sustainability
Article
Research on Sustainable Furniture Design Based on Waste
Textiles Recycling
Yaolin Wang 1 , Chenyang Liu 2 , Xi Zhang 3
Citation: Wang, Y.; Liu, C.; Zhang, X.;
Zeng, S. Research on Sustainable
Furniture Design Based on Waste
Textiles Recycling. Sustainability 2023,
15, 3601. https://doi.org/
10.3390/su15043601
Received: 13 January 2023
Revised: 11 February 2023
Accepted: 14 February 2023
Published: 15 February 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Sustainability 2023, 15, 3601. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15043601
and Shaoting Zeng 4, *
1 Kingston School of Art, Kingston University, Surrey KT1 2QJ, UK
2 Academy of Arts & Design, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
3 Department of Industrial Design, Hanyang University ERICA Campus, Ansan 15588, Republic of Korea
4 College of Art and Design, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China
* Correspondence: sjmjzst@gmail.com
Abstract: As people’s living standards rise, textile waste becomes more significant, and the number
of waste textiles grows swiftly, wreaking havoc on the earth’s ecosystem. Simultaneously, the
creation of furniture consumes a significant amount of wood. The paint and adhesive used to
manufacture it are also unsustainable and harmful to human beings. Therefore, one of the most
urgent environmental challenges that needs to be paid attention to at present is the recycling of waste
textiles and the sustainable recycling of furniture. Given this situation, this study proposes a solution
combining sustainable design with composite material manufacturing. Guided by this solution, this
study obtained a waste textile-starch composite material combining waste textiles, starch, and other
components using microwave expansion technology. The material is biodegradable, environmentally
friendly, and non-polluting. It can be customized to meet different design needs. Then, this research
applies the material to sustainable furniture design and obtains a set of design works with sustainable
characteristics. This kind of sustainable design scheme can eliminate the pollution and waste of
waste textiles. At the same time, waste textile-starch composites can also serve as an economical
and environmentally friendly alternative to many synthetic and natural materials used in furniture
design and manufacturing. This reform scheme has a tremendous sustainable development promise
and can simultaneously handle the problems of waste textile pollution and furniture resources.
Keywords: starch; waste textiles; furniture design; microwave expansion; material research and
design applications; sustainable
1. Introduction
Rising consumption levels, increasing per capita consumption of textile fibers, rapid
turnover of fashion cycles, and the short lifespan of cheap textiles have led to the generation
of large amounts of textile waste each year [1–4]. In 2021, the total processing of textile
fibers reached 67.09 million tons in China [5]. Along with the high production of textiles,
China can produce about 24 million tons of waste textiles each year, but less than three
ten thousandths can be recycled [6]. Not only has this been observed in China, but it is
estimated that Europe generates more than 95 million tons of textile waste annually [7,8].
Approximately GBP 140 million of wearable clothing is disposed of in landfills in the UK
each year [9], with a large proportion of waste used clothing being landfilled or inciner-
ated [10–12]. Excessive clothing consumption and waste have become a global problem [13].
If renewable resources continue to be consumed at this rate, future generations will face
serious survival problems [14]. At the same time, the white paper, “Advances in recycling
technology for waste textiles in China”, estimates that chemical fibers account for 70% of
waste textiles [15]. It is not straightforward for the earth to explain and digest chemical
fibers. Therefore, from the perspective of sustainable development, textile waste must be
considered and utilized as a resource to alleviate the current very critical situation [16,17].
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability
Sustainability 2023, 15, 3601 2 of 18

The Classification and Code of Waste Textiles classifies waste textiles as cotton, wool,
polyester, nylon, acrylic, mixes, and other types [18]. Natural fabrics quickly decay after
recycling; cotton items typically require 1 to 5 months, wool products require 1 to 5 years,
and silk products require approximately four years to break down. In contrast, artificial fiber
woven products deteriorate more slowly or are even more challenging to decompose [19].
Nylon items typically take 30–40 years, and polyester products require 20–200 years [20,21].
Generally, the traditional methods of treating textile industrial waste are landfill and
incineration [22,23]. However, the development of textile recycling and reuse technology
can meet the current and future recycling business needs, reducing textiles’ impact on
the environment [24,25]. Among them, the treatment methods of recycling and decon-
tamination include physical and chemical recycling treatment, such as thermal recycling
technology, material recycling technology, and chemical recycling technology [26]. In ad-
dition, there are new treatment methods, such as the super-critical method [27], the ionic
solution method [28], solid-state enzymatic hydrolysis [29], and enzymatic degradation [30].
In addition to the direct recycling and decomposition of waste textiles, waste textiles residue
redesign is also popular in the apparel industry [31]. There are methods such as waste
textile remaking, patchwork stitching, fabric transformation, and fabric decoration [32].
Nike has created the Move to Zero programs to promote sustainability [33], which recycles
shoes, clothes, and other products into recycled plastics, yarns, and textiles, of which
recycled materials can account for 70% of the product [34]. On the first level of Nike Town
in London, England, there are numerous Move to Zero sneakers on exhibit. It displays
the recycled materials, the processing, and the final product to the consumer. In addition,
several clothing labels, including Rua Carlota [35], Everlane [36], Baserange [37], GAP [38],
Levi’s [39], C&A [40], Inditex group [41], and Nude Jeans [42] featured or developed a line
of sustainable apparel to contribute to the sustainability of waste textiles fabrics [43].
With the pollution and waste of waste textiles, the waste and pollution of furniture
is also very serious. Association (UEA), 80% to 90% of EU furniture waste in Municipal
Solid Waste (MSW) is burned or sent to landfill. Only 0.3% of second-hand furniture was
recycled [44]. In Australia, the average household discards 24 kg of furniture annually,
two-thirds of which are made of wood, and the rest are sofas and armchairs [45]. Gen-
erally, the furniture consists of many parts, including wood, metal, and various plastics,
making the recycling process extraordinarily complex and challenging [46,47]. In addition,
most of the furniture on the market is made of particleboards containing toxic chemical
adhesives, which even contain harmful chemicals, such as flame retardants [48]. These
materials are almost impossible to recycle and are difficult and expensive to handle [49].
The current situation of waste furniture is thought-provoking. Therefore, replacing the
materials for furniture production and reducing the waste of resources and environmental
pollution in the process of furniture production and use are also important issues that
people should consider.
In terms of sustainable utilization of waste furniture, it is a feasible method to finish
and repair some old furniture with better quality [50]. However, this method has poor
effects and limitations. For example, the repair cost is sometimes twice or three times that
of new furniture, and the use of repair materials is also elementary to cause waste [51].
In addition, recycling waste furniture materials and producing green and sustainable
furniture have become effective means for some countries to promote the value chain
of ecological and “green” products [52]. For example, IKEA provided its “People and
Earth Positive” sustainable development plan [53], which is committed to recycling and
using renewable resources to make furniture. First, ecological materials must be used for
furniture construction [54]. Second, processing, recycling, and destruction should discharge
pollutants as little as possible to minimize environmental damage [55]. Finally, furniture
design must meet consumer expectations and maximize durability. Materials can still be
recycled and reused when furniture is wasted to realize a circular economy [56].
With the continuous deepening and development of research in recent years, many
scholars have found that waste textiles can be used for furniture, construction, and other
Sustainability 2023, 15, 3601 3 of 18

purposes [57]. On the one hand, this method can recycle waste textiles. On the other
hand, it can also reduce the use of raw materials for furniture production and significantly
save natural resources. For example, Professor Veena Sahajwalla, founder of the Centre
for Sustainable Materials Research and Technology (SMaRT) at the University of New
South Wales, mixed the fabric with broken glass and pressed it into sheets. These plates
can be used for building, industry, and furniture [58,59]. Zunjarrao Kamble and Bijoya
Kumar Behera manufactured a new composite material from waste cotton textiles by
laminating unidirectional glass fiber preforms with needled jute nonwovens. This material
has sufficient thermal stability and can replace moderately priced and inexpensive wood
in furniture, construction, and construction materials [60]. In addition, some designers
combine fabrics with bioplastics to make furniture panels [61], such as tables and chairs [62].
Designers use various technologies and materials to rejuvenate Waste textiles and create
more sustainable solutions for furniture design.
However, in applying waste textiles to furniture design and manufacturing, most
scholars only study the recycling of textiles from the perspective of material research
and use them for furniture product manufacturing. The process lacks systematic design
strategies as guidance. Moreover, consumers have some doubts about the safety of recycled
products. The recognition rate of consumers for this behavior is low. At the same time, its
related manufacturing process is relatively complex, and the cost of auxiliary materials
is high. More importantly, at present, few people use the strategy of sustainable design
based on material research and development, and use it for design applications to solve
the problems of waste and pollution of waste textiles and waste and pollution of waste
furniture at the same time.
Therefore, to solve the above problems, this study aims to apply a sustainable de-
sign strategy to redesign and manufacture furniture and to incorporate textile waste into
the design of environment-friendly furniture by combining other materials and using
appropriate technology. First, “sustainable design” is the core design principle of this
project. “Sustainable design” originates from the concept of sustainable development [63]
and is the in-depth thinking of the design community on the relationship between hu-
man development and environmental challenges [64]. Since the 1980s, sustainable design
has been actively guiding the design of all types of sustainable products, services, struc-
tures, environment, and social systems and has become a strategic activity to promote
sustainable transformation [65,66]. Sustainable design theory contains much knowledge
about how to solve environmental and social problems by rethinking industrial products
and processes and how organizations play a role in a more sustainable socio-economic
structure [65,67–69]. Second, the sustainable design focuses on the experience and feelings
of consumers. It is essential for consumers to embrace and purchase environmentally
sustainable materials. It was discovered that consumers in developed countries are more
familiar with and accepting of sustainable and recycled items [70], whereas consumers in
other countries and regions generally have favorable attitudes about recycled products [71].
Notable is the fact that British consumers prefer recycled products to non-recycled products
of comparable price and quality [72]. Therefore, the application of sustainable design and
the creation of recycled materials are ecologically desirable and have market development
potential [73]. Thirdly, the scheme uses starch as auxiliary material to synthesize textile
waste into a composite material and use it for furniture design. According to previous
studies, starch is mainly used as a sizing agent in the textile industry, while modified starch
is mainly used as material for warp sizing, printing sizing, and fabric finishing agent [74].
In addition, pre-gelatinized starch can be used as an adhesive, thickener, and stabilizer in
construction. Therefore, using starch as auxiliary material has the advantages of low cost
and convenient manufacturing.
Under the guidance of the sustainable design concept, firstly, this paper studies the
sustainable reuse of waste textiles materials through experiments supported by relevant
theoretical basis to produce complex, light, porous, and sustainable starch textile fiber
composites. In this process, the performance and sustainability of waste textile-starch
 Under the guidance of the sustainable design concept, firstly, this paper studies the
sustainable reuse of waste textiles materials through experiments supported by relevant
Sustainability 2023, 15, 3601 theoretical basis to produce complex, light, porous, and sustainable starch textile4 fiber of 18

composites. In this process, the performance and sustainability of waste textile-starch

