii 25
iv 625

d All of the form 3n

1 1
i 9 ii 27
iii 81
iv –243

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 4 Rewrite each expression in fraction form.
a 5x –3 b 6t –1 c 7m –2 d 4q –4 e 10y–5
1 –3 1 –1 3 –4 4 –3 7 –5
f 2
x g 2
m h 4
t i 5
y j 8
x

5 Write each fraction in index form.

7 10 5 8 3
a x3
b p c t2
d m5
e y

6 Find the value of each number.

a x=5 i x2 ii x –3 iii 4x –1
b t=4 i t3 ii t – 2 iii 5t – 4
c m=2 i m3 ii m –5 iii 9m –1
d w = 10 i w6 ii w –3 iii 25w –2

PS 7 Two different numbers can be written in the form 2n.

The sum of the numbers is 40.
What is the difference between the numbers?

MR 8 x and y are integers.

x2 – y3 = 0
Work out possible values of x and y.

MR 9 You are given that 87 = 2 097 152.

Write down the value of 8–7.

PS 10 Put the numbers:

x5 x–5 x0
in order, from smallest to largest, when:
a x is greater than 1 b x is between 0 and 1 c x = –10.
1
Indices of the form n
Consider the problem 7x × 7x = 7. You can write this as:
7(x + x) = 7
72x = 71 ⇒ 2x = 1
1
⇒x= 2
1
If you now substitute x = 2
in the original equation, you can see that:
1 1
7 ×7 = 7
2 2

1
This makes 7 2 the same as 7 .

1
Similarly, you can show that 7 3 is the same as 3 7 .
1
In general, x n = n x (nth root of x).

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 So, in summary:
• the power 1 is the same as the positive square root
2

• the power 1 is the same as the cube root

3

• the power 1 is the same as the nth root.

n
1 1 1 1
49 2 = 49 = 7 83 = 3 8 = 2 10 000 4 = 4 10 000 = 10 − 1 1
36 2 = = 6
36

Exercise 16D
1 Evaluate each number.
1 1 1 1 1
a 25 2 b 625 2 c 27 3 d 125 3 e 400 2
1 1 1 1 1
f 625 4 g 814 h 100 000 5 i 729 6 j 32 5
1 1 1 1 1
k 16 − 2 l 8− 3 m 81− 4 n 3125 − 5 o 1000 000 − 6
2 Evaluate each number.

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1 1 1
25 2 100 2 64 2 81 2 25 2
a 36 b 36 c 81 d 25 e 64

( ) g ( ) h ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1 1 1
27 3 8 3 1000 3 64 3 512 3
f 125 512 64 i 125 j 343
1
3 Use the general rule for raising a power to another power to prove that x n is
equivalent to n x .

MR 4 Which of these is the odd one out?

1 1 1
− − −
16 4 64 2 8 3

Show how you decided.

1
−
CM 5 Imagine that you are a teacher. Write down how you would teach the class that 27 3
1
is equal to 3 .

PS 6 Find values for x and y (greater than 1) that make this equation work.
1 1
x2 =y3

Indices of the form ba

You know that a power that is a unit fraction represents the root equivalent to the denominator; for
1
example, a power of 4 is the fourth root.
1
n n
x = x
What does a power that is not a unit fraction represent? Look carefully at these two examples.
2 1 1
t3 = t3 × t3
= ( 3 t )2
3
81 = ( 4 81)
3
4

= 33
= 27

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 2 1 4
− −
Example 6 Evaluate each expression. a 27 3 b 16 4 c 32 5

Work through problems like these one step at a time.

1 2 2
a 27 3 = 3 so 27 3 = 32 and 27 3 = 9.
When you are dealing with a negative index, remember that it represents a reciprocal.
Step 1: Rewrite the calculation as a fraction by dealing with the negative power.
Step 2: Take the root of the base number, given by the denominator of the fraction.
Step 3: Raise the result to the power given by the numerator of the fraction.
Step 4: Write out the answer as a fraction.

( )
1 1
1 1
b Step 1: 16− 4 1 4
Step 2: 16 4 = 4 16 = 2 Step 3: 21 = 2 Step 4: 16 − 4 = 1
=
16 2

( )
4 1
4 4
1 − 1
c Step 1: 32− 5 =
5
= Step 2: 32 5 = 5 32 = 2 Step 3: 24 = 16 Step 4: 32 5
16
32

Exercise 16E
1 Evaluate each expression.
4 2 3 4
a 32 5 b 125 3 c 1296 4 d 243 5
2 Rewrite each number in index form.
a 3
t2 b 4
m3 c 5
k2 d x3

3 Evaluate each expression.

2 2 3 5
a 83 b 27 3 c 16 2 d 625 4
4 Evaluate each expression.
1 1 1 1
a 25− 2 b 36 − 2 c 16 − 4 d 81− 4
1 1 1 1
e 16 − 2 f 8− 3 g 32− 5 h 27 − 3
5 Evaluate each expression.
3 3 3 3
a 25− 2 b 36 − 2 c 16 − 4 d 81− 4
4 2 2 2
e 64 − 3 f 8− 3 g 32− 5 h 27 − 3
6 Evaluate each expression.
5 1 2 3
a 100 − 2 b 144 − 2 c 125− 3 d 9− 2
5 5 4 1
e 4− 2 f 64 − 6 g 27 − 3 h 169− 2
MR 7 Which of these is the odd one out?
3 1 2
− − −
16 4 64 2 8 3

Show how you decided.

