Physics Notes Binder

Topic-1.
Measurement Page | 1
1. Measurement
DISTANCE & VOLUME
• Rulers can be used to measure small distances of a few cm. They are able to measure to the
nearest mm.
A ruler can measure small distances to the nearest mm
• When measuring larger distances (of a few metres) a tape measure is more appropriate or, when
measuring even larger distances, a trundle wheel.
Trundle wheels can be used to measure large distances
• Measuring cylinders can be used to measure the volume of liquids or, by measuring the change in
volume, the volume of an irregular shape.
Measuring cylinders can be used to determine the volume of a liquid or an irregularly shaped solid
IGCSE Physics 0625 Revision Notes www. Hakim Abbas site

Topic-1. Measurement Page | 2
MICROMETER SCREW GAUGE
• When measuring very small distances (less than a centimetre) a micrometer is the most
appropriate instrument.
• Micrometers can measure distances to the nearest 1/100th of a mm.
Micrometers can be used to measure very small distances
TIME
• Stopclocks and stopwatches can be used to measure time intervals.

• An important factor when measuring time intervals is human reaction time. This can have a
significant impact upon measurements when the measurements involved are very short (less than
a second).
MULTIPLE READINGS
• Suppose you have to measure the thickness of a sheet of paper. The thing that you are trying to
measure is so small that it would be very difficult to get an accurate answer.
• If, however, you measure the thickness of 100 sheets of paper you can do so much more
accurately. Dividing your answer by 100 will then give an accurate figure for the thickness of one
sheet.
• This process of taking a reading of a large number of values and then dividing by that number, is
a good way of getting accurate values for small figures, including (for example) the time period of
a pendulum – measure the time taken for 10 swings and then divide that time by 10.
QUESTION

MASS & WEIGHT: BASICS

• Mass (measured in kilograms, kg) is related to the amount of matter in an object.
• Weight (measured in newtons, N) is the force of gravity on a mass.
• The size of this force depends on the gravitational field strength (often called gravity, g, for short).
weight = mass x gravitational field strength

W = m x g
• You can rearrange this equation with the help of the formula triangle:
Use the formula triangle to help you rearrange the equation
• The value of g (the gravitational field strength) varies from planet to planet.
• On Earth: g ≈ 10 N / kg
• The weight (and hence mass) of two objects can be compared using a balance.
A balance can be used to compare two different weights
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF MASS
• Mass has two significant effects in Physics:

o The mass of an object opposes any attempt to change that object’s motion.
The greater the mass of an object, the more difficult it is to speed it up, slow it down or
change its direction.
This property of mass is sometimes referred to as inertia.
o Mass is also the source of an object’s weight – the force of gravity on a mass.
The greater the mass, the greater the weight.

DENSITY
• Density is the mass per unit volume of a material:
Objects made from low density materials typically have a low mass, whilst similar sized objects made
from high density materials have a high mass.
(Think of how heavy a bag full of feathers is compared to a similar bag full of metal.)
• Density is related to mass and volume by the following equation:
(Note: The greek letter ρ is used to mean density)
• The units of density depend on what units are used for mass and volume:
o If the mass is measured in g and volume in cm3, then the density will be in g/cm3.
o If the mass is measured in kg and volume in m3, then the density will be in kg/m3.
• In Physics, mass is almost always measured in kg.

Density is the only topic where physicists sometimes use grams instead.
FLOATING
• In general, an object will float in a liquid if the average density of that object is less than the
density of the liquid it is placed in.
• Water, for example, has a density of about 1 g/cm3.
o If an object has a density of less than 1 g/cm3 then it will float in water.
o If an object has a density that is greater than 1 g/cm3 then it will sink in water.

MEASURING DENSITY
• To measure the density of an object, we must measure its mass and volume and then use the
following equation:
• The mass of an object can be measured quite simply by placing it on a top pan balance.
You ought to state that you will ‘zero’ the balance before using it.
Always zero a top pan balance before taking any measurements
• In the case of a liquid, the liquid must be placed in a container, the mass of which should be
measured both when it is empty and when it contains the liquid:
The mass of the liquid will be the difference between the two values.
• The volume can be determined in a couple of ways:
Regular shapes (e.g. cubes, spheres, cylinders):
• The width (and length) can be measured using a ruler or a pair of digital calipers.
• To make the measurements accurate, several measurements should be taken between different
faces or points on the circumference, and an average taken.
When measuring the width (or diameter) take several readings between different points and take an
average
• The volume can then be calculated using an appropriate equation:

(Note: When measuring the width of a sphere or cylinder, divide the measurement by two to find the
radius)
Irregular shapes:
• The volume can be found using a Eureka can:
Placing an object in a full Eureka can will displace water equal to its volume
o Fill the Eureka can with water.

o Place an empty measuring cylinder below its spout.
o Now carefully lower the object into the Eureka can (use a piece of string, perhaps).
o Measure the volume of displaced water in the measuring cylinder.
• Alternatively, the object can be placed in a measuring cylinder containing a known volume of
liquid, and the change in volume then measured.
When an irregular solid is placed in a measuring cylinder, the level of the liquid will rise by an amount
equal to the volume of the solid
• Once the mass and volume of the shape is known, its density can be calculated.

Topic-2. Speed, velocity and acceleration Page | 1
2. Speed, velocity and acceleration

SPEED
• Speed (measured in metres per second) is the distance moved by an object each second.
• The average speed of an object is given by the equation:
• You can rearrange the equation with the help of the formula triangle:
VELOCITY
• Velocity is a similar quantity to speed, but includes a direction (the direction of travel) as well as
its value (its magnitude).
• Two objects can have equal speeds but might have opposite velocities (if they are travelling in
opposite directions).
The two cars have the same speed but opposite velocities, because they are travelling in opposite
directions
ACCELERATION
• Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity: In other words, how much the velocity of an object
changes by every second.
• Acceleration is given by the equation:

ACCELERATION FORMULA TRIANGLE
(Where u is the initial velocity of an object and v is its final velocity)
• The units of acceleration are m/s2, which mean the same thing as m/s/s – the change in velocity
(in m/s) every second.
DISTANCE-TIME GRAPHS
• A distance time graph shows how the distance of an object (from a point) varies over time:
Graphs showing how the distance travelled by three objects varies over time
• A horizontal line means stationary.

• A straight line means constant speed.
• If the gradient increases the object is speeding up (accelerating).
• If the gradient decreases the object is slowing down (decelerating).
• If the line is going down, the object is moving backwards.
CALCULATING SPEED
• The speed of an object is given by the gradient of the line.

VELOCITY-TIME GRAPHS:
• A velocity-time graph shows how the

velocity (or speed) of an object
changes over time.
• If the line is horizontal, the velocity is
constant (no acceleration).
• If the line slopes upwards then the
object is accelerating (speeding up).
If the line goes down then the object

is decelerating (slowing down).
CALCULATING DISTANCE
• The distance travelled by an object can be found

by determining the area beneath the graph.
• If the area beneath the graph forms a triangle
(the object is accelerating or decelerating) then
the area can be determined using the formula:
area = 1/2 x base x height
• If the area beneath the graph is a rectangle

(constant velocity) then the area can be
determined using the formula:
area = base x height

CALCULATING ACCELERATION
• The acceleration of an object is given by

the gradient of the graph:
• Lines that slope downwards have negative

gradients and so can be said to have negative
accelerations: This is the same thing as a
deceleration.
• If the gradient of the line changes then the acceleration of the body must be changing:
o A line with constant gradient represents constant acceleration (linear motion).
o A curved line represents changing acceleration – either decreasing (if the gradient gets
smaller) or increasing (if the gradient gets large).

FREEFALL
• In the absence of air resistance, all objects fall with the same acceleration, regardless of their
mass.
• This acceleration is equal to the gravitational field strength and is approximately 10 m/s2 near the
Earth’s surface.
• So long as air resistance remains insignificant, the speed of a falling object will increase at a steady
rate, getting larger the longer it falls for.
In the absence of air resistance objects fall with constant acceleration
TERMINAL VELOCITY
• When a parachutist jumps out of an aeroplane, two main forces act:

o Weight (the force of gravity)
o Air resistance
Diagram showing the changing forces on a skydiver

• Initially the air resistance is very small. There is a downwards unbalanced force and the skydiver
accelerates.
• As the skydiver speeds up, the air resistance increases.
• Eventually the air resistance balances the weight and so the skydiver travels at a constant speed –
terminal velocity.
• When the parachute is opened the increased air resistance on the parachute creates an upwards
unbalanced force, making the parachute slow down.
Graph showing how the velocity of a skydiver changes during descent

Topic-3.1. Hook’s law Page | 1
3.1. Hook’s law
Stretching Materials
• When forces are applied to materials, the size and shape of the material can change.
• The method below describes a typical procedure for carrying out an investigation into the
properties of a material.
A graph of extension against force for a metal spring
An experiment to measure the extension of a spring
• Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram.