composites used in furniture design and production are emphatically analyzed. Secondly,
composites
this materialused in unique
with furniture design and production
characteristics is applied are emphatically
to sustainable analyzed.
furniture Secondly,
design, and
this
the material with
possibility of unique
solvingcharacteristics
the problems isofapplied to sustainable
waste textile pollution furniture
and waste design, and theis
furniture
possibility of solving
also explored the problems of waste textile pollution and waste furniture is also
in this way.
explored in this way.
2. Methods
2. Methods
2.1. Design Method Process
2.1. Design Method Process
The design research methods of this project mainly focus on material research with
The design research methods of this project mainly focus on material research with
method support and design application research. Method support includes starch gelatini-
method support and design application research. Method support includes starch gela-
zation and gel, the principle behind microwave expansion technology, and the effect of mi-
tinization and gel, the principle behind microwave expansion technology, and the effect
crowave expansion on starch. The material research includes the selection of experimental
of microwave expansion on starch. The material research includes the selection of experi-
equipment, the change of state at different heating times, the starch experiment, the fabric
mental equipment, the change of state at different heating times, the starch experiment, the
experiment, the ratio experiment, and the durability test of composite materials. The pri-
fabric experiment, the ratio experiment, and the durability test of composite materials. The
mary purpose of material research is to test whether the performance of materials can sup-
primary purpose of material research is to test whether the performance of materials can
port thethe
support design andand
design manufacture of furniture
manufacture andand
of furniture whether
whethertheythey
havehave
pollution-free and and
pollution-free sus-
tainable characteristics. The description of material properties will be the
sustainable characteristics. The description of material properties will be the core content core content of
material research. It is the core point to demonstrate whether the waste
of material research. It is the core point to demonstrate whether the waste textile-starchtextile-starch com-
posite material
composite is pollution-free
material and sustainable
is pollution-free and whether
and sustainable it can replace
and whether it cannatural
replacematerials
natural
to becometofurniture
materials design and
become furniture manufacturing.
design This core This
and manufacturing. pointcore
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pointtheiskey
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tiveness of the solution proposed in this paper. Based on the research results
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characteristics,
terial the design
characteristics, research
the design mainlymainly
research focusesfocuses
on designing the shape,
on designing thefunction, and use
shape, function,
and use of furniture according to specific requirements and displaying the sketches (Fig-
of furniture according to specific requirements and displaying the sketches and results and
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2.2.
2.2. Experimental
Experimental Equipment
Equipmentand
andSteps
Steps
The experimental device consists of scissors, a microwave oven, a circuit breaker, an
electronic scale, a heating container, a weighing container, a stirring rod, a stirring container,
and a hardness tester (Table 1). Material production steps: cutting fabric; decomposing the
fabric; placing the fabric in the container; adding the specified amount of starch and water;
 Sustainability
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2.3.2.3.
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2.3. Paste
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[75].
[75]. Raw
Raw Raw
Raw
RawRaw above
temperature
starch
starch
starch
starch
starch
starch 53isis
is°C,
is
isis the
rises
aaaaacluster
cluster
cluster
acluster
cluster
cluster physical
above
of
ofofof
of
ofmicrocrystals
microcrystals 53 ◦ C, the
properties
microcrystals
microcrystals
microcrystals
microcrystals of starch change
physical
organized
organized
organized
organized
organized
organized properties
radially.
radially.
radially.
radially.
radially.
radially. signifi-
When
When
Whenof starch
When
When
When heated
heated
heated
heated
heated
heated change
in
in in
in
inin the
the
the
the
the
the
cantly [75]. Raw starch
significantly
presence
presence
presence
presence
presence
presence is
of
of of
of
of a
of cluster
[75].
water
water
water
water
water
water Raw
to
toto of
to
toto microcrystals
starch
soften
soften
soften
soften
soften
soften and
and
andis
and
and
and aexpand,
cluster
expand,
expand,
expand,
expand, organized
expand, of
the
the the
the
thethe radially.
microcrystals
starch
starch
starch
starch
starch
starch begins
begins
begins
begins
begins When
begins organized
to
to to
to
toto heated
form
form
form
form
form
form in
aaradially.
aaapaste
apaste
paste the
paste
paste
paste at
atatWhen
at
atat heated
aaaaaparticular
particular
particular
aparticular
particular
particular
presence of water in the to presence
temperature
temperature
temperature
temperature
temperature
temperaturesoftenrange. and
range.
range.
range.
range.
range.ofexpand,
water
During
During
During
During
During
During tothe this
this
this
this
thisthisstarch
soften process,
process,
process,and
process,
process,
process, begins expand,
starch
starch
starch
starch
starch togranules
starch form the astarch
granules
granules
granules
granules
granules pasteare
are
are
are
areare at
begins
broken
broken
broken
broken
broken a particular
broken todown
down
down
down
down form
down a apaste
into
into
into
into
into
into aaaasolution at a
solution
solution
asolution
solution
solution
temperature range.
ofparticular
ofof
of
ofof During
polymers,
polymers,
polymers,
polymers,
polymers,
polymers, this
temperature which
which
which
which
which
which process,
is
is is
is
isis range.
referred
referred
referred
referred
referred starch
referred During
to
totogranules
to
to
to as
as as
as
asas this
dextrinized
dextrinized are
process,
dextrinized
dextrinized
dextrinized
dextrinized broken starch
starch
starch
starch
starch
starch down granules
[76,77].
starch[76,77].
[76,77].into
[76,77].
[76,77].
[76,77]. a solution
are
Gelation
Gelation
Gelation
Gelation
Gelation
Gelation broken happens
happens down
happens
happens
happens
happens into
when
when
when
when
when
when a
of polymers, starch
which
solution
starch
starch
starch
starch
starch is
turns
turns referred
of
turns
turns
turns
turns polymers,
dry
dry dry
dry
dry dry to
because
because
because
because
because as
because dextrinized
which of
ofofof
of of is referred
aaaaaparticular
particular
particular
aparticular
particular
particular starch to [76,77].
as
chemical
chemical
chemical
chemical
chemical dextrinized
chemical or
oror Gelation
or
ororphysical
physical
physical starch
physical
physical
physical happens
action
action
action[76,77].
action
action
action [78].
[78]. when
[78].
[78].
[78].
[78].Gelation
During
During
During
During
During
During happens
the
the
the
thethe
the gela-
gela-
gela-
gela-
gela-
gela-
starch turns dry when
tion
tion
tion
tion
tion because
tion starch
process,
process,
process,
process,
process,
process, ofstarch
astarch
turns
starchparticular
starch
starch
starch dry exhibits
exhibits
exhibits
exhibits
exhibits
exhibits chemical
because of aorparticular
aaaaatransparent
transparent
transparent
atransparent
transparent
transparent physical or
or or
or
oror action
chemical
translucent
translucent
translucent
translucent
translucent
translucent [78].or During
physical
viscous
viscous
viscous
viscous
viscous
viscous the gela- which
action
viscosity,
viscosity,
viscosity,
viscosity,
viscosity,
viscosity, [78].
which
which
which
which
which During
varies
varies
varies
varies
varies
varies
tion process, depending
starch
the
depending
depending
depending
depending
depending exhibits
gelation on
on on
onon athe
process,
on the
the
the transparent
the
the kind
kind
kind starch
kind
kind
kind of
ofofof
ofof starch
starch
starchor translucent
exhibits
starch
starch
starch [79].
[79].
[79].
[79].
[79]. a The
[79]. transparent
The
The
The
The
The viscous
viscous
viscous
viscous
viscous
viscous
viscous or viscosity,
translucent
liquid
liquid
liquid
liquid
liquid
liquid eventually
eventually
eventuallywhich
eventually
eventually
eventually viscous varies
becomes
becomes
becomes viscosity,
becomes
becomes
becomes elastic
elastic
elastic
elastic
elastic
elasticwhich
and
andand
and
andand
depending onrobustvaries
the
robust
robust
robust depending
kindas
as as
as ofmore
more
more
more starch on
water
water
water
water the
[79]. is
is is
isiskind
Thelost,
lost,
lost,
lost, of
viscous
but but
but
but starch
as
as as
as it
ititititit[79].
liquidcontinues
continues
continues
continues The
eventuallyviscous
to
to to
to lose
lose
lose
lose liquid
becomes
water,
water,
water,
water, eventually
elastic
it
ititititit loses
loses
loses
loses and
its
its
its
its becomes
elasticity,
elasticity,
elasticity,
elasticity, elastic
dries
dries
dries
dries
robust
robust asas more
more water
water is lost,
lost, butbut as as continues
continues toto lose
lose water,
water, loses
loses itsitselasticity,
elasticity, dries
dries
robust as more and water
up,
up, robust
and
and is
its
its as
lost,
volume
volume more
butdecreases
aswater
it continues
decreases
decreases is lost, but
to lose
proportionately
proportionately as itwater,
continues
[80].
[80]. itTheloses
The
The to lose
its
drying
drying water,
elasticity,
of
of starch
starch itdries
loses
milk
milk its
goes
goes elasticity,
through
through
up,
up,up,
up, and
and
and
and its
its
its
itsvolume
volume
volume
volume decreases
decreases
decreases proportionately
proportionately
proportionately
proportionately [80].
[80].
[80].
[80]. The
TheThe drying
drying
drying
drying of
ofof of starch
starch
starch
starch milk
milk
milk
milk goes
goes
goes
goes through
through
through
through
up, and its volumedries up,
decreasesand its volume
proportionately decreases [80]. proportionately
The drying → of [80].
starch The
milk drying
goes
→ throughof starch milk
→ goes
aaaaaseries
series
series
aseries
series
series of
of of
of
ofof continuous
continuous
continuous
continuous
continuous
continuous changes
changes
changes
changes
changes
changes of
ofofof
of
of “pasting
“pasting
“pasting
“pasting
“pasting
“pasting →→→→→ initial
initial
initial
initial
initial
initial gelation
gelation
gelation
gelation
gelation
gelation →→→→ → gel
gel gel
gel
gelgel water
water
water
water
water
water loss
loss
loss
loss
loss
loss →→ →→ → gel
gel
gel
gel
gel
gel nu-
nu- nu-
nu-
nu-nu-
through
a series of continuous a series
changes
→ of ofcontinuous
“pasting →changes
initial of “pasting
gelation → → gel initial
water gelation
loss → → gel gel water
nu- loss → gel
cleation
cleation
cleation
cleation
cleation
cleation →→→→→ gel
gel gel
gel
gelgel drying
drying
drying
drying
drying
drying and and
and
and
andand shrinking”.
shrinking”.
shrinking”.
shrinking”.
shrinking”.
shrinking”. TheThe
The
The
The
The water
water
water
water
water
water in
in in
in
ininthethe
the
the
the
the process
process
process
process
process
process ofof
ofof
ofof change
change
change
change
change
change is
is is
is
isis the
the
the
the
the
the medium
medium
medium
medium
medium
medium
cleation → gelfor nucleation
drying
for the and →shrinking”.
reaction gel drying and
of starch, The
and shrinking”.
water
sufficient in the The
water waterof
processand inchange
high the process
temperature is theofaccelerate change is the medium
medium
accelerate the gelation
for
for
for
forthethe
the
the
the reaction
reaction
reaction
reaction
reaction ofofof
of of starch,
starch,
starch,
starch,
starch, and
and
and
and and sufficient
sufficient
sufficient
sufficient
sufficient water
water
water
water
water andand
and
and
and high
high
high
high
high temperature
temperature
temperature
temperature
temperature accelerate
accelerate
accelerate
accelerate thethe
the
thethe gelation
gelation
gelation
gelation
gelation
for the reaction forof the reaction
starch, and of starch,
sufficient and
water sufficient
and high water and
temperature high temperature
accelerate the accelerate
gelation the gelation
ofofof
of
ofof starch
starch
starch
starch
starch
starch slurry
slurry
slurry
slurry
slurry
slurry in
in in
in
inin forming
forming
forming
forming
forming
forming [81].
[81].
[81].
[81].
[81].
[81]. TheThe
The
The
The
The starchstarch
starch
starch
starch
starch gelation
gelation
gelation
gelation
gelation
gelation process
process
process
process
process
process is
is is
isis
is an
an an an
anan irreversible
irreversible
irreversible
irreversible
irreversible
irreversible rearrange-
rearrange-
rearrange-
rearrange-
rearrange-
rearrange-
of starch slurry of instarch
forming slurry[81]. in forming
Thechain, starch [81].gelation
The starch gelation
process process
is starch
an irreversibleis an irreversible rearrange- rearrangement
mentment
ment
ment
ment
ment of
of
ofof
of the
of the
the
the
the
the molecular
molecular
molecular
molecular
molecular
molecular chain,
chain,
chain,
chain,
chain, andand
and
and
andand thethe
the
the
the
the gelatinized
gelatinized
gelatinized
gelatinized
gelatinized
gelatinized starch
starch
starch
starch
starch particles
particles
particles
particles
particles
particles lacklack
lack
lack
lack
lack thethe
the
the
the
the crystallinity
crystallinity
crystallinity
crystallinity
crystallinity
crystallinity of
of of
of
ofof
of
ment of the molecular the molecular
chain, and chain,thecan and
gelatinized the gelatinized
starch starch
particles particles
lack the lack
crystallinity the crystallinity
of of the
the the
the
the
the
the original
original
original
original
original
original starch
starch
starch
starch
starch
starch and
and and
and
andand cancan
can
cancan be
bebebe
bebe expanded
expanded
expanded
expanded
expanded
expanded without
without
without
without
without
without solubility
solubility
solubility
solubility
solubility
solubility [82].
[82].
[82].
[82].
[82].
[82]. Therefore,
Therefore,
Therefore,
Therefore,
Therefore,
Therefore, the the
the
the
thethe gelatinized
gelatinized
gelatinized
gelatinized
gelatinized
gelatinized
original
the original starch and starch
can be are and
expanded can bewithout expanded solubility without [82].solubility
Therefore, [82]. theTherefore,
gelatinized the gelatinized
starch
starch
starch
starch
starch
starch granules
granules
granules
granules
granules
granules areare
are
areare water-insoluble,
water-insoluble,
water-insoluble,
water-insoluble,
water-insoluble,
water-insoluble, can
cancancan
can
can be
bebebe
bebe stored
stored
stored
stored
stored
stored forfor
for
for
for
for an
anan
an
an an extended
extended
extended
extended
extended
extended period,
period,
period,
period,
period,
period, are are
are
are
areare difficult
difficult
difficult
difficult
difficult
difficult to
to to
to
toto
starch granules starch
are granules are water-insoluble,
water-insoluble, can be stored canan
for beextended
stored forperiod, an extended are period,
difficult to are difficult to
degrade,
degrade,
degrade,
degrade,
degrade,
degrade,and andand
and
and
and
andcan can
can can
can
can be
be
bebe
be utilized
utilized
utilized
utilized
utilized
canbebeutilized ininin
in
in
utilizedinina avariety aaaa
a variety
variety
variety
variety
variety of
of
ofof
of applications.
applications.
applications.
applications.
applications.
varietyofofapplications.applications.
degrade, and can degrade,be utilizedplant in a variety ofhave applications.
Different
Different
Different
Different
Different
Different plant
plant
plant
plant
plant starches
starches
starches
starches
starches
starches have
have
have
have
have distinct
distinct
distinct
distinct
distinct
distinct properties
properties
properties
properties
properties
properties andand
and
and
andand pasting
pasting
pasting
pasting
pasting
pasting qualities.
qualities.
qualities.
qualities.
qualities.
qualities. The The
The
The
TheThe pasting
pasting
pasting
pasting
pasting
pasting en-
en-
en-
en-
en-
en-
Differentthalpy
plant Different
starches plantdistinct
have starchesproperties have distinct and properties
pasting and
qualities. pasting
The pasting qualities. en- The pasting
thalpy
thalpy
thalpy
thalpy
thalpy of
of of
of
ofof potato
potato
potato
potato
potato
potato starch
starch
starch
starch
starch
starch was
was
waswas
was
was greater
greater
greater
greater
greater
greater than
than than
than
than than that
that
that
that
that
that of
ofofof
ofof cassava
cassava
cassava
cassava
cassava
cassava andand
and
and
and
and sweet
sweet
sweet
sweet
sweet
sweet potato
potato
potato
potato
potato
potato starch,
starch,
starch,
starch,
starch,
starch, andand
and
and
and
and the
the
the
the
the
the
thalpy of potato enthalpy
starchof of
was potatogreater starch thanand was that greater
of cassava than that and of
sweetcassava potato andstarch,sweet and potato thestarch, and the
mixture
mixture
mixture
mixture
mixture
mixture of
ofof
of cassava
cassava
cassava
cassava
of cassava
cassava starch
starch
starch
starch
starch
starch and
andand
and
and potato
potato
potato
potato
potato
potato starchstarch
starch
starch
starch
starch had
had
had
had
had
had the the
the
the
thethe highest
highest
highest
highest
highest
highest viscosity
viscosity
viscosity
viscosity
viscosity
viscosity value,
value,
value,
value,
value,
value, while
while
while
while
while
while cassava
cassava
cassava
cassava
cassava
cassava
mixture of cassavamixture starchof cassava
and potatostarch starch and had potato starch
theroughness
highest had the highest
viscosity value, viscosity
while value, while cassava
cassava
starch
starch
starch
starch
starch
starch andand
and
and
andand its
its its
its
its mixture
mixture
mixture
mixture
its mixture
mixture hadhad
had
had
hadhad the
the the
the
thethe lowest
lowest
lowest
lowest
lowest
lowest roughness
roughness
roughness
roughness
roughness [83].
[83].
[83].
[83].
[83].
[83]. Based
Based
Based
Based
Based
Based on
ononon
onon the
the
thethe
thethe findings
findings
findings
findings
findings
findings of
ofofof
of
ofthe the
the
the
thethe textural
textural
textural
textural
textural
textural
starch and its mixture had the lowest roughness [83]. Based on the findings of the texturalof the textural
starch and its mixture had the lowest roughness [83]. Based on the findings
investigation, potato starch gels were more rigid and viscous than corn and tapioca starch
gels [83].
Sustainability 2023, 15, 3601 6 of 18