2
−
CM 8 Imagine that you are a teacher. Write down how you would teach the class that 27 3

is equal to 91 .
PS 9 Solve this equation.
2
−
x 3 = 3x–1

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 16.4 Surds
This section will show you how to: Key terms
• simplify surds exact value
• calculate and manipulate surds, including rationalising a
surd
denominator.
rationalise
Surds are roots of rational numbers. The square roots of
2, 3, 5, 10 and 15 are written like this.
2 3 5 10 15
These are also referred to as exact values.
Here are four general rules for simplifying surds. Use numerical values to check that they work.
a C a
a × b = ab C a × D b = CD ab a ÷ b = C a ÷D b =
b D b
For example: For example: For example: For example:
15 × 3 3
• 2× 2= 4 • 3 5 × 4 3 = 12 15 • 50 ÷ 2 = 2×8 36
36 4848
5 × 5 3• 36 48 ÷ 9 3 = 99 33
=2 • 9 2 × 7 8 = 63
= 50
• 2× 3= 6 = 63 16 2 = 4 16
• 2 × 8 = 16 = 63 × 4 = 25 =4×4
=4 = 252 =5 = 16
• 2 × 10 = 20 • 3 5 × 4 45 = 12 225 • 96 ÷ 15 27
4 • 15 27 ÷ 5 75 =
3 75
= 4×5 = 12 × 15 96
= 180
=
4 = 15 × 3 3
= 4× 5 3×5 3
= 24 9
=2 5 =
= 4× 6 5
• 6 × 15 = 90
= 9 × 10 =2 6
= 3 10

Exercise 16F
1 Simplify each expression. Leave your answers in surd form if necessary.
a 2× 3 b 5 × 3 c 2 × 2 d 2 × 8
e 5 × 8 f 3 × 3 g 6 × 2 h 7 × 3
i 2 × 7 j 2 × 18 k 6 × 6 l 5 × 6

2 Simplify each expression. Leave your answers in surd form if necessary.

a 12 ÷ 3 b 15 ÷ 3 c 12 ÷ 2 d 24 ÷ 8
e 40 ÷ 8 f 3÷ 3 g 6÷ 2 h 21 ÷ 3
i 28 ÷ 7 j 48 ÷ 8 k 6÷ 6 l 54 ÷ 6

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 3 Simplify each expression. Leave your answers in surd form if necessary.
a 2× 3× 2 b 5 × 3 × 15 c 2× 2× 8
d 2× 8× 3 e 5× 8× 8 f 3× 3× 3
g 6 × 2 × 48 h 7× 3× 3 i 2× 7× 2
j 2 × 18 × 5 k 6× 6× 3 l 5 × 6 × 30

4 Simplify each expression. Leave your answers in surd form.

a 2× 3÷ 2 b 5 × 3 ÷ 15 c 32 × 2 ÷ 8
d 2× 8÷ 8 e 5× 8÷ 8 f 3 × 3÷ 3
g 8 × 12 ÷ 48 h 7× 3÷ 3 i 2× 7÷ 2
j 2 × 18 ÷ 3 k 6× 6÷ 3 l 5 × 6 ÷ 30

5 Simplify each expression.

a a× a b a÷ a c a× a÷ a

6 Simplify each surd into the form a b .

a 18 b 24 c 12 d 50 e 8
f 27 g 48 h 75 i 45 j 63
k 32 l 200 m 1000 n 250 o 98
p 243

7 Simplify each expression.

a 2 18 × 3 2 b 4 24 × 2 5 c 3 12 × 3 3 d 2 8 ×2 8
e 2 27 × 4 8 f 2 27 × 4 8 g 2 45 × 3 3 h 2 63 × 2 7
i 2 32 × 4 2 j 1000 × 10 k 250 × 10 l 2 98 × 2 2
8 Simplify each expression.
a 4 2 ×5 3 b 2 5×3 3 c 4 2 ×3 2 d 2 2 ×2 8
e 2 5×3 8 f 3 3×2 3 g 2 6 ×5 2 h 5 7 ×2 3
i 2 3×3 7 j 2 2 × 3 18 k 2 6 ×2 6 l 4 5×3 6
9 Simplify each expression.
a 6 12 ÷ 2 3 b 3 15 ÷ 3 c 6 12 ÷ 2 d 4 24 ÷ 2 8
e 12 40 ÷ 3 8 f 5 3÷ 3 g 14 6 ÷ 2 2 h 4 21 ÷ 2 3
i 9 28 ÷ 3 7 j 12 56 ÷ 6 8 k 25 6 ÷ 5 6 l 4 5 ÷3 6
10 Simplify each expression.
a 4 2× 3÷2 2 b 4 5 × 3 ÷ 15 c 2 32 × 3 2 ÷ 2 8
d 6 2×2 8 ÷3 8 e 3 5 ×4 8 ÷2 8 f 12 3 × 4 3 ÷ 2 3
g 3 8 × 3 12 ÷ 3 48 h 4 7 ×2 3 ÷8 3 i 15 2 × 2 7 ÷ 3 2
j 8 2 × 2 18 ÷ 4 3 k 5 6 ×5 6 ÷5 3 l 2 5 × 3 6 ÷ 30
11 Simplify each expression.
a a b ×c b b a b ÷c b c a b ×c b ÷a b

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 PS 12 Find the value of a that makes each equation true.
a 5 × a = 10 b 6 × a = 12 c 10 × 2 a = 20
d 2 6 × 3 a = 72 e 2 a × a =6 f 3 a × 3 a = 54
13 Simplify each expression.
2 2 2 2 2
 3  5   5  6   8
a  2  b   c  4  d   e  2 
3 3
EV 14 Decide whether each statement is true or false.
Show your working.
a a+b= a× b b a−b = a– b

PS 15 Write down a product of two different surds that has an integer answer.

PS 16 By squaring both sides, prove that this statement is true only if the value of one or
both of a or b is zero.
a + b = a+b

Calculating with surds

You should be able to use surds in solving problems.
Example 7

In the right-angled triangle ABC, the length of BC is 6 cm and the B

length of AC is 18 cm.
Calculate the length of AB. Leave your answer in surd form. 6 cm

A C
18 cm

Use Pythagoras’ theorem.

AC2 + BC2 = AB2
( 18 )2 + ( 6 )2 = 18 + 6
= 24
⇒ AB = 24 cm
= 2 6 cm
Example 8

Calculate the area of a square with a side of length 2 + 3 cm.

Give your answer in the form a + b 3.

Area = (2 + 3)2 cm2

= (2 + 3)(2 + 3) cm2

= 4 + 2 3 + 2 3 + 3 cm2

= 7 + 4 3 cm2

Hints and tips When you need to square a term in brackets, such as (2 + 3)2, always write it out
in full, for example, as (2 + 3)(2 + 3), and expand by your preferred method.