• A single mass (0.1 kg, 100g) is attached to the spring, with a pointer attached to the bottom, and
the position of the spring is measured against the ruler.
• The mass (in kg) and position (in cm) are recorded in a table.
• A further mass is added and the new position measured.
• The above process continues until a total of 7 masses have been added.
• The masses are then removed and the entire process repeated again, until it has been carried out
a total of 3 times, and averages can then be taken.
• Once measurements have been taken:
o The force on the spring can be found by multiplying the mass on the spring (in kg) by 10
N/kg (the gravitational field strength).
o The extension of the spring can be found by subtracting the original position of the spring
from each of the subsequent positions.
• Finally, a graph of extension (on the y-axis) against force (on the x-axis) should be plotted.

Topic-3.1. Hook’s law Page | 2
Hooke’s Law
Hooke’s law states that: The extension of a spring is proportional to the applied force.
(Where k is the spring constant, which represents how stiff a spring is)
• Many other materials (such as metal wires) also obey Hooke’s law.
• Hooke’s law is associated with the initial linear (straight) part of a force-extension graph.
• Objects that obey Hooke’s law will return to their original length after being stretched.
• If an object continues to be stretched it can be taken past the limit of proportionality (sometimes
called the elastic limit).
• At this point the object will no longer obey Hooke’s law and will not return to its original length.
The spring on the right has been stretched beyond the limit of proportionality
Question

Topic-3.2 Force – Adding forces Page | 1
3.2 Force – Adding forces
RESULTANT FORCE
• When several forces act on a body, the resultant (overall) force on the body can be found by
adding together forces which act in the same direction and subtracting forces which act in
opposite directions:
Diagram showing the resultant forces on three different objects
• When the forces acting on a body are balanced (i.e. there is no resultant force), the body will
either remain at rest or continue to move in a straight line at a constant speed.
When the forces acting on a body are balanced the body will remain at rest or continue to travel at a
constant speed in a straight line

Question
FRICTION
• Friction is a force that opposes the motion of an object caused by the contact (rubbing) of two
surfaces. It always acts in the opposite direction to the direction in which the object is moving.
FRICTION OPPOSES THE MOTION OF AN OBJECT
• Air resistance (sometimes called drag) is a form of friction caused by a body moving through the
air.
• Friction (including air resistance) results in energy loss due to the transfer of energy from kinetic
to internal (heat).

UNBALANCED FORCES
FORCES & MOTION
• When an unbalanced (resultant) force acts on an object, it can affect its motion in a number of
ways:
o The object could speed up
o The object could slow down
o The object could change direction
A resultant force can cause an object to speed up, slow down or change direction
ACCELERATION
• Force, mass and acceleration are related by the following equation:
• The greater the force, the greater the acceleration (for a given mass).
• For a given force, the smaller the mass the greater the acceleration.

QUESTION
CIRCULAR MOTION
CHANGING DIRECTION
• When a force acts at 90 degrees to an object’s direction of travel, the force will cause that object
to change direction.
When the two cars collide, the first car changes its direction in the direction of the force
• If the force continues to act at 90 degrees to the motion, the object will keep changing its
direction (whilst remaining at a constant speed) and travel in a circle.
• This is what happens when a planet orbits a star (or a satellite orbits a planet).

The Moon is pulled towards the Earth (at 90 degrees to its direction of travel). This causes it to travel in
a circular path
• The force needed to make something follow a circular path depends on a number of factors:
o The mass of the object (a greater mass requires a greater force).
o The speed of the object (a faster moving object requires a greater force).
o The radius of the circle (a smaller radius requires a greater force).
Question

Topic-3.2 Force – Turning Effect Page | 1
3.2 Force – Turning Effect

The Moment of a Force
• A moment is the turning effect of a force.