2.4. Microwave Puffing Technology

Microwave puffing technology uses the radiation conduction of electromagnetic en-
ergy so that its transmission to the interior of the material is absorbed by the moisture while
instantaneously converting into heat, resulting in the violent vibration of molecules and
the acquisition of kinetic energy to achieve the vaporization of water [84]. The microwave
energy penetrates the material so that the polar molecules within the material friction and
internal heat, so that the liquid inside the processed material instantly heated vaporization,
pressurization, and expansion, and relying on the expansion force of the gas to polymeric
material structure changes in the components, and become a net-like tissue structure charac-
teristics, stereotypical porous material [85,86]. The more the microwave power, the greater
the evaporation rate of water, and hence the greater the number of holes [87]. Expansion of
the material is primarily determined by the material’s physical and chemical qualities as
well as the development of a specific texture to enable the wrapping of water vapor and
the building of pressure [88]. In addition, it also relies on its dielectric properties to absorb
microwave energy effectively into thermal properties [89].
Microwave puffing technology is characterized by high energy conversion efficiency
and fast heating speed [90]. The microwave puffing process has a sterilizing effect. Mi-
crowave sterilization is conducted under the combined influence of thermal and non-
thermal factors. A good sterilizing result can be achieved at a lower temperature and in a
shorter amount of time than with standard temperatures [91].

2.5. Effect of Microwave on Starch

According to the research results of Lewicka et al. [92], the principle of microwave
expansion can also act on starch. Microwave heating can change the structure of starch
particles. After microwave heating, the starch particles will deform, break, and disin-
tegrate [92], making the volume of starch-solidified products expand and the structure
loses. In addition, the water absorption and water retention of starch after microwave
treatment are significantly improved, so the starch after microwave heating has good water
absorption and water retention [93] and is not easy to melt.
Ndife et al. observed in their study of microwave radiation of wheat, maize, and rice
starches that gel and chalky zones were produced when the ratio of starch to water was 1:1,
and only gel zones were produced when the ratio of starch to water was 1:115 and 1:2 [94].
These studies show that the water content of starch has an essential effect on microwave
radiation starch. The higher the moisture content of starch, the stronger the ability to
absorb microwaves and the more violent the evaporation of water in it when the starch
is heated [95]. In microwave-dried potato starch, the viscosity reduces dramatically, and
the gelation temperature remains stable; when the water content is between 20% and 35%,
viscosity decreases to a lesser extent, and the gelation temperature rises [96]. In addition,
microwave energy has a more significant impact on microwave heating starch. When the
microwave energy is too high or the heating time is too long, starch will occur a coking
phenomenon [97].

3. Results
3.1. Study of Starch Composites
3.1.1. Study on the Change of Material Heating State
According to Table 2, during the microwave heating process, the water in the waste
textile-starch mixture began to evaporate rapidly, while the whole object gradually ex-
panded and filled with bubbles and small holes. After a certain degree of expansion, the
waste textile-starch mixture will not continue to expand but gradually dry and shrink
slightly. After the water is completely evaporated, the mixture starts to scorch from the
inside and bottom. Therefore, heating time is a very critical control variable. The research
on the state of a starch mixture under different heating times shows that the expansion,
hardness, dryness, and wetness of starch mixture under microwave heating vary with the
Sustainability 2023, 15, 3601 7 of 18

length of heating time, which helps to prepare composite materials for design by controlling
the heating time according to the design requirements.

Table 2. State change of waste textile-starch mixture under different heating time.

Time Status Change

1 min The starch gelatinizes, and the outside of the wrapped fabric begins to dry.
The starch gel becomes translucent, starts to expand, gets larger, and still has
2 min
much water in it.
As the mixture continues to grow, the surface becomes essentially dry, soft, and
3 min
elastic, with many tiny bubbles.
4 min The mixture stops getting more extensive and basically dries and hardens.
5 min The mixture is dry and firm.
The water has evaporated, and continued heating will start to scorch from the
6 min or more
middle and bottom.
Note: This test uses 5 g of fabric 20 g of starch 20 g of water as the sample.

3.1.2. The Effect of Different Kinds of Starch on Waste Textiles-Starch Composites

Table 3 shows that corn starch, wheat starch, cassava starch, potato starch, sweet potato
starch, pea starch, mung bean starch, and glutinous rice flour are selected as experimental
materials to make starch composite materials. The experimental results show that the
material state of different types of waste textile-starch mixtures has both similarities and
differences. Waste textile-starch mixtures based on pea starch, corn starch, mung bean
starch, and wheat starch have low consistency and are not easy to expand, stiffen, and
aging. The waste textile-starch mixture based on cassava starch, potato starch, sweet potato
starch, and glutinous rice flour, although difficult to manage in morphology, shows greater
expansibility and a more porous structure. This phenomenon provides a variety of options
for the development of design applications. This characteristic enables the design scheme
to prepare composite materials for design by blending different kinds of starch according to
different design requirements based on sustainable environmental protection characteristics.
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3.
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3. Table
3. 3.
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Microwave
Microwave
3. Microwave
Microwave
3.
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Microwaveswelling
swelling
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swelling effect
effect
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and
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ratio. 3.Table
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Table 3.
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3.
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Microwave swelling
3.3.Microwave
3.Microwave
Microwave
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Microwave effect
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3. Mung
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ratio.
ratio. ratio.
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3.Microwave
Microwave
Bean
3. swelling
Microwave
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swelling effect
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Glutinous
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Pea Starch Corn Starch Potato
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ratio. ratio.
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ratio. Mung
Mung Mung
ratio. Mung
Starch
Mung Mung
Bean
BeanMung Bean
Bean
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Bean Bean BeanStarch Cassava
Bean CassavaCassava
Starch
Cassava
Cassava
Cassava Cassava
Cassava Starch Sweet Sweet
SweetSweet
SweetSweet
Sweet
SweetGlutinous
Glutinous Glutinous
Glutinous
Glutinous Rice Flour
Glutinous
Glutinous
Glutinous
Pea
Pea Pea
Pea Pea
Pea
Starch
Starch Starch
PeaStarch
Starch
Pea
Starch Corn
Corn
Starch
Starch
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Corn
Starch
Starch
Corn Starch
Starch
Starch
Corn
Corn
Starch Starch
Starch Wheat
Wheat
WheatWheat
Wheat
Starch
Starch
Wheat Starch
Starch
Starch
Wheat
Wheat
Starch Starch
Starch Potato
Potato Potato
Potato Potato
Starch
Starch
Potato Starch
Starch
Starch
Potato
Potato
Starch Starch
Starch Starch
Mung Mung
Mung Bean
Mung
Mung
Starch
Starch Mung
Starch Bean
Mung
Mung
Bean
Bean
Starch Bean
Starch
Starch Bean
Starch
StarchBean
Bean Cassava Cassava
Cassava
Starch
Starch
Starch Cassava
Cassava
StarchCassava
Cassava
Cassava
Starch
Starch Starch
Starch Sweet
Potato
Potato
Potato Sweet
Sweet
Sweet
Potato Sweet
Potato
Starch
Starch
Potato Sweet
Potato
Potato
Starch Glutinous
Sweet
Sweet
Starch
Starch
Starch Rice
Rice
Starch Glutinous
Glutinous
Glutinous
Rice
Flour
Rice
Starch
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Flour Glutinous
GlutinousGlutinous
Glutinous
Flour
Flour
Rice
Flour Flour
Rice Flour
Flour
PeaPeaStarch
Pea
Pea Pea
PeaPea
Starch
Starch Corn
Starch Starch
Starch
Pea Starch
Corn
Starch
Starch Corn
Corn Corn
CornStarch
Corn
Starch
Corn
Starch
Starch Starch
StarchStarch
MungMung
Mung Bean
Mung
MungMung Wheat
Mung
Bean
Bean Bean Starch
Wheat
Wheat
Wheat
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Bean
BeanBean Starch
WheatStarch
Wheat
Wheat
Starch
Starch Starch
Starch
StarchCassava Potato
Cassava
Cassava
Cassava
Cassava
Cassava Starch
Potato
Potato
Potato
Potato
Cassava Potato Starch
Potato
Starch
Starch Starch
Starch
PotatoStarchStarch
SweetSweet
Sweet Sweet
Sweet
Sweet SweetGlutinous
Glutinous
Glutinous Glutinous
Glutinous
Glutinous Glutinous
MungStarch Bean
Starch
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Starch Starch
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Starch Starch
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Starch Flour
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ofTypes
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Types
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Textile
Textile
Textile Textile
Pieces
Pieces
Textile
Textile Pieces
Pieces
Pieces
Textile Pieces
Textile
Pieces Pieces
Textile Pieces
Textile
Textile
Textile Pieces
Textile
Textile
Textile
Textile Pieces
Pieces
Pieces Pieces
Pieces
Textile Pieces
Pieces
Textile Pieces
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Pieces PiecesPieces