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 Rationalising a denominator
When you write a surd as a fraction in an answer, you should write it with a rational denominator,
which means that the denominator should not include surds.
Multiplying the numerator and denominator by an appropriate square root will make the
denominator into a whole number.
Example 9

1 2 3
Rationalise the denominator of each expression. a 3
b 8

a Multiply the numerator and denominator by 3. 1× 3

3× 3

= 3
3

b Multiply the numerator and denominator by 8. 2 3× 8

8× 8

2 224
=
8

4 6
=
8

6
=
2

Alternatively, rewrite 8 as 2 2. 2 3
8

2 3
=
2 2
3
=
2

3× 2
Multiply the numerator and denominator by 2.
2× 2

= 6
2

Exercise 16G
1 Show that each statement is true.
a (2 + 3)(1 + 3) = 5 + 3 3 b (1 + 2)(2 + 3) = 2 + 2 2 + 3 + 6
c (4 – 3)(4 + 3) = 13
2 Expand and simplify where possible.
a 3 (2 – 3) b 2(3 – 4 2) c 5(2 5 + 4)
d 3 3 (4 – 2 7 ) e 3 2 (5 – 2 8 ) f 3( 27 – 1)

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 3 Expand and simplify where possible.
a (1 + 3)(3 – 3) b (2 + 5)(3 – 5) c (1 – 2)(3 + 2 2)
d (3 – 2 7 )(4 + 3 7 ) e (2 – 3 5)(2 + 3 5) f ( 3 + 2)( 3 + 8 )
g (2 + 5) 2
h (1 – 2) 2
i (3 + 2)2
4 Work out the missing lengths in each of these triangles, giving the answer in as
simple a form as possible.

Hints and tips Remember Pythagoras’ theorem in Example 7.

a b c
8 cm x
x 22 cm x
2 8 cm

10 cm
10 cm 8 cm

5 Calculate the area of each rectangle, simplifying your answers where possible.
(The area of a rectangle with length l and width w is A = l × w.)
a 1+ 3 cm
b 2+ 10 cm c 2 3 cm

2– 3 cm 5 cm 1+ 27 cm

6 Rationalise the denominator of each expression.

1 1 1 1 3
a b c d e
3 2 5 2 3 3

j 1+ 2
5
f g 3 2 h 5 3 i 7
2 8 6 3 2
2− 3 5+2 3
k l
3 3
7 a Expand and simplify each expression.
i (2 + 3)(2 – 3) ii (1 – 5)(1 + 5) iii ( 3 – 1)( 3 + 1)
iv (3 2 + 1)(3 2 – 1) v (2 – 4 3)(2 + 4 3)
b What happens in the answers to part a? Why?
MR 8 a Write down two surds that, when multiplied together, give a rational number.
b Write down two surds that, when multiplied together, do not give a rational
number.

MR 9 a Write down two surds that, when divided, give a rational number.
b Write down two surds that, when divided, do not give a rational number.
PS 10 An engineer uses a formula to work out the number of metres of cable she needs to
complete a job. Her calculator displays the answer as 10 70 . The button for
converting this to a decimal is not working.
She has 80 m of cable. Without using a calculator, decide whether she has enough
cable. Show clearly how you decide.

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 CM 11 Write (3 + 2)2 – (1 – 8 )2 in the form a + b c where a, b and c are integers.

CM 12 x2 – y2 ≡ (x + y)(x – y) is an identity, which means it is true for any values of x and y

whether they are numeric or algebraic.
Show that it is true for x = 1 + 2 and y = 1 – 8 .

PS 13 The perimeter of this rectangle is 8 2 cm.

2 – 1 cm

Work out the area of the rectangle.

14 a These are arithmetic sequences. Work out the nth term in each case.
2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , ...
i 3 + 2 , 3 + 2 2 , 3 + 3 2 , 3 + 4 2 , ... ii
3 3 3 3
b These are geometric sequences. Work out the nth term in each case.
i 5 , 5, 5 5 , 25 , ... ii 5 + 2 , 5 2 + 2, 10 + 2 2 , 10 2 + 4 , ...

16.5 Limits of accuracy

This section will show you how to:
Key terms
• find the error interval or limits of accuracy of numbers that
have been rounded to different degrees of accuracy. continuous data
discrete data
Any recorded measurement has almost certainly been
error interval
rounded. The true value will be somewhere between the
lower bound and the upper bound. The lower and upper limits of accuracy
bounds are sometimes known as the limits of accuracy and
the range between them is the error interval. lower bound
upper bound
Discrete data
Discrete data can only take certain values within a given range. Discrete data includes amounts of
money and numbers of people.

A coach is carrying 50 people, to the nearest 10.

Example 10

What are the minimum and maximum numbers of people on the coach?
45 is the lowest whole number that rounds to 50 to the nearest 10.
54 is the highest whole number that rounds to 50 to the nearest 10.
So the minimum is 45 people and maximum is 54 people.
The limits are written like this.
45 ⩽ number of people ⩽ 54
Remember: You can only have a whole number of people.

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 Continuous data
Continuous data can take any value, within a given range. Continuous data includes length and mass.
A journey of 26 miles measured to the nearest mile could actually be as long as 26.499 999 9… miles
or as short as 25.5 miles. It could not be 26.5 miles, as this would round up to 27 miles. However,
26.499 999 9… is virtually the same as 26.5.
You overcome this difficulty by saying that 26.5 is the upper bound of the measured value and 25.5 is
its lower bound. You can therefore write:
25.5 miles ⩽ actual distance < 26.5 miles
which states that the actual distance is greater than or equal to 25.5 miles but less than 26.5 miles.
When stating the upper bound, follow the accepted practice, as demonstrated here, which eliminates
the difficulties of using recurring decimals.

A mathematical peculiarity
Let x = 0.999 999… (1)
Multiply by 10. 10x = 9.999 999… (2)
Subtract (1) from (2). 9x = 9
Divide by 9. x=1
•

So, 0. 9 = 1.
Hence, it is valid to give the upper bound without using recurring decimals.

The length of a stick of wood is 32 cm, measured to the nearest centimetre.

Example 11

What is the error interval of the actual length of the stick?