• Moments occur when forces cause objects to rotate about some pivot.
• The size of the moment depends upon:
o The size of the force.
o The distance between the force and the pivot.
• The moment of a force is given by the equation:
Moment = Force × perpendicular distance from the pivot
• Moments have the units newton centimetres (N cm) or newton metres (N m), depending on
whether the distance is measured in metres or centimetres.
Diagram showing the moment of a force exerted by a spanner on a nut
• Some other examples involving moments include:

o Using a crowbar to prize open something.
o Turning a tap on or off.
o Opening or closing a door.
Question

The Principle of Moments
• The principle of moments states that:

o For a system to be balanced, the sum of clockwise moments must be equal to the sum of
anticlockwise moments.
Diagram showing the moments acting on a balanced beam
• In the above diagram:

o Force F 2 is supplying a clockwise moment;
o Forces F 1 and F 3 are supplying anticlockwise moments.
• Hence:
F2 × d2 = F1 × d1 + F3 × d3
Question

Example of The Principle of Moments
• The principle of moments doesn’t just apply to seesaws – it is important in many other situations
as well such as, for example, a shelf:
To prevent the shelf from collapsing, the support must provide an upward moment equal to the
downward moment of the vase
Conditions of Equilibrium
Revision notes on the topic 'Conditions of Equilibrium' for CIE IGCSE (9-1) Physics
Home/CIE IGCSE Physics/Revision Notes/5. Forces/Conditions of Equilibrium
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Equlibrium Defined
The term “equilibrium” means that an object keeps doing what it’s doing, without any change.
• Therefore:
o If the object is moving it will continue to move (in a straight line).
o If it is stationary it will remain stationary.
o The object will also not start or stop turning.
• The above conditions require two things:
o The forces on the object must be balanced (there must be no resultant force).
o The sum of clockwise moments on the object must equal the sum of anticlockwise
moments (the principle of moments).
When the forces and moments on an object are balanced, the object will remain in equilibrium
• If the above two conditions are met, then the object will be in equilibrium.

Topic-Centre of Mass Page | 4
Question
Demonstrating Equilibrium
• A simple experiment to demonstrate that there is no net moment on an object in equilibrium

involves taking an object, such as a beam, and replacing the supports with newton (force) meters:
Several forces act on a supported beam, including the mass of the beam and the mass of an object
suspended from it
• The beam in the above diagram is in equilibrium.

• The various forces acting on the beam can be found either by taking readings from the newton
meters or by measuring the masses (and hence calculating the weights) of the beam and the
mass suspended from the beam.
• The distance of each force from the end of the ruler can then be measured, allowing the moment
of each force about the end of the ruler to be calculated.
• It can then be shown that the sum of clockwise moments (due to forces F 2 and F 3 ) equal the sum
of anticlockwise moments (due to forces F 1 and F 4 ).
Centre of Mass
Finding the Centre of Mass

• The centre of mass of an object (sometimes called the centre of gravity) is the point through
which the weight of that object acts.
• For a symmetrical object of uniform density (such as a symmetrical cardboard shape) the centre
of mass is located at the point of symmetry:
The centre of mass of a regular shape can be found by symmetry
• When an object is suspended from a point, the object will always settle so that its centre of
mass comes to rest below the pivoting point.
• This can be used to find the centre of mass of an irregular shape:
Diagram showing an experiment to find the centre of mass of an irregular shape
o The irregular shape (a plane laminar) is suspended from a pivot and allowed to settle.
o A plumb line (lead weight) is then held next to the pivot and and a pencil is used to draw a
vertical line from the pivot (the centre of mass must be somewhere on this line).
o The process is then repeated, suspending the shape from two different points.
• The centre of mass is located at the point where all three lines cross.

Question
Stability
• An object is stable when its centre of mass lies above its base.
The object on the right will topple, as its centre of mass is no longer over its base
• If the centre of mass does not lie above its base, then an object will topple over.
• The most stable objects have a low centre of mass and a wide base.

The most stable objects have wide bases and low centres of mass
Question

Topic-3.3 Force – Scalars & Vectors Page | 1
3.3 Force – Scalars & Vectors

Scalars & Vectors: Basics
• Quantities can be one of two types: a scalar or a vector.

• Scalars are quantities that have only a magnitude (a number describing how big they are).
• Vectors have both magnitude and direction.
The cars in the above diagram have the same speed (a scalar quantity) but different velocities (a vector
quantity)
• Force is a vector quantity – it has both magnitude and direction.
The force is represented by the arrow. Its length gives the magnitude (size) of the force and the arrow
also shows its direction
• Some other common scalars and vectors are given below:

Question
Adding Vectors
• Vectors can be added together to produce a resultant vector. The rules for doing this, however,
are slightly different to scalars:
o If two vectors point in the same direction, the resultant vector will also have the same
directions and its value will be the result of adding the magnitudes of the two original
vectors together.
o If two vectors point in opposite directions then subtract the magnitude of one of the
vectors from the other one. The direction of the resultant will be the same as the larger of
the two original vectors
Diagram showing the result of adding two aligned vectors (forces) together
• If the two vectors point in completely different directions, then the value of the resultant vector
can be found graphically:
o Draw an arrow representing the first vector.
o Now starting at the head of the first arrow, draw a second arrow representing the second
vector.
o The resultant vector can be found by drawing an arrow going from the tail of the first
vector to the tip of the second vector.
Diagram showing an example of the “tip-to-tail” addition of two vectors

Question
The Moment of a Force
• A moment is the turning effect of a force.