Hybrid
Hybrid Hybrid
Hybrid
Hybrid
Hybrid Hybrid
Hybrid
HybridHybrid
Hybrid
Hybrid Hybrid
Hybrid
Hybrid
Hybrid
Materials
Materials
Materials
Materials
Materials
Materials
MaterialsMaterials
Hybrid
Hybrid
Materials Hybrid
Hybrid
Hybrid
Hybrid Hybrid
Hybrid
Hybrid
Materials
Materials
Materials
Materials
Materials
Materials
Materials
Materials
Materials Materials
Materials
Materials
Materials Materials
Materials
Materials
Large
Large Large Large
Large
expan-
expan-
Large Large expan-
expan-
Large
expan- expan-
expan-
expan- Large
Large Large Large
Large
expan-
expan-
Large expan-
expan-
Large
Large
expan- expan-
expan-
expan-
Dilation,
Dilation, Dilation,
Dilation,Dilation,
Dilation,Dilation,
Dilation, Large
Large Large Large
Large
expan-
expan-
Large Large expan-
expan-
Large
expan- expan-
expan-
expan-
Large expan-
Large expan- Large
Large Large Large
Large Large
expan-
expan- expan-
expan-
Large
Large
expan- expan-
expan-
expan-
Large expan-
Large expan-
Slightly
Slightly Slightly
Slightly Slightly
in-
Slightly in-
Slightlyin-in-in-
Slightly
Slightly
Slightly
in- Slightly
Slightly
in-
Slightlyin- Slightly
swol-
swol-
Slightly swol-
Slightly
swol- swol-
swol-
swol-
swol- sion,
sion, Large
Large
sion, Large
sion,Large
bottom
bottom
sion, Large
expan-
sion, Large
expan-
bottom
bottom
sion,
bottom sion, expan-
bottom expan-
expan-
bottom expan- sion,
bottom sion, Large
Large
sion, Large
sion,
sion,
odorless,
odorless,
sion, Large
Large
expan-
sion, expan-
Large
expan-
odorless,
odorless,
odorless,
sion,
odorless, expan-
expan-expan-
odorless,
odorless,
Dilation, Dilation,
Dilation,
tasteless,
tasteless,tasteless,
tasteless, Dilation,
Dilation,
Dilation,
tasteless, Dilation,
Dilation,
tasteless, Slightly
Slightly
tasteless,
tasteless, Slightly
Slightly Slightly
in-
Slightly in-
Slightly Large
in-
sion,
in-
Slightly
in- in-
sion, Large
Large
in-
sion, expan-
LargeLarge
bottom
sion,
in- Large
sion, expan-
Large
expan-
expan-
sion,
bottombottom
sion,
sion,
bottom expan-
Large
bottom
bottomexpan-
expan-
bottomexpan-
bottom
Large
Large
Large expan-
Large
Large Large
expan-
expan-Large Large
sion,Large
sion,
expan-
expan-
expan- Large
sion, expan-
Large
Large
bottom
sion,
expan- Largeexpan-
Large
expan-
expan-
sion,
sion,
bottombottom
sion,
sion,
bottom expan-
Large
bottom
bottomexpan-
expan-
bottomexpan-
bottom
LargeLarge
Large expan-
Large
LargeLarge
Large
expan-
expan- expan-
expan-
expan- expan-
SlightlySlightly
Slightly
flated,
flated, in-
Slightly
Slightly
flated,
flated, flated,
taste-
taste-
flated, in-
flated, Slightly
in-
Slightly
Slightly Slightly
in-
taste-
taste-
flated,
taste- in-
taste-
len, in-
len,
taste- Slightly
ain-
Slightly
Slightly
taste-
len, in-
len, swol-
Slightly
len,
alen,
alittle
littleSlightly
Slightly swol-
Slightly
swol- swol-
alittle
alittle
len, aswol-
alittle
len, little swol-
swol-
alittleswol-
little Large
sion,
center
centercenter expan-
bottom
sion,
sion,
sion, sion,
centersion,
center
depres-
depres-
center bottom
sion,
bottom
bottom bottom
sion,
depres-
depres-
center
center
depres- bottom
bottom
depres- bottom
depres-
depres- Large
sion, sion,
sion,
porous,
porous, expan-
odorless,
sion,
sion,odorless,
sion,
sion,
odorless,
porous,
porous, porous,
en-
porous, en- en-
porous,
porous,
en- odorless,
odorless,
sion,
odorless, odorless,
odorless,
en-en-en-
en-
Dilation,
Dilation,
Dilation,
Dilation,
tasteless,
tasteless, Dilation,
Dilation,
Dilation,
tasteless, Dilation,
Slightly
tasteless,
tasteless,
tasteless,
tasteless,
tasteless, in-
Slightly
Slightly
Slightly
Slightly Slightly
in- in-in-
Slightly
Slightly Large
Large
sion,in-
in- Large
Large sion,
in-
sion,
sion, expan-
Large
Large
expan-
bottom Large
sion,
in- Large
expan-
expan-
bottom
sion,
sion,
bottom
bottom expan-
expan-
expan-
bottom
sion, expan-
bottom
bottombottom Large
Large
sion,sion, Large
Large sion,
sion, expan-
Large
Large
expan-
bottom Large
sion, Large
expan-
expan-
bottom
sion,
sion, expan-
expan-
expan-
bottom
sion,
bottom
bottom expan-
bottom
bottombottom
Characteristic
Characteristic
Characteristic
Characteristic
Characteristic
Characteristic
Characteristic
Characteristic Slightly
Slightly
flated, Slightly
Slightly in-
taste-
flated, in-
Slightly
Slightly
Slightly Slightly
Slightly
in-in- in- in-
Slightly
taste- len, in-
Slightly
Slightly in-
Slightly
aex- swol-
little
len, swol-
Slightly
Slightly
Slightly
swol-
aswol-
little smooth
smooth smooth
swol-swol-
swol-smooth
smoothsmooth
on
swol- on the
the
smoothon
smooth
on on
the on the
flated,
theon the
flated,
on the
flated,flated,
flated,
theflated,
taste-
taste-flated, taste-
taste-
flated,
taste- taste-
center
center taste- center
taste-
center center
depres-
depres-
center depres-
depres-
center
center
depres- depres-
depres-
depres-
sion,
sion,
center sion,
sion, bottom
sion,
sion,
bottom
depres-
center sion,
bottom
bottom sion, center
center
bottom
bottom
depres- bottom bottomcenter
center
center center
depres-
depres- depres-
depres-
center
center
depres- depres-
depres-
depres-
sion,
sion, sion,
sion,
porous, odorless,
sion,
sion,
sion, odorless,
sion,
odorless,
odorless,
odorless,
en-
porous, odorless,
odorless,
en- odorless,
flated,
less
less and
less flated,
flated,
less
and
less and flated,
flated,
taste-
taste-
less
ex-
and and
ex-
less and
less
ex- taste-
flated,
ex-ex-
andand taste-
taste-
odor,
odor, taste-
len,
ex-ex-
odor, len,
odor,odor,a len,
smooth
smooth len,
a
little
odor,
odor,
smooth len,
odor, alen,
little
smooth
smooth a
smooth asmooth
littlea
smooth little
little little
tasteless, tasteless,
tasteless,
tasteless,
tasteless,
tasteless, tasteless, Slightly
tasteless,
Slightly Slightly
SlightlySlightly
in- in-
Slightly
Slightly
Slightly
in- in- sion,
in-
sion, in-
in-
sion,
sion, bottom
in-
bottomsion,
sion,
bottom
bottom
sion, bottom
sion, center
center
sion,
sion,
bottom
bottom center
sion,
tasteless,
sion,
sion,
bottom center
center
depres-
sion,
tasteless,
tasteless,
sion,
sion,
tasteless, depres-
center
depres-
tasteless,
tasteless, depres-
depres-depres-
tasteless,
tasteless,
sion,sion, sion,
sion, bottom
bottomsion,
sion,
bottom
bottom
sion, quiring
quiring porous,
porous,
quiring
quiring
bottom
sion,bottom
bottom bottom quiring
more
more
quiring porous,
porous, porous,
porous,
en- en-
more
quiring more
quiring
more en-
moreen-
moreen-
en-
more
Characteristic
Characteristic
Characteristic
Characteristic
Characteristic
Characteristic
Characteristic
Characteristic flated,
flated,
flated, taste-
flated,
flated,
flated,
taste-
taste-
flated, taste- len,
taste-
taste-taste-
len, asmooth
alittle
alen,
len, smooth
aasides,
len, smooth
smooth
sides, a sides,
sides,
little
little on
smooth
smooth the
smooth
sides, on
sides,
expen-
expen-
little onon
smooth
smooth
the
expen-
expen-
sides,
sides,
expen- flated,
on
thethe
on
expen-
expen-on
theon
the
expen- taste-
flated,
the
flated,
flated,less
less flated,
theless
less flated,
flated,
taste-less center
taste-
taste-
flated,
taste-
less sion,
sion,
less
less taste-
taste-
sion, depres-
center
center
taste-
center
center sion,center
sion,
tasteless,
tasteless,
sion, depres-
center
center
depres-
depres-
tasteless, depres-
depres-
tasteless,
tasteless,
sion,
sion,
tasteless, depres-
depres-
tasteless,
tasteless,
center depres-
center
center center
center sion,
sion, center
center
sion,
depres-
depres- depres-
center
depres- center
sion,center
sion,
tasteless,
tasteless,
sion, depres-
center
center
depres-
depres-
tasteless, depres-
depres-
tasteless,
tasteless,
sion,
sion,
tasteless, depres-
depres-
tasteless,
tasteless,
porous, en-
porous,
porous,
porous, en-
en- en-
flated,
lesslessand
less
pensive
pensive taste-
less
and
pensiveex-
lessand
less
and less
pensive and
less
ex-
pensive
pensive and
ex-
pensive len,
odor,
ex-
and
pensiveex-
and
ex-
odor,
odor, alen,
odor,
ex-
sides
sides len,
little
smooth
odor,
ex- odor,
smooth
sides
sides
sides little
littleasmooth
smooth
odor,
odor,
sides little
smooth
sides smooth
sides smooth center
sion, center
center
sion,
sion,
porous,
porous, center
depres-
tasteless,
sion,
sion,
porous,
porous, a
porous, depres-
depres-
tasteless,
tasteless,
porous,
a little
little
porous,a
porous,
a depres-
tasteless,
sion,
sion, tasteless,
tasteless,
sion, tasteless,
tasteless,
a little
a
little
little little
a alittle
little porous,
quiring porous,
porous,
porous,
quiring
quiring
moisture
moisturemoisture
moisture en-
more
quiring
quiring en-
quiring
andandmore
more
moisture
moisture
moisture en-
more
quiring
quiring
and
moisture
and en-
more
more
andand more
more
and
and
Characteristic
Characteristic
Characteristic
Characteristic
Characteristic
Characteristic
Characteristic
Characteristic smooth
smooth
sides, smooth
smooth smooth
sides,
sides, on
expen-
sides, on
smooth
smooth
sides, on
thethe
smooth
on the
expen-
sides,
sides,
expen-
expen- the
on flated,
on
on
flated,
expen-
sides,expen- the
the
on
less
expen-
expen- the
flated,
flated,
the taste-
flated,
taste-
less flated,
flated,
less
less flated,
taste-
taste-
less center
taste-
taste-taste-
center
sion,
less less
less taste-
center
center
sion,
sion, depres-
center
center
center
depres-
tasteless,
sion,
sion, center
depres-
depres-
tasteless,
sion,
sion, depres-
depres-
depres- depres-
tasteless,
tasteless,
sion,
tasteless,
tasteless, tasteless,
tasteless, center
center
sion, sion, center
center
sion, depres-
center
center
depres-
tasteless,
sion,sion,
sion, center
depres-
depres-
center depres-
depres-
depres-
tasteless,
sion, depres-
tasteless,
tasteless,
sion,
tasteless,
tasteless, tasteless,
tasteless,
less
less and
less
less
and
pensive and
lessless
and
ex-
pensiveex-
less ex-
and and
lessand
ex- odor,
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odor, ex-
andex-
odor,
odor,
sides ex-smooth
odor,
smooth odor,
odor, odor,
smooth
smooth
sides smoothsmooth
smooth sive
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sive sive
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porous porous porous
porousporous
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sion,
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porous, littlesion,
tasteless,
tasteless, tasteless,
tasteless,
tasteless,
a little porous
porous
tasteless, porous
porous
porous porous
porous
porous
quiring
quiring
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quiring
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less less
less less less
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sion, tasteless,
sion,
sion, tasteless,
sion,
tasteless,
tasteless,
sion,
tasteless, tasteless,
tasteless, porous,
porous,
porous,
odor
odor odor
tasteless, porous,
porous,
odor porous,
aodor
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little
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sion, a
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tasteless,
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moisture
heating
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tasteless,
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heatingtime
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and
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sides sidessides
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moisture moisture
andand and and
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Weight
Weight
Weight Weight
Weight
Weight Weight
Weightpensive
34.1
34.1 g34.1
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g g34.7g34.7 g34.7
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Weight
Weight 34.1 g34.1 gg 34.7 g34.7 gg 34.7 g34.7 gg 34.0 g34.0 gg 35.2 g35.2 gg 35.1 odor
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Weight 34.1
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3.1.3.
3.1.3. 3.1.3.
3.1.3. 3.1.3.
Influence
Influence
3.1.3. 3.1.3.Influence
3.1.3.
InfluenceInfluence
Influence of
Influence
Influence ofMaterial
ofMaterial ofMaterial
ofMaterialofMaterial
ofMaterialofMaterialComposition
MaterialComposition
Composition
Composition
Composition Ratio
Ratio
Composition
Composition
Composition Ratio
on
Ratio Ratio
on
Ratio on ononWaste-Textiles
Waste-Textiles
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on
Ratio
RatioWaste-Textiles
onon Starch
Starch
Waste-Textiles
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Waste-Textiles Starch
Starch Starch Mixture
Mixture
Mixture
Starch Mixture
Mixture
Starch
Starch
Mixture Mixture
Mixture
3.1.3. Influence
3.1.3.
3.1.3.
3.1.3.
3.1.3. Influence
3.1.3.
3.1.3.3.1.3.
Influence
Influence of Material
Influence
Influence ofMaterial
Influence
Influence
of of ofof
Material ofComposition
Material
of Composition
Material
Material
Material
Material Ratio
Composition
Composition
Composition
Composition
Composition
Composition on
Ratio
Ratio
Ratio Waste-Textiles
Ratio
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on onon
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on onon Starch
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Starch Mixture
Starch
Starch
StarchMixture
Starch Mixture
Mixture
Starch
Mixture
Mixture Mixture
Mixture
The
3.1.3. TheThe The
status
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Influence
3.1.3.
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Composition
Material
Material starch
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Composition
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3.1.3.3.1.3.
3.1.3.
The
Influence
Influence
3.1.3.
Influence
status
The ofInfluence
Influence
of
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Material
of
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Composition
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of tex- of tex-
tile
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The of
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 Starch
Starch
Starch Starch
Starch
Starch Potato
Potato
Potato Starch Rice
Starch
Starch Rice
Rice Flour
Flour
Flour
Mung Bean Cassava Sweet Glutinous
Pea Starch Corn Starch Wheat Starch Potato Starch
Types
Types
Types
Types
Types
Types of
ofof
ofof
of Starch Starch Potato Starch Rice Flour
Starch
Starch
Starch
Starch
Starch
Starch
Types of
Starch
Sustainability 2023, 15, 3601 8 of 18
Textile
Textile
Textile
Textile
Textile Pieces
TextilePieces
Pieces
Pieces
Pieces
Pieces
Textile Pieces
Table 3. Cont.