The lower limit is 31.5 cm, as this is the lowest value that rounds to 32 cm to the
nearest centimetre.
The upper limit is 32.499 999 999… cm, as this is the highest value that rounds to 32 cm to the
nearest centimetre, since 32.5 cm would round to 33 cm.
However, you say that 32.5 cm is the upper bound. So you write:
31.5 cm ⩽ length of stick < 32.5 cm
Note the use of the strict inequality (<) for the upper bound.

A time of 53.7 seconds is accurate to 1 decimal place. What is the error interval?
Example 12

The smallest possible value is 53.65 seconds.

The largest possible value is 53.749 999 999… but 53.75 seconds is the upper bound.
So the error interval is 53.65 seconds ⩽ time < 53.75 seconds.

A skip has a mass of 220 kg measured to 3 significant figures. What are the limits of accuracy of
Example 13

the mass of the skip?

The smallest possible value is 219.5 kg.
The largest possible value is 220.499 999 99… kg but 220.5 kg is the upper bound.
So the limits of accuracy are 219.5 kg ⩽ mass of skip < 220.5 kg.

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 Exercise 16H
1 Write down the error interval of each measurement.
a 7 cm measured to the nearest centimetre
b 120 g measured to the nearest 10 g
c 3400 km measured to the nearest 100 km
d 50 mph measured to the nearest mile per hour
e £6 given to the nearest pound
f 16.8 cm to the nearest tenth of a centimetre
g 16 kg to the nearest kilogram
h A football crowd of 14 500 given to the nearest 100
i 55 miles given to the nearest mile
j 55 miles given to the nearest 5 miles
2 Write down the limits of accuracy for each measurement. Each is rounded to the
given degree of accuracy.
a 6 cm (1 significant figure) b 17 kg (2 significant figures)
c 32 min (2 significant figures) d 238 km (3 significant figures)
e 7.3 m (1 decimal place) f 25.8 kg (1 decimal place)
g 3.4 h (1 decimal place) h 87 g (2 significant figures)
i 4.23 mm (2 decimal places) j 2.19 kg (2 decimal places)
k 12.67 min (2 decimal places) l 25 m (2 significant figures)
m 40 cm (1 significant figure) n 600 g (2 significant figures)
o 30 min (1 significant figure) p 1000 m (2 significant figures)
q 4.0 m (1 decimal place) r 7.04 kg (2 decimal places)
s 12.0 s (1 decimal place) t 7.00 m (2 decimal places)
3 Write down the lower and upper bounds of each measurement, rounded to the
accuracy stated.
a 8 m (1 significant figure) b 26 kg (2 significant figures)
c 25 min (2 significant figures) d 85 g (2 significant figures)
e 2.40 m (2 decimal places) f 0.2 kg (1 decimal place)
g 0.06 s (2 decimal places) h 300 g (1 significant figure)
i 0.7 m (1 decimal place) j 366 g (3 significant figures)
k 170 weeks (2 significant figures) l 210 g (2 significant figures)
PS 4 A bus has 53 seats, of which 37 are occupied.
The driver estimates that at the next bus stop 20 people, to the nearest 10, will get on
and no one will get off.
If she is correct, is it possible they will all get a seat?

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 EV 5 A chain is 30 m long, measured to the nearest metre.
It is needed to fasten a boat to a harbour wall, a distance that is also 30 m, to the
nearest metre.
Which statement is definitely true? Explain your decision.
A: The chain will be long enough.
B: The chain will not be long enough.
C: It is impossible to tell whether or not the chain is long enough.

6 A bag contains 2.5 kg of soil, to the nearest 100 g.

What is the least amount of soil in the bag?
Give your answer in kilograms and grams.

7 Billy has 40 identical marbles. Each marble has a mass of 65 g (to the nearest gram).
a What is the greatest possible mass of one marble?
b What is the least possible mass of one marble?
c What is the greatest possible mass of all the marbles?
d What is the least possible mass of all the marbles?
PS 8 A whole number, when rounded to 2 significant figures, is 350. When rounded to
1 significant figure it is 300. What is the range of values for the number?

MR 9 Three students are describing a number a. Abe says it is in the range 3 < a ⩽ 7, Bee
says it is in the range 2 ⩽ a < 5 and Con says it is in the range 4 < a < 6. Work out one
possible value of the number a.

16.6 Problems involving limits of

accuracy
This section will show you how to:
• combine limits of two or more variables to solve problems.

When rounded values are used for a calculation, the minimum and maximum possible exact values of
the calculation can vary by large amounts. There are four operations that can be performed on limits
of accuracy – addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.

Addition and subtraction

Suppose you have two bags, each with the mass given to the
A B
nearest kilogram.
The limits for bag A are 4.5 kg ⩽ mass < 5.5 kg.
mass 5 kg mass 9 kg
The limits for bag B are 8.5 kg ⩽ mass < 9.5 kg. to nearest kg to nearest kg
The minimum total mass of the two bags is 4.5 kg + 8.5 kg = 13 kg.
The maximum total mass of the two bags is 5.5 kg + 9.5 kg = 15 kg.
The minimum difference between the masses of the two bags is 8.5 kg – 5.5 kg = 3 kg.
The maximum difference between the masses of the two bags is 9.5 kg – 4.5 kg = 5 kg.

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 The table shows the combinations to give the minimum and maximum values for addition and
subtraction of two numbers, a and b.
a and b lie within limits amin ⩽ a < amax and bmin ⩽ b < bmax.

Operation Minimum Maximum

Addition (a + b) amin + bmin amax + bmax
Subtraction (a – b) amin – bmax amax – bmin

Multiplication and division

Suppose a car is travelling at an average speed of 30 mph, to the nearest 5 mph, for 2 hours, to the
nearest 30 minutes.
The limits for the average speed are:
27.5 mph ⩽ average speed < 32.5 mph.
The limits for the time are:
1 hour 45 minutes (1.75 hours) ⩽ time < 2 hours 15 minutes (2.25 hours).
The minimum distance travelled = 27.5 × 1.75
= 48.125 miles.
The maximum distance travelled = 32.5 × 2.25
= 73.125 miles.
Suppose a lorry is travelling for 100 miles, to the nearest 10 miles, and takes 2 hours, to the nearest
30 minutes.
The limits for the distance are:
95 miles ⩽ distance < 105 miles.
The limits for the time are the same as for the car.
95
The minimum average speed is 2.25
= 42 mph.
105
The maximum average speed is 1.75
= 60 mph.