• Moments occur when forces cause objects to rotate about some pivot.
• The size of the moment depends upon:
o The size of the force.
o The distance between the force and the pivot.
• The moment of a force is given by the equation:
Moment = Force × perpendicular distance from the pivot
• Moments have the units newton centimetres (N cm) or newton metres (N m), depending on
whether the distance is measured in metres or centimetres.
Diagram showing the moment of a force exerted by a spanner on a nut
• Some other examples involving moments include:

o Using a crowbar to prize open something.
o Turning a tap on or off.
o Opening or closing a door.

Question
The Principle of Moments
• The principle of moments states that:

o For a system to be balanced, the sum of clockwise moments must be equal to the sum of
anticlockwise moments.
Diagram showing the moments acting on a balanced beam
• In the above diagram:

o Force F 2 is supplying a clockwise moment;
o Forces F 1 and F 3 are supplying anticlockwise moments.
• Hence:
F2 × d2 = F1 × d1 + F3 × d3

Question
Example of The Principle of Moments
• The principle of moments doesn’t just apply to seesaws – it is important in many other situations
as well such as, for example, a shelf:
To prevent the shelf from collapsing, the support must provide an upward moment equal to the
downward moment of the vase

Conditions of Equilibrium
• The term “equilibrium” means that an object keeps doing what it’s doing, without any change.
• Therefore:
o If the object is moving it will continue to move (in a straight line).
o If it is stationary it will remain stationary.
o The object will also not start or stop turning.
• The above conditions require two things:
o The forces on the object must be balanced (there must be no resultant force).
o The sum of clockwise moments on the object must equal the sum of anticlockwise
moments (the principle of moments).
When the forces and moments on an object are balanced, the object will remain in equilibrium
• If the above two conditions are met, then the object will be in equilibrium.
Question

Demonstrating Equilibrium
• A simple experiment to demonstrate that there is no net moment on an object in equilibrium

involves taking an object, such as a beam, and replacing the supports with newton (force) meters:
Several forces act on a supported beam, including the mass of the beam and the mass of an object
suspended from it
• The beam in the above diagram is in equilibrium.

• The various forces acting on the beam can be found either by taking readings from the newton
meters or by measuring the masses (and hence calculating the weights) of the beam and the
mass suspended from the beam.
• The distance of each force from the end of the ruler can then be measured, allowing the moment
of each force about the end of the ruler to be calculated.
• It can then be shown that the sum of clockwise moments (due to forces F 2 and F 3 ) equal the sum
of anticlockwise moments (due to forces F 1 and F 4 ).
Centre of Mass
Finding the Centre of Mass
• The centre of mass of an object (sometimes called the centre of gravity) is the point through
which the weight of that object acts.
• For a symmetrical object of uniform density (such as a symmetrical cardboard shape) the centre
of mass is located at the point of symmetry:

The centre of mass of a regular shape can be found by symmetry
• When an object is suspended from a point, the object will always settle so that its centre of
mass comes to rest below the pivoting point.
• This can be used to find the centre of mass of an irregular shape:
Diagram showing an experiment to find the centre of mass of an irregular shape
o The irregular shape (a plane laminar) is suspended from a pivot and allowed to settle.
o A plumb line (lead weight) is then held next to the pivot and and a pencil is used to draw a
vertical line from the pivot (the centre of mass must be somewhere on this line).
o The process is then repeated, suspending the shape from two different points.
• The centre of mass is located at the point where all three lines cross.
Question

Stability
• An object is stable when its centre of mass lies above its base.
The object on the right will topple, as its centre of mass is no longer over its base
• If the centre of mass does not lie above its base, then an object will topple over.
• The most stable objects have a low centre of mass and a wide base.
The most stable objects have wide bases and low centres of mass

Question

Topic-3.5 Force-Momentum Page | 1
3.5 Force-Momentum
MOMENTUM DEFINED
• Momentum is defined by the equation:
(where p stands for momentum)
Momentum is defined as the product of mass and velocity
• The units of momentum are kg m/s (the units of mass multiplied by the units of velocity).
• Momentum is a vector quantity – it has direction as well as magnitude.
• This means that momentum can be negative as well as positive:

o If an object travelling to the right has positive momentum, an object travelling in the opposite
direction (to the left) will have negative momentum.
Question
THE CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
• In the absence of external forces (such as friction), the total momentum of a system remains the
same.