Hybrid
Hybrid
Hybrid
Hybrid
Hybrid
Hybrid Sweet
Mung Bean Wheat Cassava Potato Glutinous
Pea Starch Corn Starch Potato
Materials
Materials
Materials
Materials
Materials
Materials
Hybrid Starch Starch Starch Starch Rice Flour
Starch
Materials
Large Large
Large Large
expansion,
Large
Large
Large
Large
Large
Large expan-
expan-
expan-
expan-
expan-
expan- expansion,
Large
Large
Large
Large
Large
Large expan-
expan-
expan-
expan-
expan-
expan-
Dilation,
Dilation,
Dilation,
Dilation,
Dilation,
Dilation,
Dilation, expansion,
Large
Large
Large
Large
Large
Large expan-
expan-
expan-
expan-
expan-
expan- expansion,
Large
Large
Large
Large
Large
Large expan-
expan-
expan-
expan-
expan-
expan-
Slightly
Slightly in- Slightly
Slightly swol- bottom
sion,
Large bottom
expan- odorless,
sion,
Large odorless,
expan-
Slightly
Slightly
Slightly
Slightly
Slightly in-in-
in- in-Slightly
in- Slightly
Slightly
Slightly
Slightly swol-
swol-
swol-
swol-
swol- tasteless, Slightly bottom sion,
sion,
sion,
sion,
sion, bottom
bottom
bottom
bottom
bottom bottom sion,
sion,
sion,
sion,
sion, odorless,
odorless,
odorless,
odorless,
odorless,
inflated, swollen, a tasteless,
Dilation,
tasteless,
tasteless,
tasteless,
tasteless, Slightly
tasteless,inflated,
Slightly
Slightly
Slightly
Slightly
Slightly in-
in-in-
in-in- sion,
Large
in-center
sion,
sion,
sion,
sion,
sion, bottom
expan-
bottom
bottom
bottom
bottom
bottom center sion,
Large
sion,
sion,
sion,
sion,
sion, bottom
expan-
bottom
bottom
bottom
bottom
bottom porous,
Characteristic Slightly
flated,
flated, taste-
flated,
flated,
flated, taste-in-
taste- Slightly
len,
len,aaaalittle
len, little
alittlesmooth
swol-
little on sion,
center
centerbottom
center depres-
depres-
depres- center sion, odorless,
porous,
porous,
porous, en-
en-
en-
flated,
tasteless
Characteristic taste-
andtaste-
taste- len,
littlelen,
len,
odor, alittle
little smoothtasteless,
on the Slightly
flated, in-
taste- sion,
center bottom center
center
center
depression,
depres- depres-
depres-
depres- sion,
centerbottom porous,
porous,
porous,
enquiring
depres- en-
en-
en-
Characteristic
Characteristic flated, taste- len, a littlethe
Characteristic
Characteristic
Characteristic smooth
smooth
smooth
smooth
smooth
sides, on
onon
on
on
thethe
the the
the flated,
flated,
flated,
flated,
flated,
tasteless taste-
taste-
taste-
taste-
taste- center
center
center
center
center
depression, depres-
depres-
depres-
depres-
depres- center depres- center
center
center
center
center
depression, depres-
depres-
depres-
depres-
depres- porous, en-
less
less
expensive
less
less
less and
lessand
and
and
and
and ex-
ex-ex-
ex- ex-
smooth
ex- odor,
odor,
odor,odor,
sides
odor,
odor, smooth
smooth
smooth
smooth
smooth
smooth sion,
sion,
tasteless,
sion,
sion,
sion, tasteless,
sion,tasteless,
tasteless,
tasteless,
tasteless,
tasteless, quiring
quiring
more quiring
quiring
quiring
quiring more
more
more
more
more
more
Characteristic smooth
sides,
expensive
sides,
sides, on
expen-
expen-the flated,
expen- less
lesstaste-tasteless,
less center
sion,
sion,
sion, depres-
tasteless,
tasteless,
tasteless, center
sion,
tasteless,
sion, depres-
tasteless,
sion,tasteless,
tasteless,
less and ex- odor,
pensive
pensive
pensive
pensive
pensive
pensive sides
sidessmoothsides,
sides
sides
sides
sides
sides,
sides, expen-
expen-
expen- lessless
less sion,
sion,
sion,
porous
tasteless,
tasteless,
tasteless, porous,
sion, a aaaalittle
tasteless,
porous,
porous,
porous,
porous,
porous,
porous, alittle
alittle
little
little
little
sion,
sion,
sion,
porous
tasteless,
tasteless,
tasteless,
moisture
quiring and
moisture
moisturemore
moisture
moisture
moisture
moisture and
and
and and
and
and
sides,
siveexpen-
sive
sive
sive
sive
sive less sion, tasteless,
porous
porous
porous
porous
porous
porous little odor sion, tasteless,
porous
porous
porous
porous
porous
porous heating time
pensive sides odor
odor
odor
odor
odor
odor porous, a little heating
heating
heating
heating
heating
heating time
time
time
time
time
time moisture and
sive porous porous
Weight
Weight 34.1 g34.1 g 34.7 g34.7 g 34.7 g34.7 g 34.0 g34.0 g 35.2 g35.2 g 35.1 godor
35.1 g 34.8 g34.8 g heating time
34.6 g34.6 g
Weight
Weight
Weight
Weight
Weight
Weight 34.1
34.1
34.1
gggggg
34.1
34.1
34.1 34.7
34.7
34.7
gggggg
34.7
34.7
34.7 34.7
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35.1
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34.8
34.8
34.8
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34.6
34.6
34.6
34.6 ggggg
Weight 34.1 g 34.7 g 34.7 g 34.0 g 35.2 g 35.1 g 34.8 g 34.6 g
3.1.3.
3.1.3.3.1.3.
3.1.3.
3.1.3.
3.1.3.
3.1.3. Influence
Influence Influence
Influence
Influence
Influence
Influence of
of Material
of
of
of Material
ofMaterial
Material
ofMaterial
Material
Material Composition
Composition
Composition
Composition
Composition
Composition
Composition Ratio Ratio
on
Ratio
Ratio
Ratio
Ratio on
on
onon Waste-Textiles
Waste-Textiles
Ratio onon Waste-Textiles
Waste-Textiles
Waste-Textiles
Waste-Textiles
Waste-Textiles Starch Starch
Mixture
Starch
Starch
Starch
Starch
Starch Mixture
Mixture
Mixture
Mixture
Mixture
Mixture
3.1.3. Influence of Material Composition Ratio on Waste-Textiles Starch Mixture
The The The
status
The
The The
The status
of
statusthe
status
status
status
status of
of
of
ofof the
of
thethe
the the
the waste-textiles
waste-textiles
waste-textiles
waste-textiles
waste-textiles
waste-textiles
waste-textiles starch
starchstarch
mixture
starch
starch
starch
starch mixture
created
mixture
mixture
mixture
mixture
mixture created
by
created
created
created
created byby
various
created byby
by various
byvarious
various
various
various
various percentages
percentagespercentagesof textile
percentages
percentages
percentages
percentages of
of
ofof tex-
oftex-
oftex- tex-
tex-
tex-
The status of the waste-textiles starch mixture created by various percentages of tex-
tile
fiber,tile
tile
tile
tile fiber,
starch,
tilefiber,
fiber,
fiber,
fiber, and
fiber, starch,
water
starch,
starch,
starch,
starch,
starch, and
was
and
and
and
and and water
water
water
water
water
water was
experimentally
was
was
was
was
was experimentally
experimentally
experimentally
experimentally
experimentally
experimentally tested,
tested, as tested,
shown
tested,
tested,
tested,
tested, as
in
asas
asasshown
Table
asshown
shown
shown
shown in
4. in
shown in
in Table
Results
inTable
Table
inTable
Table
Table 4.4.
that
4.
4. Results
4.cannot
Results
Results
4.Results
Results
Results that
that
that that
that
that
tile fiber, starch, and water was experimentally tested, as shown in Table 4. Results that
cannot
be created
cannot
cannot
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cannot
cannot or be
be
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can portions
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results revealand
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that
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1:2:3
1:2:3
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materials,
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the
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more fixed shape. Simultaneously, when the design requires the use of solid materials, the
1:2:3ratio
can
ratio
ratio
ratio
ratio
ratio be
of
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1:2:3
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design use
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ratio of 1:2:3 can be used for manufacturing; when the design requires the use of loose,
thick, and
porous,
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porous,
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thick,
thick,
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and
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and
and
and lightthe
light
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materials,of 1:4:4
materials,
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be
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employed.
employed.
employed.
employed.
porous, thick, and light materials, the ratio of 1:4:4 can be employed.
4. Experimental
TableTable 4.4. effectseffects
Experimental of different
of ratiosratios
different of textile
of fiber, starch,
textile fiber, and water.
starch, and water.
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table 4.
4.
Table 4.4.Experimental
Experimental
Experimental
Experimental
Experimental
Experimental effects
effects
effects
effects
effects
effectsofof
ofof
of of
different
different
different
different
different
different ratios
ratios
ratios
ratios
ratios of
of
ofof
ofof
textile
textile
textile
textile
textile fiber,
fiber,
fiber,
fiber,
fiber,
fiber, starch,
starch,
starch,
starch,
starch,
starch, and
and
and
and
and
and water.
water.
water.
water.
water.
water.
Ratio
Ratio
Ratio
Ratio
Ratio
Ratio 1:1:2
1:1:2
1:1:2
1:1:2
1:1:2
1:1:2 1:2:3
1:2:3
1:2:3
1:2:3
1:2:3
1:2:3 1:3:3
1:3:3
1:3:3
1:3:3
1:3:3
1:3:3 2:1:3
2:1:3
2:1:3
2:1:3
2:1:3
2:1:3 2:2:3
2:2:3
2:2:3
2:2:3
2:2:3
2:2:3 1:4:4
1:4:4
1:4:4
1:4:4
1:4:4
1:4:4 1:5:5
1:5:5
1:5:5
1:5:5
1:5:5
1:5:5 1:7:71:7:7
1:7:7
1:7:7
1:7:7
1:7:7
Ratio
Ratio 1:1:2
1:1:2 1:2:3
1:2:3 1:3:3
1:3:3 2:1:3
2:1:3 2:2:3 1:4:4
1:4:4 1:5:5
1:5:5 1:7:7
1:7:7

Mixture
Mixture
Mixture
Mixture
Mixture
Mixture
Mixture
Mixture

Large
Large Large
Large
Large
Large
Large
Large
Firm,
Firm,
Firm,
Firm,
Firm,
Firm,
Firm,
Firm, Inflation,
Inflation,
Inflation,
Inflation,
Inflation,
Inflation, expansion,
expansion,
Inflation,expansion,
expansion,
expansion,
expansion,
expansion,
expansion,
Slightly
Slightly
Slightly
Slightly Sturdy and Sturdy and
Slightly
Slightly
Slightly Sturdy
Sturdy Inflation,
Sturdy
Sturdy
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Sturdy slightly
Sturdy
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Sturdy and
and
and Sturdy
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Sturdy and
and
and The
The
The
The edges
edges
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edges are
are
areSturdy and slightly
are slightly
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and Sturdy
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and The
TheThe edges
edges
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are slightly
slightly
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slightly
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Slightly Sturdy and Sturdy and The edges slightly
Characte
Characte
Characte
Characte
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Characte
Characte loose
loose
loose
loose
loose
loose
loose edges,
edges,
edges,
edges, firm,
edges,
edges,
edges, Loose
Loose
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Loose edges,
edges,
edges,
edges,
edges,are
edges,
edges,
edges, and
and
and
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and
and at the
Characteristic loose edges, firm,
firm, no
nono firm, slightly
firm,
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notnotfirm,
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firm, no strong, atthe
the at the
bottom,
bottom, hollow
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at the
ristic no firm,
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nonono
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slightly
slightly no
no expansion
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firm,
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nono
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at at
at the
the the
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bottom, too at
at at
atthethe
the the
the
ristic
ristic
ristic
ristic
ristic no
ristic no expansion
no
nono
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expanded
expanded no
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noexpansion
expansion
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expansion
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expansion strong,
Inflation
strong,
strong,
strong,
strong, bottom,
strong,starchy on the bottom,
much starchtoo
expansion expansion
expansion
expansion
expansion
expansion
expansion expanded
expanded
expanded
expanded
expanded
expanded expansion
expansion
expansion
expansion
expansion
expansion Inflation starchy
starchy
starchy
starchy
starchy
starchy
starchy on
on
on
on onon
on the
the
the the
the
the bottom,
bottom,
bottom,
bottom,
bottom,
bottom, too
too
too
too too
too
expansion
expansion
expansion
expansion
expansion
expansion Inflation
Inflation
Inflation theoutside
Inflation
Inflation
Inflation on thestarch
outside much
outside
outside
outside
outside
outside
outside much
much
much
much
much
much
outside starch
starch
starch
starch
starch
starch
onon thetheoutside
outside
Weight 9.2 g 15.5 g 26.0 g 13.9 g 13.3 g 28.6 g 34.8 g on
on
ononon
45.2 the
the
thegthe
the outside
outside
outside
outside
outside
Weight 9.29.2
Weight g 15.5gg 26.0gg 13.9 gg 13.3 g 28.6 gg 34.8 gg 45.2 gg
Weight
Weight 9.2
Weight
Weight
Weight 9.2gggggg
9.2
9.2
9.2 15.5
15.5
15.5
15.5
15.5
15.5 ggggg 26.0
26.0
26.0
26.0
26.0
26.0 ggggg 13.9
13.9
13.9
13.9
13.9
13.9 ggggg 13.3
13.3
13.3
13.3
13.3 gggggg
13.3 28.6
28.6
28.6
28.6
28.6
28.6 ggggg 34.8
34.8
34.8
34.8
34.8
34.8 ggggg 45.2
45.2
45.2
45.2
45.2
45.2 ggggg
Meanwhile, although
Meanwhile, the material
although the materialhas has
a porous
a porous structure, the the
structure, internal structure
internal structure of of
mixtures Meanwhile,
Meanwhile,
Meanwhile,
Meanwhile,
Meanwhile,
Meanwhile,
created with although
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and aaaaaporous
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aporous
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the
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Figure internal
internal
internal
internal
internal
internal
3a–c structure
structure
structure
structure
structure
structure
depict the of
ofof
ofof
of
mixtures created with varying proportions and constituents differs. Figure 3a–c depict the
mixtures
mixtures
mixtures
mixtures
mixtures
mixtures
cross-sections created
created
created
created
created
created
of the with
with
withwith
with
with
compound varying
varying
varying
varying
varying
varying proportions
proportions
proportions
proportions
proportions
proportions
formed by and
and
and
and
and
combining and constituents
constituents
constituents
constituents
constituents
constituents
cloth, differs.
differs.
differs.
differs.
differs.
differs.
starch, and Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
water 3a–c
3a–c
3a–c
3a–c
3a–c
3a–c
in depict
depict
depict
depict
depict
varying the
depictthe
the the
the
the
cross-sections of the compound formed by combining cloth, starch, and water in varying
cross-sections
cross-sections
cross-sections
cross-sections
cross-sections
cross-sections
proportions. Figure of
of
of
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3dthe
of
the
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the compound
compound
compound
compound
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depicts formed
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formed
formed
the fabric, by
byby
by
by
starch,combining
bycombining
combining
combining
combining
combining
water, and cloth,
cloth,
cloth,
cloth,
cloth, starch,
cloth,starch,
starch,
starch,
starch,
starch,
diatomaceous and
and
and and
and
and water
water
water
water
water
water
earth in
inin
in varying
invarying
varying
invarying
varying
varying
mixture.
As depicted in the figure, the cut surface of the 1:2:3 ratio is relatively compact, with few
pores, and smooth and flat (Figure 3a); the cut surface of the 1:4:4 ratio has more pores and
uniform distribution, with a slightly rough texture (Figure 3b); the cut surface of the 1:6:6
ratio has significant and many pores with uneven size distribution (Figure 3c); and the cut
surface of the 1:6:10:6 ratio is hollow inside, with tiny pores of varying size. Diatomaceous
earth composite materials were distinct (Figure 3d). Different ratios and compositions of
materials have their properties, can suit various design requirements, and can be selected
based on the use case. The 1:2:3 and 1:4:4 ratios have greater economic efficiency and
resource conservation in terms of cost and resource use.
 and uniform distribution, with a slightly rough texture (Figure 3b); the cut surface of the
1:6:6 ratio has significant and many pores with uneven size distribution (Figure 3c); and
the cut surface of the 1:6:10:6 ratio is hollow inside, with tiny pores of varying size. Diato-
maceous earth composite materials were distinct (Figure 3d). Different ratios and compo-
sitions of materials have their properties, can suit various design requirements, and can
Sustainability 2023, 15, 3601 9 of 18
be selected based on the use case. The 1:2:3 and 1:4:4 ratios have greater economic effi-
ciency and resource conservation in terms of cost and resource use.