The table shows the combinations to give the minimum and maximum values for multiplication and
division of two numbers a and b.
a and b lie within limits amin ⩽ a < amax and bmin ⩽ b < bmax.

Operation Minimum Maximum

Multiplication (a × b) amin × bmin amax × bmax

Division (a ÷ b) amin ÷ bmax amax ÷ bmin

To solve problems involving limits, write down all the limits for each value, and then decide which
combination to use to obtain the required solution.
When rounding, be careful to ensure your answers are within the acceptable range of the limits.

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 A rectangle has sides given as 6 cm by 15 cm, to the nearest centimetre.
Example 14
Calculate the limits of accuracy of the area of the rectangle.
Write down the limits: 5.5 cm ⩽ width < 6.5 cm, 14.5 cm ⩽ length < 15.5 cm
For maximum area, multiply maximum width by maximum length, and for minimum area,
multiply minimum width by minimum length.
The upper bound of the width is 6.5 cm and of the length is 15.5 cm. So the upper bound of the
area of the rectangle is:
6.5 cm × 15.5 cm = 100.75 cm2.
The lower bound of the width is 5.5 cm and of the length is 14.5 cm. So the lower bound of the
area of the rectangle is:
5.5 cm × 14.5 cm = 79.75 cm2.
Therefore, the limits of accuracy for the area of the rectangle are:
79.75 cm2 ⩽ area < 100.75 cm2.

The distance from Bristol to Bath is 15 miles, to the nearest mile. The time Jeff took to drive
Example 15

between Bristol and Bath was 40 minutes, to the nearest 10 minutes.

Calculate the upper limit of Jeff’s average speed.
Write down the limits. 14.5 miles ⩽ distance < 15.5 miles, 35 minutes ⩽ time < 45 minutes
speed = distance ÷ time
To work out the maximum speed you need the maximum distance ÷ minimum time.
15.5 miles ÷ 35 minutes = 0.443 (3 significant figures) miles per minute
0.443 mph × 60 = 26.6 mph
The upper limit of Jeff’s average speed = 26.6 mph.

Exercise 16I
1 Boxes have a mass of 7 kg, to the nearest kilogram.
What are the minimum and maximum masses of 10 of these boxes?

2 A machine cuts lengths of rope from a 50-m roll.

The lengths are 2.5 m long, to 1 decimal place.
What are the minimum and maximum numbers of pieces of rope that can be cut?

MR 3 Books each have a mass of 1200 g, to the nearest 100 g.

a What is the greatest possible mass of 10 books? Give your answer in kilograms.
b A trolley can safely hold up to 25 kg of books. How many books can safely be put
on the trolley?

PS 4 Jack is five years old. Jill is eight years old.

What is the greatest difference between their ages? Show your working.

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 5 These are the dimensions of rectangles. In each case, find the limits of accuracy of
the area. The measurements are shown to the level of accuracy indicated in brackets.
a 5 cm × 9 cm (nearest centimetre) b 4.5 cm × 8.4 cm (1 decimal place)
c 7.8 cm × 18 cm (2 significant figures)
6 A rectangular garden has sides of 6 m and 4 m, measured to the nearest metre.
a Write down the limits of accuracy for each length.
b What is the maximum area of the garden?
c What is the minimum perimeter of the garden?
7 A cinema screen is measured as 6 m by 15 m, to the nearest metre. Calculate the
limits of accuracy for the area of the screen.

8 The measurements, to the nearest centimetre, of a box are given as 10 cm by 7 cm by

4 cm. Calculate the limits of accuracy for the volume of the box.

MR 9 Mr Sparks is an electrician. He has a 50-m roll of cable, correct to the nearest metre.
He uses 10 m on each job, to the nearest metre.
If he does four jobs, what is the maximum amount of cable he will have left?

PS 10 Jon and Matt are exactly 7 miles apart. They are walking towards each other.
Jon is walking at 4 mph and Matt is walking at 2 mph.
Both speeds are given to the nearest mile per hour.
Without doing any time calculations, decide whether it is possible for them to meet
in 1 hour. Justify your answer.

11 The area of a rectangular field is given as 350 m2, to the nearest 10 m2. One length is
given as 16 m, to the nearest metre. Find the limits of accuracy for the other length of
the field.

12 In triangle ABC, AB = 9 cm, BC = 7 cm, and ∠ABC = 37°. All the measurements are
given to the nearest unit. Calculate the limits of accuracy for the area of the triangle.

13 The price of pure gold is £18.25 per gram. The density of gold is 19.3 g/cm3. (Assume
these figures are exact.) A solid gold bar in the shape of a cuboid has sides 4.6 cm,
2.2 cm and 6.6 cm. These measurements are made to the nearest 0.1 cm.
a i What are the limits of accuracy for the volume of this gold bar?
ii What are the upper and lower limits of the cost of this bar?
The gold bar was weighed and given a mass of 1296 g, to the nearest gram.
b What are the upper and lower limits for the cost of the bar now?
c Explain why the price ranges are so different.
14 A stopwatch records the time for the winner of a 100-m race as 14.7 seconds,
measured to the nearest one-tenth of a second.
a What are the greatest and least possible times for the winner?
b The length of the 100-m track is correct to the nearest metre. What are the greatest
and least possible lengths of the track?
c What is the fastest possible average speed of the winner, with a time of
14.7 seconds in the 100-m race?

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 15 A cube has a side measured as 8 cm, to the nearest millimetre. What is the greatest
percentage error of the following?
a The calculated area of one face b The calculated volume of the cube
16 A cube has a volume of 40 cm3, to the nearest cubic centimetre. Find the range of
possible values of the side length of the cube.

17 A cube has a volume of 200 cm3, to the nearest 10 cm3. Find the limits of accuracy of
the side length of the cube.

18 A model car travels 40 m, measured to one significant figure, at a speed of 2 m/s,

measured to one significant figure. Between what limits does the time taken lie?