Topic-3.5 Force-Momentum Page | 2
• This means that in a collision, the sum of the momentums before the collision will be the same as the
sum of momentums after the collision.
Diagram showing the total momentum of a system before and after a collision
• In the above diagram the total momentum before and the total momentum after must be equal:
m×u = M×V – m×v
• Note that because the red ball is travelling to the left after the collision, its momentum will be
negative – hence the minus sign in the above equation.
Question
IMPULSE
• When a resultant (unbalanced) force acts on a mass, the momentum of that mass will change.
• The impulse of a force is equal to that force multiplied by the time for which it acts:
• The change in momentum of a mass is equal to the impulse provided by the force:
(Where: u is the initial velocity of the mass; v is the final velocity of the mass) 3.5
Force-Momentum- Mark Scheme

Topic-4. Energy Page | 1
4. Energy
The Conservation of Energy
• Energy is the capacity of something to do work:

o If something contains a store of energy it is able to do work.
o If something does not store energy then it will not work.
• The law of conservation of energy states that:

o Energy cannot be created or destroyed, it can only change from one form to another.
• What this means is that the total amount of energy in a closed system remains constant, although
how much of each form there is may change.
Some examples:
• A falling object (in a vacuum): Gravitational potential energy → Kinetic energy

• A gas cooker: Chemical → Internal (Heat)
• An LED (Light Emitting Diode): Electrical → Light
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY IN MULTIPLE STAGES
• Many processes involve several steps before energy ends up in its final form.
For example:
• A fossil fuel power station takes chemical energy (the fuel) and uses it to produce electrical
energy, but the individual steps are:
Chemical → Internal (heat) → Kinetic (steam) →
Kinetic (turbine and generator) → Electrical
TYPES OF ENERGY
• Energy can exist in a number of forms.

For your IGCSE examination you are expected to know about the following:

Question

ENERGY TRANSFER
In addition to the six forms of energy mentioned above, there are four ways in which energy can be
transferred from one form to another:
Question
ENERGY DISSIPATION
• When energy is transferred from one form to another, not all of the energy will end up in the desired
form (or place).
• This lost energy often ends up being dissipated (spreading out into the environment), usually in the form
of heat, light or sound.

Topic-KE & GPE Page | 4
KE & GPE
Gravitational Potential Energy
• The gravitational potential energy (GPE) of an object is the energy it has due to its height in a
gravitational field:
o If an object is lifted up it will gain GPE.
o If it falls, it will lose GPE.
Gravitational potential energy: the energy an object has when it is lifted up
• The GPE of an object is related to its mass (m), height (h) and the gravitational field strength (g):
• The gravitational field strength (g) on the Earth is approximately 10 N/kg.

(You will always be told this value in your examination paper.)
Kinetic Energy
• The kinetic energy (KE) of an object is the energy it has as a result of its speed.

Topic- Page | 5
Kinetic energy: The energy an object has when it is moving
• It is related to the mass (m) and speed (v) of the object by the equation:
(Note: In the above equation only the speed is squared – not the mass or the ½)
Question

Topic-Energy Resources Page | 6
Energy Resources
Descriptions & Forms
• Energy resources are large banks of energy that can be transferred into a form that can be used
by society, such as electrical energy.
• The table below gives a brief description of the main energy resources, along with the form of
energy contained in that resource:
Question

ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES
• All energy resources have advantages and disadvantages associated with them:
• Some points to note:

o A renewable energy resource is one that is replenished at a faster rate than the rate at
which it is being used.
As a result of this, renewable energy resources cannot run out.
o A reliable energy resource is one that can produce energy at any time.
Non-reliable resources can only produce energy some of the time (e.g. when it’s windy).

Question
THE SUN
• Most of our energy resources on the Earth come from the Sun:
o The Sun heats up the atmosphere, creating wind and producing waves.
o Water evaporated by the Sun falls as rain, filling up reservoirs.
o Plants grown using sunlight form the basis for fuels – both biofuels and fossil fuels.
• The Sun’s energy is produced by through the process of nuclear fusion in its core.
o Nuclear fusion involves the collision (and bonding) of hydrogen nuclei to form helium
nuclei, releasing nuclear energy in the process.
• Some forms of energy, however, do not come from the Sun.