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proportions.
proportions.
proportions.
proportions. Figure
proportions.
proportions.
Figure Figure
3d
proportions.
proportions. 3d
Figure
Figure
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depictsdepicts
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3d depicts
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Figure
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fabric,
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depicts the
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the the starch,
fabric,
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depicts
depicts fabric,
starch,
fabric,
the the the
water, water,
starch, starch,
water,
starch,
fabric,
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fabric, and and
water, and
water,
starch, diatomaceous
water,
starch,and
diatomaceous
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diatomaceous
diatomaceous
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and and and
earth earthearth
diatomaceous mixture.
earth
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earth
diatomaceous mixture.mixture.
mixture.
earth earth
earth mixture.
mixture.
mixture.
Asproportions.
As proportions.
proportions.
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depicted
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depicted As
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depicts
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and
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Figure
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the the
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water, is
and
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(a) Asproportions.
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Therefore, in nothisstrict
study, requirements
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divided into fabricsof fabrics
that
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are easy to decompose into fibers and fabrics that are not easy to decompose into fibers. they are roughly divided into fabrics that
are easy
The to decompose
experimental results into in fibers
Table 5and show fabrics
that that are notdistribution
the starch easy to decompose of the fabric into that
fibers.
is
The experimental
easily decomposedresults into fiber in Table
is uniform,5 show andthat thethe bottom starch distribution
is flat; the starchofdistribution the fabric that is
of the
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3.1.4.3.1.4.
3.1.4.Effect
3.1.4.
Effect Effect
of ofEffect
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3.1.4. Different
Effect
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3.1.5.
3.1.4.
3.1.4. Study
Effect
3.1.4.
3.1.4.
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Effect
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3.1.4.
3.1.4.
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3.1.4.Waste
Effect
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Table 5. The textures
microwave and appearances.
puffing effect of different waste textiles and the same proportion of starch.
texturestextures
textures textures
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and and
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appearances.
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textures and appearances.
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Table
Table 5. TheTable Table
microwave
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gg 27.6
27.6gg g 28.3
28.3 g g 24.6 24.6 g g 25.1 25.1 g g 26.426.4 26.4 g 25.7
g 25.725.7 g 25.2
g 25.2 25.2 g 35.3
g 35.3 g35.3 g g
Weight
Weightmixture mixture 26.4
mixture
26.4 g
mixture
g 27.6
27.63.1.5. g Study 28.3
28.3ofg g Different 24.6
24.6Forms g
g 25.1 g 26.4 g 25.7 g 25.2 g
of25.1 Waste g Textile-Starch g Mixtures g g 35.3 g
3.1.5. Study Not ofNotDifferent
Not
easily easily
easily
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easily easily
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3.1.5.
3.1.5. Study
Study
According ofof Different
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to Table
Not Forms
6,
easilyForms Forms
the Not ofeasily
state Waste
ofdecompose
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Not easily
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textile-starch
Not easily Mixtures mixture indecompose
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different forms
3.1.5.
3.1.5. Study
Study
According of
of Different
decompose
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to decompose
decompose
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Different
Table
decomposed
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Forms
6, of
decompose
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textile-starchMixtures
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EasyEasy Easy
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Table 6, the state of the waste Easy
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mixtureEasy Easy Easy
in different forms
decom- Easy decom- was investigated
Easy decom-
According d intod by
tointo experiments.
Table d d into
6, the
into state
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ofexperiments
the fibers,
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According into
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d
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6,
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different
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composite material
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from
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semi-solid fibers,
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fibers,
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fibers,
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molded
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fibers,
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ionion ioninto
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distribution distribution distribution
Charact-
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The
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distribution
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and that
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ease the
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aid
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compositefibers,
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material
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eristic
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of
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plasticity
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ease uneven
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microwaveable
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eristiceristic
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Weight
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26.4 g
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in in
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25.1
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26.4
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techniques. This diver-
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This
ture
sified greatly
and moreexpands
the the
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prosperous.
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middle
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middle
flatbottom
flatflat
bottom bottom
flatflat flat
bottom
flat flat
flat
flat
bottom bottom
bottombottom
flat ture
sified
bottom
bottom
flat flat
bottom
bottom
tureflat greatly
flat
turegreatly
flat and
flat
flat
bottom bottom
greatly
bottombottom
flat more
bottom
bottom
flat flat expands
bottom
bottom
flatflat bottom
expands
flat
bottom
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expands bottom
flat the
prosperous.
bottomthe freedom
freedom of design
of design and andcan make
flat
can flatflat
bottom
make the
bottom
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flat flat design
theflat
bottom
bottom
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design
flat
bottom scheme
bottom
flat bottom scheme more diver-
more
diver-diver-
sified and more of the
of ofthe
prosperous.
ofthethe of
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of of
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of of the
Table sified
sified
sified and
andandmore
6. Morphological moremore prosperous.
analysis of waste textile-starch mixture.
prosperous.
prosperous.
Table 6. Morphological bottom
bottom
bottom bottom
analysis
bottom
bottom bottom
bottom
bottom
bottom
ofbottom
waste
bottom
bottom bottom
bottom
bottom
bottom
bottom bottom
textile-starch
bottom
bottom
bottom bottom
bottom
bottom bottom
mixture.
bottom
bottom
bottombottombottom
bottom bottom
bottom
bottom bottom
bottom bottom
bottombottom
bottom
Table 6. Morphological analysis of waste textile-starch mixture.
Weight
Weight
Weight 26.4
Weight
Weight 26.4
g
Weight
26.4
Weight g
Weightg 27.6
26.4
Weight
26.4 g g
26.4 27.6
g
26.4
27.6 g
g
26.4 g
g
Table28.3
27.6
26.4
27.6 g
g 28.3
g
27.6
28.3 g
g
27.6 g
g 24.6
g6. Morphological
27.6 28.3
27.6
28.3 g
g g
28.3 24.6
g
28.3
24.6 g
g
28.3 g
g 25.1
analysis
24.6
28.3
24.6 g
g g
24.6 25.1
g
24.6
25.1 gg
24.6
ofg
g 26.4
waste
25.1
24.6
25.1 gg
25.1 26.4
g
25.1
26.4 g
25.1g g
g 25.7
g textile-starch
26.4
25.1
26.4 gg
26.4g 25.7
g
26.4
25.7 gg
26.4 g 25.2
mixture.
25.7
26.4
25.7 gg g
25.7 25.2
g
25.7
25.2 gg
25.7 g
g
25.2
25.7
25.2 g35.3
g g
25.2 35.3
g
25.2
35.3 g
g
25.2 g
g35.3
25.2
35.3 g
g 35.3
g
35.3 g35.3
35.3
g g g
Samples Form Table Manufacture Method Characteristic Availability
Samples
Samples
Form
Form Table6.
Table 6.Morphological
Manufacture
6.Manufacture
Morphological
Morphological analysis
Method
analysis
Method analysis of
of waste
waste
of waste textile-starch
textile-starch
textile-starch mixture.
Characteristic
mixture.
Characteristic mixture. Availability
Availability
Samples Form 3.1.5. 3.1.5.
Study
3.1.5. Study Manufacture
Study
of
3.1.5.
3.1.5. ofDifferent
3.1.5.
of
Study
Study
3.1.5. Different
Different
3.1.5.Study
of
Study Study
of
3.1.5. Forms
of
Different
Study
Different
of Method
Forms
of
Different of
Different
Forms of
Different
of Formsof
Waste
Different
Forms Waste
Waste
Formsof Forms
of Textile-Starch
Textile-Starch
Forms of
Waste
Forms
Waste
of Waste
Textile-Starch
of
Waste Waste
of Mixtures
Waste
Textile-Starch Characteristic
Mixtures
Textile-Starch
Mixtures
Textile-Starch
Textile-Starch Mixtures
Textile-Starch
Textile-Starch Mixtures Mixtures
Mixtures Mixtures
Mixtures Availability
Samples
Samples Form
Irregular
Irregular
Form arcs
arcs Manufacture
Mold
Manufacture Mold shapingMethod
shaping
Method Simple
Simple Characteristic
shape,
shape,
Characteristic easytotoshape
easy shape Availability
High
High
Availability
Samples Formarcs
Irregular According
According
According Manufacture
toMold
According
According toTable
Table
According
to
According shaping
Table
According
to 6,
to the
6,Table
According
Table
to toMethod
6,thethe
state
Table
to
6,
Table 6,state
state of
Table
to
the the the
6,
of
6,Table of
statethe
the
6,
state the
waste
the
of
state ofwaste
6,state
waste
state
the the
of state
waste
the Simple
textile-starch
textile-starch
of the
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3.1.6. Mechanical State Assessment of Waste Textile-Starch Blends
3.1.6.The Mechanical
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Although the volume, appearance, and internal structure of the microwave-expanded
material of starch and textile fiber were comparable to those of the microwave-expanded
Cylindrical,
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cup-shaped
Cylindrical,
cup-shaped
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to to form Medium
form Medium
Medium Medium
Medium
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Medium Medium
product of a single starch, the waste textile-starch mixture was significantly denser and
more rigid than the single starch material. After microwaving a single starch, the solid
3.1.6.3.1.6.
3.1.6.
becomes Mechanical
Mechanical
3.1.6.
3.1.6. 3.1.6.
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of Waste Blends
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of Waste
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crushed Blends
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(Figure Blends
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4). Blends
Due to the mechanical
The
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significantly and
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and
increase 47.Table
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and and
47.Table
7.Table
and
their 7.hardness
7.Table 7. 7. and strength, making them more durable and less
prone to damage. Hardness tests were performed by using Shore C Durometer for different
starch composites, fiber-based textile composites, and sheet-based textile composites. Each
sample was evaluated five times independently, and the mean value was determined
(Table 7). The test findings revealed that the hardness of the various types varied slightly,
 Sustainability 2023, 15, 3601 11 of 18

Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 19

but nearly all the composites had a hardness greater than 95 (HC). Therefore, the starchy
textile fiber substance is adequately rigid for designing different things.

Figure
Figure 4. 4.
TheThe shape
shape of of Single
Single starch
starch microwave
microwave expanded
expanded solid.
solid.

Table
Table 7.7. Shore
Shore CC Durometer
Durometer measurementresults.
measurement results.

Pea Corn
Mung
Mung
Wheat Cassava
Cassava Potato
Potato
Sweet
Sweet Glutinous
Only Corn Bean Wheat Potato Glutinous
Rice Mixture Flaky
Only
Starch
Pea Starch
Starch Starch Bean
Starch
Starch Starch Starch Potato
Starch Rice Flour
Flour
Mixture
of Fibers
Flaky
Mixture
Mixture Starch
Mixture Starch
Mixture Starch
Mixture Starch
Mixture
Starch Mixture Starch
Mixture Starch
Mixture Mixture of Fibers Mixture
Mixture Mixture Mixture Mixture Mixture
85.5 79.5 93 Mixture
102.5 94 97.5 90 Mixture
94 90.5 109 99
93.5 105.5 95.5 92.5 95 100 97 101.5 104 96 97
Hardness 85.5
87.5
79.5
90.5
93107.5 102.5
97.5
9492 97.592.5
90100.5 9493.5 90.5
97.5
10999 9999.5
(HC)
93.5
90.5 105.5
104.5 95.5
102.5 92.599 9596.5 100
103.5 97108 101.5
100 10496.5 96103 9795.5
Hardness 91.5 105 110 108.5 102.5 94 100 105.5 95 105 94
87.5 90.5 107.5 97.5 92 92.5 100.5 93.5 97.5 99 99.5
(HC)
Mean
Value
90.5
89.7
104.5
97
102.5
101.7
99100 96.596 103.5
97.5
108
100.9
10098.9
96.5
96.7
103
102.4
95.597
(HC) 91.5 105 110 108.5 102.5 94 100 105.5 95 105 94
Mean
Value 89.7 97 101.7 Testing
3.1.7. 100 96
of Additional 97.5
Properties 100.9 Textile-Starch
of Waste 98.9 96.7 102.4
Composites 97 Other
by Mixing
(HC) Auxiliary Materials
In addition to starch, the material can be supplemented with other ingredients as
required. For the
Although volume,
example, appearance,
activated carbon,and internal structure
diatomaceous earth, and of activated
the microwave-ex-
carbon plus
panded materialearth
diatomaceous of starch and textile
are added fiber were
additionally comparable
in Figure to those of the
5a–c, respectively. microwave-
Activated carbon
expanded product
itself, with of a tiny
countless single starch,
pores, hasthe
thewaste textile-starch
function of physical mixture was significantly
adsorption and chemical
denser and more
adsorption, rigid
which than
can thethe
play single
role starch material.
of adsorbing After microwaving
harmful substances and a single starch,
purifying the
the solid becomes more brittle, porous, and readily crushed (Figure 4).
air, and deodorizing [98]. Diatomaceous earth also has strong adsorption, lightweight Due to the me-and
chanical qualities
high-impact of textile
strength, andfibers, such asstrength
compressive increased strength,
[99]. the addition
The addition of theseoftwo
textile fibers
substances
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEERcan
REVIEW 12 of 19
cansignificantly
enhance thisincrease their
material’s hardnesscapacity
adsorption and strength, making
and strength, them
which canmore durable
be applied inand
fields
less prone to damage.
such as air purification.Hardness tests were performed by using Shore C Durometer for
different starch composites, fiber-based textile composites, and sheet-based textile com-
posites. Each sample was evaluated five times independently, and the mean value was
determined (Table 7). The test findings revealed that the hardness of the various types
varied slightly, but nearly all the composites had a hardness greater than 95 (HC). There-
fore, the starchy textile fiber substance is adequately rigid for designing different things.