PS 19 The formula for calculating the tension, T newtons, in some coloured springs is:
20x
T=
l
where x is the length that the spring is extended and l is the unstretched length of
the spring.
If x and l are accurate to one decimal place, decide which colour of spring, if any, has
the greater tension.
Red spring: x = 3.4 cm and l = 5.3 cm
Green spring: x = 1.5 cm and l = 2.4 cm
Blue spring: x = 0.5 cm and l = 0.9 cm

16.7 Choices and outcomes

This section will show you how to: Key terms
• work out the number of choices, arrangements or outcomes
combination
when choosing from lists or sets.
factorial
Permutations permutation
Look at these five letter cards.
product rule for counting

M A T H S systematic counting

How many different ways can you rearrange them, still using all five? One example is ATHMS.
When you pick the first card, you have a choice of five. Then there are only four cards left, so for the
second card you have a choice of four. Similarly, for the third card you have a choice of three, and
so on. This gives a total of 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120 ways of ordering the cards. Each of these ways is a
permutation of the cards. If we were only picking 3 cards there would be 5 × 4 × 3 = 60 ways. These are
examples of the product rule for counting.
You can write the calculation 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 as 5!, which you say as ‘five factorial’. Most calculators
have a factorial button, which is often a ‘SHIFT’ function, and looks like this:
x!
x –1 .
Note that 1! = 1 and, surprisingly, 0! = 1 as well. You can try these on your calculator. 1! = 1 may seem
sensible but 0! = 1 seems a bit strange.

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 Imagine that you only want to choose three of the cards. How many different ways can you choose
three cards from the five to give, for example, HAM?
For the first card you again have a choice of five, for the second you have a choice of four, and for the
third a choice of three. This gives a total of 5 × 4 × 3 = 60 different ways of choosing three cards from
five. You can write the calculation like this:
5! 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
=
2! 2×1
= 60
In the previous examples, once you had chosen a card you could not choose it again. Now imagine
you are asked how many three-digit numbers you can make with the digits 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. In this case,
you can repeat the digits: one possible three-digit number is 555.
You have a choice of five options for every digit. This means that you could make any of 5 × 5 × 5 =
53 = 125 different three-digit numbers.
So there are two different types of permutation.
Permutation with repetition
The formula for the number of ways (W) of picking r items from n when repetition is allowed is:
W = nr.
Permutation without repetition
The formula for the number of ways (W) of picking r items from n when repetition is not allowed is:
n!
W= .
( n – r )!
You can write ‘picking r items from n’ as nPr.
n!
P =
n r
( n – r )!
Your calculator may have an nPr button. This is usually a SHIFT function.

Work out:
Example 16

a 10! Round your answer to 3 significant figures and write it in standard form.
b 8P3
c the number of ways six different cups can be
arranged in a line
d the number of ways four cups chosen from six
different cups can be arranged in a line.
a 10! = 3 628 800
= 3 630 000 (to 3 sf)
3 630 000 = 3.63 × 106 in standard form.
8! 8!
b =
( 8 − 3)! 5!
8×7×6×5×4×3×2×1
=
5×4×3×2×1
=8×7×6
= 336
c There are six options for the first cup, five for the second, and so on.
6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 6!
= 720
d There are six options for the first cup, five for the second, four for the third and three for
the fourth.
6 × 5 × 4 × 3 = 360

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 In Mathsland, vehicle registration plates comprise one, two or three letters and one, two or
Example 17
three numbers. Given that the number cannot start with zero, how many possible vehicles can
be registered?
Sometimes you have to be methodical and apply a systematic counting strategy.
Start with a single letter. There are 26 letters. Choosing two gives 26 × 26 = 676 options.
Choosing three gives 26 × 26 × 26 = 17 576 options.
Now consider the numbers. For the first number there are nine options (1–9). The second
number may be zero, so there are ten choices (0–9) and therefore, for two numbers, there are
9 × 10 = 90 options. Again, for the third number there are ten choices so for three numbers
there are 9 × 10 × 10 = 900 options.
Now combine all of the possible arrangements of letters and numbers: 1 letter 1 number,
1 letter, 2 numbers, … until you get to 3 letters and 3 numbers. You can write this in a table.
Letters
1 (26) 2 (676) 3 (17 576)
Numbers

1 (9) 234 6084 158 184

2 (90) 2340 60 840 1 581 840

3 (900) 23 400 608 400 15 818 400

Adding up all of the options gives 18 259 722 different possibilities.

There are about 35 million vehicles on the road in Britain today!

Combinations
In a combination the order in which items are chosen does not matter. So if you just choose three
cards from MATHS, then HAM counts as being the same as HMA, AMH, AHM, MHA or MAH.
This means that there are six ways (3 × 2 × 1 = 3!) in which you could pick the three letters H, A and M.

The formula for choosing three letters when the order matters is 5! = 60. This number will be
2!
reduced when the order doesn’t matter. So, when choosing three items when the order doesn’t
matter, you have to divide the possible total (in this case 60) by 3! = 6 to find the answer (10).
5! 5×4×3×2×1
=
3!2! ( 2 × 1) ( 3 × 2 × 1)

= 10

The formula for the number of ways (W) of picking r items from n when the order doesn’t matter is:
n!
W= .
r !( n − r )!
You can write the combination of r items from n items when the order does not matter as nCr.
n!
Cr =
n
r !( n − r )!
Your calculator may have an nCr button. This is usually a SHIFT function.

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 Example 18 A basketball squad has 12 members. Only five players are allowed on court at a time, but
substitutions are allowed at any time. How many different teams could play?
The order doesn’t matter so this is a combination of 5 from 12.
12!
Use the formula: = 792
5!7 !
You can use a calculator to do this but there is a quick way of doing these calculations. Look for
the smallest factorial on the bottom, in this case 5. Write down a numerator of 12 × 11 × 10 × 9 × 8
(five values). The denominator will be 5!, so the calculation becomes:

12 × 11 × 10 × 9 × 8
5×4×3×2×1

which you can simplify, by cancelling, and then work out.

You have five number cards.