These include:
o Geothermal – this comes from heat produced in the Earth’s core.
o Nuclear – this comes from elements which make up a small proportion of the Earth’s
crust.
o Tidal – this comes (mainly) from the gravitational attraction of the moon.
Question

Topic-Efficiency Page | 9
Efficiency
Efficient & Inefficient Systems
• Whenever energy is transferred from one form to another, some of that energy is usually
wasted and is transferred away from the system usually in the form of heat or waves (light and
sound).
Whenever energy is transformed, some of the original energy usually ends up in an unwanted (wasted)
form
• An efficient system is one where most of the energy going into that system ends up in the form
that is wanted.
E.g. An LED light bulb is efficient because most of the electrical energy (90%) ends up as light.
• An inefficient system is one where most of the energy ends up in forms that weren’t wanted.
E.g. An old incandescent light bulb is inefficient because only a small amount of the electrical
energy (5%) ends up as light.
Question

Topic-Work Page | 10
Calculating Efficiency
• The efficiency of a system is the percentage of energy transferred from the original store that
ends up in the intended form.
• Efficiency can be calculated using the following equation:
• Efficiency can also be written in terms of power (the energy per second):
Work
Work Done
• Energy is the capacity of something to do work.

• Work is done whenever a force acts on an object that moves (or is moving) in the direction of
the force.
o The greater the force, the greater the work
o The larger the distance moved, the larger the work.
Work is done when a force is used to move an object a distance
• Whenever any work is done, energy gets transferred (mechanically) from one form to another.
• The amount of energy transferred (in joules) is equal to the work done (also in joules).
energy transferred (J) = work done (J)
• Usually, if a force acts in the direction that an object is moving then the object will gain energy.
• If the force acts in the opposite direction to the movement then the object will lose energy.

Topic-Work Page | 11
Question
Calculating Work Done
• The amount of work that is done if related to the size of the force, and the distance moved by the
object, in the direction of the force:
• The units of work are joules (J) (the same as the units of energy), but can also be given as newton
metres (Nm).

Topic-Power Page | 12
Power
Power, Work Done & Time Taken
• Machines, such as car engines, transfer energy from one form to another every second.
• The power of a machine is the rate at which the machine transfers energy.
o The greater the rate at which energy is transferred, the greater the power.
Two identical cars accelerating to the same final speed will both gain the same amount of energy. But
if one of them reaches that speed sooner, it will have a greater power
• Because work done is equal to energy transferred, power is also equal to the rate at which work is
done.
Question

Topic-Power Page | 13
Calculating Power
• Power is the amount of energy transferred (or work done) every second.
• Power, work and time are related by the following equation:
• The unit of power is the watt (W), which is the same as a joule per second (J/s).

Topic-5. Pressure Page | 1
5. Pressure
PRESSURE, FORCE & AREA
Pressure is the concentration of a force:
o If a force is spread over a large area it will result in a small pressure.

o If it is spread over a small area it will result in a large pressure.
When you push a drawing pin, it goes into the surface (rather than your finger) because the force on
the surface is more concentrated
• Pressure is related to force and area by the equation:

The units of pressure depend on the units of area:
o If the area is measured in cm2 (and the force in N), then the pressure will be in N/cm2.
o If the area is measured in m2 (and the force in N), then the pressure will be in N/m2.
Pressure can also be measured in pascals, Pa.
o 1 Pa is the same as 1 N/m2

•
•
• Applications of High Pressure
• The examples of application of high pressure are:
•
• Applications Of Low Pressure
• The examples of application of low pressure are

Question
Example 1:
A force F is acting on a surface of area 20cm², produces a pressure 2500Pa on the surface. Find the
magnitude of the force.
Example 2:
A block of wood 3 m long, 5 m wide and 1 m thick is placed on a table. If the density of the wood is 900
kgm-3, find
a. the lowest pressure

b. the highest pressure
on the table due to the block.