3.1.7. Testing of Additional Properties of Waste Textile-Starch Composites by Mixing

(a) Other Auxiliary Materials (b) (c)
In addition
Figure 5. Samplestoofstarch, the materials
composite materialwerecan added
be supplemented
with activatedwithcarbonother ingredients as
(a), diatomaceous
required. Samples
Figure 5.For of composite
example, materials
activated carbon,were added with activated
diatomaceous earth, carbon
and (a), diatomaceous
activated carbon plus earth
earth (b), and a mixture of activated carbon and diatomaceous earth (c), respectively.
(b), and a mixture
diatomaceous earthofare
activated
addedcarbon and diatomaceous
additionally in Figure earth
5a–c, (c), respectively.Activated carbon
respectively.
itself,
3.1.8.with
3.1.8. countless tiny
Sustainability
Sustainability pores, has the function of physical adsorption and chemical ad-
Analysis
Analysis
sorption, which
According can play the role of adsorbingof harmful substances and purifying isthe air,
According to to Table
Table 8,8, the
the recyclability
recyclability waste textile-starch
of waste textile-starch composites
composites further
is further
and deodorizing
understood [98]. Diatomaceous earth also has strong adsorption, lightweight and
understood through experiments. When
through experiments. When the
the waste
waste textile-starch
textile-starch composites
composites are wasted
are wasted
high-impact
after use, thestrength,
material and compressive
can be decomposedstrength
by [99]. Theand
rinsing addition
soakingof these two substances
to separate the starch
can enhance
soaked in thethis material’s
wrapped adsorption
fiber fabric. Thecapacity
researchand strength,
found that thiswhich
mixturecansample
be applied
becomesin
fields such
loose when as air
when soaked purification.
soakedin inwater
waterforformore
morethan
than2424
h,h, and
and thethe soaked
soaked starch
starch appears
appears as aassolid
a solid
gel
gel that can be separated from the fabric fibers by squeezing, and the residual starch gel
does not affect the secondary production. The longer the soaking time, the higher the
starch gel fractionation. In the experiments, soaking in cold and hot water was tried sep-
arately, and it was found that the starch dissolved more rapidly in hot water but formed
a more pronounced gel and did not separate easily from the fibers compared to cold water
 earth (b),
earth(b),
earth and
andaaamixture
(b),and mixture
mixtureofof activated
ofactivated carbon
activatedcarbon and
carbonand diatomaceous
anddiatomaceous earth
diatomaceousearth (c),
earth(c), respectively.
(c),respectively.
respectively.
earth
earth
earth (b),
(b),
(b), and
andanda amixture
amixture
mixtureofof
ofactivated
activated
activated carbon
carbon
carbon and
and
and diatomaceous
diatomaceous
diatomaceous earth
earth
earth (c),
(c),
(c), respectively.
respectively.
respectively.
3.1.8. Sustainability Analysis
3.1.8.
3.1.8. Sustainability
3.1.8.Sustainability
SustainabilityAnalysis Analysis
Analysis
3.1.8.
3.1.8.
3.1.8. Sustainability
Sustainability
Sustainability
According to Table Analysis
Analysis
Analysis8, the recyclability of waste textile-starch composites is further
According
Accordingtoto
According Table
Table8,8,
toTable 8,the the recyclability
recyclabilityofof
therecyclability waste
ofwaste textile-starch
wastetextile-starch composites
textile-starchcompositescompositesisis further
isfurther
further
understood Accordingthrough
According
According toto experiments.
Table
toTable
Table 8,8,8,the
the When theofof
recyclability
therecyclability
recyclability waste
of waste
waste
waste textile-starch
textile-starch
textile-starch
textile-starch composites
composites
composites
composites are
is wasted
isisfurther
further
further
understood
understood
understoodthrough through
throughexperiments.experiments.
experiments.When When
Whenthe the waste
thewaste textile-starch
wastetextile-starch
textile-starchcompositescomposites
compositesare are wasted
arewastedwasted
Sustainability 2023, 15, 3601 after use, the through
understood
understood
understood material
through
through can be decomposed
experiments.
experiments.
experiments. When
Whenthe
When bywaste
the
the rinsing
waste
waste and soaking
textile-starch
textile-starch
textile-starch to separate
composites
composites
composites are
arearethe starch
wasted
wasted
wasted
12 of 18
after
after
after use,
use,
use,thethe material
thematerial
material can
cancanbe be decomposed
bedecomposed
decomposed byby rinsing
byrinsing
rinsing and
and soaking
andsoaking
soaking toto separate
toseparate
separate the
thethe starch
starch
starch
soaked
after
after
after
soaked
in
use,the
use,
use, the
the wrapped
the material
material
material fiber
can
cancan be fabric.
be
be The
decomposed
decomposed
decomposed research
byby
by found
rinsing
rinsing
rinsing and that
and
and this
soaking
soaking
soaking mixture
toto
to sample
separate
separate
separate the
thethe becomes
starch
starch
starch
soakedinin
soaked the
inthe wrapped
thewrapped
wrappedfiber fiber fabric.
fiberfabric.fabric.The The research
Theresearch
researchfound found
foundthat that
thatthisthis mixture
thismixture
mixturesample sample
samplebecomesbecomes
becomes
loose
soaked
soaked
loose
loose when
soaked
loosewhen
inin
whenin soaked
thethe
the
whensoaked
wrapped
wrapped
soaked
soakedinin in
wrapped water fiber
fiber
fiber
water
inwater
waterfor for
fabric.
for more
fabric.
fabric.
more
formore
The than
The
The
morethan 24
research
research
research
than
than24 24 h,
24h,h, and
found
found
found
and
h,andandthe the
thethat soaked
that
that this
this
this
soaked
thesoaked starch
mixture
mixture
mixture
starch
soakedstarch appears
sample
sample
sample
appears
appearsasas
starchappears as asolid
becomes
becomes
becomes
asaaasolid solid
solid
gelloose
thatloose
loose
that
gel that
can when
when
when
can
becanbe soaked
soaked
soaked
beseparated
separated inin
separated
fromwater
inwater
water
from
from
the for
for for
the more
more
more
the
fabric fabricthan
than
than
fabric
fibers 24
24
fibers24
fibers
by h,h,
h,
by
byand
and and
squeezing, thethe
squeezing,
squeezing, soaked
thesoaked
and soaked
theand
andstarch
starch
starch appears
appears
appears
theresidual
the
residual residual
residual asasasaadoes
starch
starch
starchstarch
gel solid
asolid
solid
gel
gel
gel
gel that
that can
can bebe separated
separated from
from the
the fabric
fabric fibers
fibers byby squeezing,
squeezing, and
and the
the residual starch gelgel
gel
gel
does
not gel that
that
that
not
affect can
cancan
affect bebe
be separated
separated
separated
the secondary from
fromfrom the
thethe fabric
fabric
fabric
production. fibers
fibers
fibers
The by by
by squeezing,
squeezing,
squeezing,
longer the and
and
and
soaking the
thethe residual
residual
residual
time, the starch
starch
starch
higher gel
gelgel
the
does
does
does notthe
not
not affect secondary
affect
affect the
the
thesecondary production.
secondary
secondary production. The longer
production.
production. The
The the
longer
Thelonger soaking
longer the
the time, the
soaking
thesoaking
soaking time,higher
time,
time, the
the the
higher
thehigher starch
higher the
the
the
does
does
does
starch
gel gelnot
notnot affect
affect
affect
fractionation.
fractionation.
starch gel the
thethethe
In
fractionation. secondary
secondary
secondary
In the
experiments, production.
production.
production.
experiments,soaking The
TheThe
soaking
in coldlonger
longer
longer in
and the
the the
cold
hot soaking
soaking
soaking
and
water hot time,
time,
time,
was water the
the
triedthe
was higher
higher
highertried
separately, the
thethe
sep-
starch
starch gel
gel fractionation.
fractionation. InIn
Inthe the
the experiments,
experiments,
experiments, soaking
soaking
soaking inin cold
incold
cold and
andand hot
hot
hot water
water
water was
was
was tried
tried
tried sep-
sep-
sep-
starch
starch
starch
arately,
and
arately, gel
gel
gel
and
it was and fractionation.
fractionation.
fractionation.
ititwas
found ititwas
was found
that InIn
In
the that
found the
starch
thatthe
thethe experiments,
experiments,
experiments,
starch
dissolved
the starch soaking
dissolvedsoaking
soaking
more rapidly
dissolved in
morein
morein cold
cold
cold
in and
and
rapidlyand
hot water
rapidly hot
hothot
in water
water
water
hot
but was
was
waterwas
formed tried
tried
tried
but aformed sep-
sep-
sep-
formed
more
arately,
arately, and
and was found
found that
that thethe starch
starchdissolved
dissolved more
more rapidly
rapidly inin hot
inhothot water
water
water but
butbut formed
formed
arately,
arately,
arately,
apronounced
more and
andand
pronounced it
gelit it was
was
andwas gelfound
found
found
did and
not that
thatthat
did
separate the
thethe
not starch
starch
starch
separate
easily dissolved
dissolved
dissolved
fromeasily
the more
more
more
from
fibers rapidly
rapidly
rapidly
the fibers
compared inin
in hot
hothot
compared
to water
water
water
cold water but
but
tobut formed
formed
formed
cold
soaking. water
aaamore
more pronounced
morepronounced
pronouncedgel gel and
gelandanddid did
didnot not separate
notseparate easily
separateeasilyeasilyfrom from
fromthe fibers
thefibers compared
comparedtoto
fiberscompared cold
tocold
coldwaterwater
water
aa
The amore
more
more
soaking. pronounced
pronounced
pronounced
separated
The fabric
separated gel
gel gel and
and
fibers and
fabric diddid
could did
fibers not
notnot
be separate
separate
separate
reused easily
easily
easily
by from
from
from
forming the
the
a the fibers
fibers
fibers
mixture compared
compared
compared
with new to
toto cold
cold
cold
starch water
water
water
and
soaking.
soaking.
soaking. The
The
The separated
separated
separated fabric
fabric
fabric fiberscould
fibers
fibers could
couldbebe
be reused
reused
bereused
reusedby by
by forming
formingaaamixture
forming
byforming mixture
mixture
mixturewith with
with
with new
new
newnew starch
starch
starch
starch
soaking.
soaking.
soaking.
reusing
andandreusing The
itTheThe ititseparated
separated
ititseparated
(Figure
reusing (Figure 6). 6).
(Figure fabric
fabric
fabric
6). fibers
fibers
fibers could
could
could bebe
be reused
reused
reused byby
by forming
forming
forming aamixture
amixture
mixture with
with
with new
new new starch
starch
starch
and
and reusing
reusing (Figure
(Figure 6).
6).
and
andand reusing
reusing
reusing ititit (Figure
(Figure
(Figure 6).
6).6).
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table Material
8.8.8.Material
8.
8.Materialdecomposition
Material
Material process.
decomposition
decomposition
decomposition
decomposition process.
process.
process.
process.
Table
Table
Table 8.8.8.Material
Material
Material decomposition
decomposition
decomposition process.
process.
process.
Soaking24
Soaking
Soaking
Soaking
Soaking 24
24hhhh
24
Startof
Start of Soaking Soaking12
12 hh Drying
Start
Start ofof
Start of Soaking
Soaking
Soaking Soaking
Soaking Soaking
Soaking
Soaking 12
12hhh
12 Soaking
Soaking
Soaking 2424hhh
24
(Squeezing)
(Squeezing)
(Squeezing)
(Squeezing)
Drying
Drying
Drying
Drying
Start
Start
Start ofof
of Soaking Soaking
Soaking Soaking
Soaking Soaking 12
12 hhh
12 (Squeezing) Drying
Drying
Drying
(Squeezing)
(Squeezing)
(Squeezing)
Soak
Soak
Soak
Soak
Soak inin
in
inin cold
incold
cold
cold cold
Soak
Soak
Soak
water in
in
(20 ◦cold
cold
cold
C)
water
water
water
water (20 (20
(20(20 °C)
°C)
°C) °C)
water
water
water (20
(20(20 °C)
°C)°C)

Soaking
Soakinginin
Soaking hot
inhot
hot
Soaking
Soakinginin
Soaking
Soaking
Soaking hot
inin
inhot
hot
hot
hot
water
water (100
water(100
(100 °C)
°C)
°C)
◦ C)
water
water(100
water
water
water (100
(100°C)
(100
(100 °C)
°C)
°C)