Example 19

1 2 3 4 5

How many odd numbers more than 30 000 can you make with these cards?
You need a systematic counting strategy. The number can only start with 3, 4 or 5 and must end
in 1, 3 or 5. If it starts with 3 it cannot end in 3.
So, using ■ for any digit, the possibilities are 3■■■1, 3■■■5, 4■■■1, 4■■■3, 4■■■5, 5■■■1,
5■■■3, so there are seven possible options for the start and end digits.
The order of the three digits in the middle doesn’t matter, so you can choose them in
3 × 2 × 1 = 6 ways. So that is a total of 7 × 6 = 42 possible odd numbers more than 30 000.

How many different five-letter arrangements of the letters in the word MINIM are there?
Example 20

Note that there are two repeated letters, I and M. Ignoring the repeated letters there are 5!
possible arrangements. As there are two Is, half of these will be duplicated, so divide by 2.
Of the remaining arrangements as there are two Ms half of these will be duplicated so divide
by 2 again.
5! ÷ 2 = 60, 60 ÷ 2 = 30
If the word had been SWISS, the answer would be 5! ÷ 3! = 20 as there would be 3 × 2 × 1
repetitions of the letter S.

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 Exercise 16J
PS 1 Two of these coins are chosen at random.

Work out the probability that the two coins will have a total value greater than £1.

MR 2 How many numbers between 0 and 200 have at least one digit of 6?

3 a Use your calculator to work out these numbers.

i 7! ii 20!
b 60! ≈ 8.32 × 1081, which is about the number of atoms in the whole universe.
What is the largest factorial that you can work out with your calculator?

MR 4 These keypads each require a four-key pass-code. How many possible codes are
there for each keypad?
a b

MR 5 The second keypad in question 4 has been reprogrammed. It still requires a four-key
pass-code but now the first key pressed must be a letter. How many codes
are possible?

6 Use your calculator to work these out.

a 9P3 b C4
12

7 Work these out without using a calculator.

a 6P2 b 8C5
8 A combination lock has three wheels. Each wheel has the digits 0 to 9 on it.
a How many different combinations are possible?
b Bill has forgotten his combination. He knows it uses the three digits of his house
number, which is 432. How many possible combinations will Bill need to try to be
certain he finds the correct one?

Hints and tips In this case the word ‘combination’ has a different meaning.
It is the arrangement of numbers to open the lock, so the order
does matter.

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 9 Eight runners take part in a 100-m race. How many different ways can the first three
places be filled?

10 a Two cards are taken from a regular 52-card pack, with replacement. What is the
probability that an ace is drawn, followed by a king?
b Two cards are taken from a regular 52-card pack, without replacement. What is the
probability that an ace is drawn, followed by a king?

11 This is Pascal’s triangle. Each row starts and ends with 1 and each of the numbers in
between is the sum of the numbers above it (to the left and right); for example,
5 = 1 + 4,
10 = 6 + 4.

1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3
1 3
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1

a Copy the triangle and write down the next five rows.
b 4C2 = 6. Work out:
i 5
C2 ii 6C0 iii 8C6 iv 7C7.
EV c How do these values relate to the rows and positions of the numbers in Pascal’s
triangle?
d Use Pascal’s triangle to write down:
i 6
C3 ii 8C1 iii 3C2 iv 8C4.
EV e Write down the value of nCn.
CM 12 In a noisy factory, a system of lights is used to summon workers to the office.
For example, using three lights gives eight possible options so that each employee
has a unique code.

Note: ‘All lights off’ is not an option, since an employee with that code would be
running to the office all the time.
a There are five lights and each one can be on or off. How many employees could
there be? Do not include the situation where all lights are off.
b Another factory has 200 employees. How many lights will they need to make sure
that every employee could have a unique light code?

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 EV 13 i Read each scenario and identify whether it is:
A: a permutation where repetition is allowed
B: a permutation where no repetition is allowed
C: a combination where the order does not matter
D: a situation for which you need a systematic counting strategy.
ii Work out the answer to each scenario.
a Choose two students from a class of 30.
b A café offers a breakfast deal. How many different breakfast deals are possible?

c Naz is a vegetarian. How many breakfast deals could he have from the café above?
d Work out how many even three-digit numbers can be made from the digits 1, 2,
3 and 4.
e Chris has 15 identical balls in a bag. How many ways can she choose three balls
from the 15 balls?
f Make a four-digit number from the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6.
g Seat five children in five chairs.
h Omar throws five regular dice. How many different ways could they land?
i An online retailer allocates codes to its products. The code consists of two letters
followed by a two-digit number, which could start with zero. What is the maximum
number of products the retailer could sell?
j How many two-digit numbers are odd, given that the first digit is not zero?
k An online assessment consists of 10 multiple-choice questions. The company sets
the questions in a random order. How many different ways can the test be set?
l A team of three is to be chosen from five boys and four girls. There has to be at
least one girl and one boy in the team. How many possibilities are there?

14 How many four-letter arrangements are there of the letters in the word MINI?

15 A three-digit number is formed from the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. How many of these
will be between 200 and 500?

16 A box contains three red balls, two blue balls and four yellow balls. How many
different colour arrangements of three balls can be made from the box if at least one
red ball must be included?

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 17 Eight friends go on a day out. They travel in two cars. One car can seat five people.
The other car can seat four people. How many ways can they travel, given that the
owners of the cars have to drive them?

MR 18 How many different symbols will be needed so that at least 1 million different three-
symbol arrangements can be made?

PS 19 Four students are going to be chosen, from a group of 10, to represent their school at
a conference. Only one of Aziz, Baz or Chris is to be included. In how many ways can
the students be chosen?

PS 20 a In how many ways can the letters of the word READING be arranged so that the
vowels always come together?

Hints and tips Count the vowels as a single ‘letter’, and then work out how many
ways they could be arranged.

b In how many ways can the letters of the word WEEDING be arranged so that the
vowels always come together?