(a)
(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
(b)
(a)
(a)(a) (b)
(b)
(b)
Figure
(a) (b)
Figure6.6.
Figure The
6.The sample
sampleofof
Thesample waste
ofwaste textile-starch
wastetextile-starch composite
textile-starchcomposite material
compositematerial after
materialafter being
afterbeing decomposed
beingdecomposed into
decomposedinto mate-
intomate-
mate-
Figure
Figure
Figure
rials.
rials.
rials. 6.6.
(a)
(a)(a) 6.The
TheThe
front;
front;
front; sample
sample
sample
(b)
(b)
(b) ofof
back.
back.
back. ofwaste
waste
waste textile-starch
textile-starch
textile-starch composite
composite
composite material
material
material after
after
after being
being
being decomposed
decomposed
decomposed into
into
into mate-
mate-
mate-
Figure
Figure 6.6.The
The sample
sample ofwaste
of wastetextile-starch
textile-starch composite
composite material
material afterafter
beingbeing decomposed
decomposed into mate-
into materials.
rials.
rials.
rials. (a)
(a) (a) front;
front;
front; (b)
(b)(b)back.
back.
back.
rials. (a) front;
(a) front; (b) back.
(b) back.
Therefore,
Therefore,aaawaste
Therefore, waste textiles-starch
wastetextiles-starch
textiles-starchmixturemixture
mixtureisis isaaasustainable
sustainable material
sustainablematerial composed
composedofof
materialcomposed waste
ofwaste
waste
Therefore,
Therefore,
Therefore,
textiles and aawaste
plant awaste
waste
starch. textiles-starch
textiles-starch
textiles-starch
Figure 7 mixture
mixture
mixture
shows the isis
aasustainable
iswhole asustainable
sustainable
life cycle material
material
material
of the composed
composed
composed
waste ofof
ofwaste
waste
waste
textiles-starch
textiles
textilesand
and
Therefore, plant
plant
Therefore, aa waste starch.
starch. Figure
Figure
waste textiles-starch 7 7
shows
shows
mixture
textiles-starch mixture the
the whole
whole life
life
isisaasustainable cycle
sustainable cycle ofofthe
the
material
material waste
wastetextiles-starch
textiles-starch
composed
composed of waste
of waste
textiles
textiles
textiles
mixture, and
andand plant
plant
plant
from the starch.
starch.
starch.
recycling Figure
Figure
Figure 777 shows
shows
shows the
the
the whole
whole
whole life
life
life cycle
cycle
cycle of
ofof the
the
the waste
waste
waste textiles-starch
textiles-starch
textiles-starch
mixture,
mixture,
textiles
textiles from
and
and from the
plant
plant the recycling
recycling
starch.
starch. ofof
Figure waste
ofwaste
waste
7 showstextiles
textiles
showstextiles
the to
theto to
to
whole the
the
whole processing
theprocessing
processing
life
lifecycle
cycleof and
and
and
of manufacturing
manufacturing
the manufacturing
waste
the ofof com-
ofcom-
textiles-starch
waste com-
textiles-starch
mixture,
mixture,
mixture,
posite from
from
from
materials, the
thethe recycling
recycling
recycling
to the ofof
recyclingof waste
waste
waste
and textiles
textiles
textiles to
tothe
remanufacturing, the
the processing
processing
processing
to the and
andand manufacturing
manufacturing
manufacturing
de-composition and ofof
of com-
com-
com-
grading
posite
posite
mixture,
mixture, materials,
materials,
from
from the
the toto tothe
the recycling
recycling
recycling recycling
of
of wasteand
and
waste remanufacturing,
remanufacturing,
textiles
textiles to the
to the processing totothe
the
processing de-composition
de-composition
and and
and
manufacturing
and manufacturing grading
grading
of
of com-
posite
posite
posite
of materials,
materials,
materials,
products after to
to the
the
theythe recycling
recycling
recycling
are no and
andand
longer remanufacturing,
remanufacturing,
remanufacturing,
helpful. The whole toto
to the
thethede-composition
de-composition
de-composition
production process and
and
and
is grading
grading
grading
non-toxic
ofofproducts
products
composite
posite after
after
materials,
materials, they
totheythey
the toare
are
the no
recyclingno longer
longer
recycling helpful.
helpful.
and The
The whole
remanufacturing,
and remanufacturing, whole production
production
to
toproduction
the the process
process is is
de-composition
de-composition non-toxic
andnon-toxic
and
grading
of
of
and products
ofproducts
products
harmless after
after
after
and they
they
emits are
areareno
no no
no longer
longer
longer
pollution helpful.
helpful.
helpful. The
The whole
Thewholewhole production
production process
processisis
process non-toxic
isnon-toxic
non-toxic
and
andharmless
grading harmless
of and
and
products emits
emits
after nonopollution
they pollution
are no toto
to the
the environment.
theenvironment.
longer environment.
helpful. The whole production process is
ofand
products
and
and after
harmless
harmless
harmless and
and they
and emitsareno
emits
emits no
no
no longer helpful.
pollution
pollution
pollution toto
to the
thethe The whole production process is non-toxic
environment.
environment.
environment.
non-toxic and harmless and emits no
and harmless and emits no pollution to the environment. pollution to the environment.

3.2. Furniture Design Applications

3.2.1. Exploring How to Achieve Sustainable Furniture Design According to the
Material Properties
According to the above research, the various excellent properties of waste textiles–
starch composites, such as rigidity, strength, degradability, and adsorption capacity, can
be used for the sustainable design of furniture following the principle of design to reduce
the waste of natural resources of furniture and the problem that waste furniture cannot be
recycled. This is a sustainable material-driven design process. It emphasizes the use of
the material itself to its full advantage and significantly impacts the product’s appearance,
structure, and function.
The waste textiles-starch composites have the fabric’s natural texture, and their ap-
pearance is slightly rough. The designer can keep the rough surface or make it smooth
by grinding and polishing. Because this material is composed of textile fibers, it can also
visually represent textiles’ softness and warmth retention. Starch fabric composite is a
solid porous material with high strength and bearing capacity, which is suitable for the
Sustainability 2023, 15, 3601 13 of 18

structural requirements of furniture. In addition to these essential qualities, variable pro-

portions, starch, and additives make these materials slightly different and can meet the
different needs of furniture design. Additionally, due to their porosity, waste textiles-starch
composites have the functions of sound absorption, lightweight, and heat insulation. In
terms of sustainability, the material is non-toxic, pollution-free, and recyclable to achieve
sustainability. Therefore, in the process of product assembly and application, the use of
non-degradable and toxic adhesives or coatings should be avoided so that the product’s
sustainability is not a gimmick but an actual green environmental protection product. This
design can use integral furniture, mortise and tenon, modular design, and other structures
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 19
that do not need adhesives. When the adhesive is needed, starch gel heated by microwave
may be regarded as an adhesive.

Figure7.7.Illustration
Figure Illustrationof
ofthe
thelife
lifecycle
cycleof
ofwaste
wastetextile-starch
textile-starchcomposites.
composites.

3.2.2. Sustainable
3.2. Furniture Furniture
Design Design Sketches and Final Solutions
Applications
3.2.1.Based on theHow
Exploring evaluation of waste
to Achieve textile-starch
Sustainable composites,
Furniture it is possible
Design According toto thedetermine
Material
that the
Propertiesmaterial is suitable to produce furniture such as tables, chairs, cabinets, shelves,
and wall decorations. It is also capable of producing dividers, sound-absorbing panels,
According to the above research, the various excellent properties of waste textiles–
and sandwich panels. Furthermore, given the drawback that the material should not be
starch composites, such as rigidity, strength, degradability, and adsorption capacity, can
immersed in water for an extended period, the design strategy chose to make furniture such
be used for the sustainable design of furniture following the principle of design to reduce
as interior tables and chairs the representative design item. Because the design application
the waste of natural resources of furniture and the problem that waste furniture cannot
technique must avoid the use of chemical gums and other non-environmental and non-
be recycled. This
biodegradable is a sustainable
materials, the designmaterial-driven
solution employsdesign process. Itshape
a one-piece emphasizes
with nestedthe use
andof
the material
bracketed topitself to its full
and bottom advantage
structures. and significantly
Through the attemptsimpacts
in thethe product’s
design process, appearance,
as shown
structure, and function.
in Figure 8, the design scheme finally pushed out several sets of relatively reasonable drafts.
The waste
Similarly, intextiles-starch
this design plan, composites have the fabric’s
waste textiles-starch natural
composites aretexture,
combined and their
with ap-
glass
pearance is slightly rough. The designer can keep the rough surface
and aluminum alloy to complement and increase some functions that this material cannotor make it smooth by
grinding and polishing. Because this material is composed of textile fibers,
perform. It also improves the aesthetics and structural integrity of the finished furniture. it can also vis-
ually represent
Furthermore, textiles’
glass softness and
and aluminum warmth
alloy retention. Starch
are environmentally fabricmaterials
friendly composite is can
that a solid
be
porous material with high strength and bearing capacity, which is suitable
recycled and reused. As a result, all the materials used in this product meet the sustainable for the struc-
turaland
aims requirements
requirements. of furniture. In of
The result addition to these
the design planessential
was givenqualities, variable propor-
after modification and
tions, starch, and additives
refining, as shown in Figure 9. make these materials slightly different and can meet the dif-
ferent needs of furniture design. Additionally, due to their porosity, waste textiles-starch
composites have the functions of sound absorption, lightweight, and heat insulation. In
terms of sustainability, the material is non-toxic, pollution-free, and recyclable to achieve
sustainability. Therefore, in the process of product assembly and application, the use of
non-degradable and toxic adhesives or coatings should be avoided so that the product’s
sustainability is not a gimmick but an actual green environmental protection product. This

Sustainability 2023, 15, 3601
immersed in water for an extended period, the design strategy chose to make furniture
such as interior tables and chairs the representative design item. Because the design ap-
plication technique must avoid the use of chemical gums and other non-environmental
and non-biodegradable materials, the design solution employs a one-piece shape with
nested and bracketed top and bottom structures. Through the attempts in the design14pro-of 18
cess, as shown in Figure 8, the design scheme finally pushed out several sets of relatively
reasonable drafts.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 8. Three sustainable furniture design sketches designed by a one-piece shape and nested and
bracketed top and bottom structures. (a) table design sketch; (b) chair design sketch; (c) tea table
design sketch.

Similarly, in this design plan, waste textiles-starch composites are combined with
glass and aluminum alloy to complement and increase some functions that this material
(a) cannot perform. It also improves (b) the aesthetics and structural integrity (c) of the finished fur-
niture. Furthermore, glass and aluminum alloy are environmentally friendly materials
Figure 8. Three sustainable furniture design sketches designed by a one-piece shape and nested and
Figure 8. Three
that can sustainable
be and
recycled and furniture
reused.design sketchesall
Astable
a result, designed by a one-piecein
the materials shape
thisand nestedmeet
and
bracketed top bottom structures. (a) design sketch; (b) chair used
design sketch;product
(c) tea table
bracketed
the top
sustainable
design sketch. and bottom
aims and structures. (a)
requirements. table
Thedesign
result sketch;
of the (b) chair
design design
plan wassketch;
given (c) tea
after table
mod-
design sketch.
ification and refining, as shown in Figure 9.
Similarly, in this design plan, waste textiles-starch composites are combined with
glass and aluminum alloy to complement and increase some functions that this material
cannot perform. It also improves the aesthetics and structural integrity of the finished fur-
niture. Furthermore, glass and aluminum alloy are environmentally friendly materials
that can be recycled and reused. As a result, all the materials used in this product meet
the sustainable aims and requirements. The result of the design plan was given after mod-
ification and refining, as shown in Figure 9.

Figure9.9.Final
Figure Finalrenderings
renderings
of of sustainable
sustainable furniture
furniture design.
design. Table
Table basedbased on starch
on starch composite
composite inte-
integrated
grated molding and glass design (top); lying chair (middle) and tea table (bottom) based on starch
molding and glass design (top); lying chair (middle) and tea table (bottom) based on starch composite
composite integrated molding and steel design.
integrated molding and steel design.

3.3. Discussion
The life cycle of waste textile composite material products can go through several
cycles. Maximizing the value of waste textiles and substituting furniture for other materials
can successfully
Figure limit the
9. Final renderings use of non-environmental
of sustainable materials
furniture design. Table based while also
on starch reducing
composite the
inte-
exploitation
grated moldingofandnatural materials
glass design such
(top); aschair
lying wood and stone.
(middle) However,
and tea due to based
table (bottom) the limitations,
on starch
this study
composite remainsmolding
integrated insufficient. Thedesign.
and steel composite materials examined in this study cannot
be considered eco-sustainable in the strictest sense, because no matter how many times
waste textiles are recycled, they must eventually deteriorate. There may be chemical gases
and remnant non-degradable fibers produced during breakdown. When utilizing molds to
create composites, there is a certain amount of waste. Currently, the ecological recycling
path of waste textiles is still being investigated and requires ongoing improvement and
refinement based on experience. This material’s design technique may have importance and
value for sustainable design. However, the path to sustainability requires the continued
support and efforts of the government, businesses, society, designers, and the public
to advance.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 3601 15 of 18

Meanwhile, although there will be some physical and chemical processes for recycling
and decomposing waste textiles, it is believed that with the continuous progress of technol-
ogy, more effective and sustainable treatment methods will emerge. For designers, what
they can do is maximize the service life of waste textiles-starch materials and make full
use of them. Waste textiles-starch composites can replace some wood, panel, stone, and
synthetic materials in furniture, industrial products, and even structures, thus reducing
human use of the earth’s resources and contributing to ecological sustainability.

4. Conclusions
This study discusses the research of waste textiles reuse based on sustainable design.
The research was supplemented by methods and results in the fields of material science,
physics, food processing, etc., to check and verify the sustainability and various advantages
of waste textile-starch composite materials. For example, based on sustainability and
environmental protection, customized composite materials can be provided according to
the design requirements by regulating the heating time, starch type, waste textiles type,
material composition proportion, and material form. At the same time, the strength of
composite materials can also meet the requirements of various design objectives. Therefore,
the waste textile-starch composite produced is applied to furniture design. It can not only
save the raw material resources of furniture manufacturing but also reduce the waste of
resources caused by the waste of furniture. More importantly, it further solves the problem
of harmful substance pollution in the process of furniture production. In addition, this study
better studies the design and use situation of materials according to their characteristics
and better implements the principle of sustainable resource utilization. However, this
composite material still needs to be improved in many aspects, and its role is still limited
in the face of a large amount of textile waste. However, we believe that with this as the
cornerstone and the continuous development of the sustainable concept, more and better
solutions will emerge in the future. The establishment of a community with a shared future
for humankind is not just a word; it should be engraved in our minds so that we can work
together to protect our lovely planet. We will achieve ecological, social, and economic
sustainability as soon as possible.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Y.W.; methodology, Y.W., C.L., and X.Z.; validation, Y.W.;
investigation, Y.W.; writing—original draft, Y.W.; writing—review and editing, C.L., X.Z., and S.Z.;
supervision, C.L. and S.Z.; project administration, S.Z.; funding acquisition, S.Z. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not available.
Acknowledgments: The authors are extremely grateful for the anonymous valuable comments on
improving the quality of this article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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