21 At the 2014 World Cup in Brazil, the England squad comprised:

Goalkeepers (3): Joe Hart, Ben Foster, Fraser Forster
Defenders (7): Glen Johnson, Leighton Baines, Gary Cahill, Phil Jagielka, Chris
Smalling, Phil Jones, Luke Shaw
Midfield players (9): Steven Gerrard, Jack Wilshere, Frank Lampard, Jordan
Henderson, Alex Oxlade-Chamberlain, James Milner, Raheem Sterling, Adam Lallana,
Ross Barkley
Forwards (4): Daniel Sturridge, Wayne Rooney, Danny Welbeck, Rickie Lambert
There are 11 players in a football team. There is always one goalkeeper. The manager,
Roy Hodgson, had various options for organising the 10 outfield players. For example,
if he played 4–4–2 this means 4 defenders, 4 midfield players and 2 forwards.
a How many teams could he field if he chose the following systems?
i 4–4–2 ii 4–3–3 iii 4–5–1
EV b What assumptions have you made? How will this affect the answers?
22 A child’s toy train set consists of an engine, a guard’s van and eight wagons. The
engine always has to be at the front of the train, with the guard’s van at the back.
a If all 8 wagons are used how many different trains could there be?
PS b If at least one wagon is used, how many different trains could there be?

CM 23 A different factory from that in question 12 uses an array of

lights that consists of 3 rows of 3 bulbs.
Ali says: “There are eight ways that any row could be lit up,
so there are 8 × 8 × 8 ways minus the situation where all the
lights are out, so this is 83 – 1 ways.”
Baz says: “That is wrong. Each light can be on or off, so the number of ways is 29 – 1.”
Who is correct? Explain your answer.

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 Worked exemplars
CM 1 Four-digit numbers are to be made using four of these five number cards.

1 2 3 4 5

Show clearly that the number of even four-digit numbers between 3000 and
5000 is 18.

This is a ‘communicating mathematically’ question so make it clear, using words, what

you are doing.
The even four-digit numbers between
3000 and 5000 will be
3■■2 or 3■■4 or 4■■2,
where ■■ are any two of the remaining
three digits.
Picking 2 digits from 3 where the order
matters is 3P2 = 3 × 2 = 6.
As there are 3 possible sets and each set has
6 possible ways, this is 3 × 6 = 18.
Show that you understand where the
numbers come from.
Explain the number of ways of
getting 2 digits from 3.
Even though it is obvious that
3 × 6 = 18, explain the final step.

3
2 cm
PS 2 The area of this rectangle is (12 – 3 2) cm2.
Work out the perimeter of the rectangle. Give your answer in the form
a 2 ± b, where a and b are integers.

This is a problem-solving question so you will need to show your strategy.

You need to establish the missing side first. There are two possible methods.
Method 1 Divide the area by 3 2, then
12 − 3 2
=
(
12 − 3 2 × 3 2 ) rationalise the denominator.
Simplify, then factorise.
3 2 3 2 ×3 2

36 2 − 18
=
18

=
(
18 2 2 − 1) )
18 Divide top and bottom by 18.
=2 2–1
Method 2 Factorise 3 2 out of 12. Show the
12 = 6 × 2 × 2 factorisation of 12 clearly.
=2×3× 2× 2
Hence 12 – 3 2 = 3 2(2 2 – 1)

Missing side is 2 2– 1 so: Once you have found the missing

side show the calculation for getting
P = 2 × 3 2+ 2 × (2 2– 1)
the perimeter.
=6 2+4 2–2
Remember that the final answer is
Perimeter = 10 2 – 2 twice the total of both sides.

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 Ready to progress?
I can convert terminating decimals into fractions.

I can manipulate positive, negative and fractional indices.

I can find measures of accuracy for numbers given to whole-number, decimal-place and
significant-figure accuracies.
I can use a systematic counting strategy to work out numbers of arrangements.
I can estimate powers and roots of any given positive number.

I can change a recurring decimal into a fraction.

I can work with surds and know how to manipulate them.
I can calculate the limits of compound measures.
I can use the product rule to work out choices, arrangements and outcomes.

Review questions
1 Write down the answers to these.
a 169 b 4 10 000 c 5 × 2 5 + 32

2 A school has 1850 students to the nearest 10.

a What is the lowest number of students at the school?
b What is the greatest number of students at the school?
PS 3 A cube number and two square numbers have a sum of 60. What are the numbers?

PS 4 Khalid writes down all the numbers from 100 to 200 inclusive. How many times does
he write the digit 5?

5 Which is greater, 12P2 or 9C4?

6 A combination lock has four wheels. Each wheel has the digits 1 to 9 and the letters X,
Y and Z on it.
a How many different combinations are possible?
b How many different combinations are possible if at least one letter must be included?
PS 7 The letters of the word CODES are used to form five-letter codes.
a Show that there are 120 possible codes.
b All the possible codes are then arranged in alphabetical order. The first code is
CDEOS; the 120th is SOEDC. What number in the list is the word CODES itself?

8 a Work out the value of 37 ÷ 33.

1
b Write down the value of 64 2.
c 4n 1. Find the value of n.
=
64

9 a Write down the exact value of 5–2.

63 × 65
b Simplify 64
.

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 10 Express the recurring decimal 0.466 666 66… as a fraction. Give your answer in its
simplest form.

11 Find values of a and b such that this statement is true.

(4 + 5)(3 – 5) = a + b 5

PS 12 The area of this rectangle is 60 cm2.

Find the value of x. Give your answer in the form a b where a and b are integers.

5
2 cm

x cm

• •
13 a Prove that 0. 5 4 =
6
11
.
• •
b Hence, or otherwise, express 0.3 5 4 as a fraction.
•
14 Express the recurring decimal 0.2 4 as a fraction.
1
15 a Write down the value of 812 .
b Write 50 in the form k 2, where k is an integer.
16 1
a Rationalise the denominator of .
5
b Expand ( 3 – 1)( 3+ 1).
17 a i Show that 32 = 4 2 .
ii Expand and simplify ( 2 + 12)2.
CM b Show clearly that this triangle is right-angled. All lengths are in centimetres.

2 + 
12
2

2 + 6

PS 18 a Calculate the length of the diagonal x in this cube of side 3 m.

x
3m

b A man is carrying a pole of length 5 m down a long corridor. The length of the pole
is measured to the nearest centimetre. At the end of the corridor is a right-angled
corner. The corridor is 3 m wide and 3 m high, both measurements correct to the
nearest 10 cm. Will the man carrying the pole be certain to get round the corner?

3m

3m

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