Pressure in Liquids
• When an object is immersed in a liquid, the liquid will exert a pressure, squeezing the object.
• This pressure is exerted evenly across the whole surface of the liquid, and in all directions.
Pressure, at a point in a liquid, acts equally in all directions
• The pressure in the liquid depends upon a couple of factors:

o The depth of the liquid
o The density of the liquid
• The bigger either of these factors, the greater the pressure.
Pressure in Liquids
• The size of this pressure depends upon the density (ρ) of the liquid, the depth (h) of the object
and the gravitational field strength (g):
• In the above equation:

o Pressure is in pascals (Pa) – where 1 Pa if the same as 1 N/m2.
o Depth is in metres (m)
o Density is in kg/m3.
• The gravitational field strength on Earth is approximately 10 N/kg.
(You will always be given this figure).

BAROMETERS & MANOMETERS
• Barometers and Manometers are devices that measure pressure:

o A barometer is a device that is used to measure air pressure.
o A manometer is used to measure other pressures.
• A simple barometer consists of a column of mercury in an inverted tube, sat in a tray of mercury
exposed to the atmosphere.
A simple mercury barometer, used to measure atmospheric pressure
• The weight of the mercury in the tube is balanced by atmospheric

pressure pushing down on the mercury in the tray.
o If atmospheric pressure increases, a greater length of
mercury can be supported in the tube.
o If atmospheric pressure decreases then less mercury will be
supported in the tube.
• A simple manometer consists of a U-tube containing mercury.
A simple manometer, consisting of mercury in a U-tube
• One end of the U-tube is open to the atmosphere.

• The other end is connected to the pressure that is to be
measured.
• As the measured pressure increases, the mercury is pushed
around the U-tube:
The greater the pressure, the further it is pushed.
Question

Example 1:
The diagram shows 2 fishes in water. The density of the water is 1025
kg/m³. The surface area of fish A is 300 cm² and the surface area of fish B
is 2000cm². Find
a. the pressure exerted by the water on fish A.
b. the pressure exerted by the water on fish B.
c. the force exerted by the water on fish A.
d. the force exerted by the water on fish B.


Topic-6. States of Matter Page | 1
6. States of Matter
Revision notes on the topic 'States of Matter' for CIE IGCSE (0972 / 0625) Physics
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Solids, Liquids & Gases
• Matter can exist in one of three different states:
Diagram showing the three states of matter in terms of shape and volume
• Solids
o Solids have a definite shape (they are rigid).
o Solids have a definite volume.
•
o
• Liquids
o Liquids have no definite shape – they are able to flow, and will take the shape of a container.
o Liquids have a definite volume.
•
o
• Gases
o Gases have no definite shape – they will take the shape of their container.
o Gases have no fixed volume – if placed in an evacuated container they will expand to fill the
container. They are also highly compressible.
Molecular Model
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Arrangement & Motion of Molecules

Topic-Molecular Model Page | 2
Diagram showing the arrangement and motion of different states of matter
• In a solid:
o The molecules are very close together and arranged in a regular pattern.
o The molecules vibrate about fixed positions.
• In a liquid:
o The molecules are still close together (no gaps) but are no longer arranged in a regular pattern.
o The molecules are able to slide past each other.
• In a gas:
o The molecules are widely separated – about 10 times further apart in each direction.
o The molecules move about randomly at high speeds.
Extended Only
The Forces & Distances between Molecules
• In a solid:
•
o The molecules are held in place by strong intermolecular bonds.
o These bonds prevent the molecules from moving, giving the solid its rigid shape and fixed
volume.
• In a liquid:
o The molecules have enough energy that they are able to break the bonds between them.
o The bonds are still there, but they no longer hold the molecules in place.
o As a result, the molecules can move around (by sliding past each other) allowing the liquid to
flow.
• In a gas:
o The molecules are now moving around randomly at high speeds.
o The molecules have broken the bonds between them: They are widely separated with no long-
range forces binding them together.
o As a result the molecules are able to move freely and so the gas can flow freely.
o Because of the large spaces between the molecules (along with the absence of long-range
forces) the gas can easily be compressed and is also able to expand.

Topic-Kinetic Theory Page | 3
Question
Answer
Kinetic Theory
Revision notes on the topic 'Kinetic Theory' for CIE IGCSE (0972 / 0625) Physics
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Arrangement & Motion of Molecules

• The molecules in a gas move around randomly at high speeds.
• The temperature of a gas is related to the average speed of the molecules:
The hotter the gas, the faster the molecules move.
Gas molecules move about randomly at high speeds
• As the molecules move around, they collide with the surface of nearby walls.
• Each collision applies a force across the surface area of the walls.
• Pressure is the force per unit area:

and hence a pressure will be exerted on those walls.
Extended Only
Molecule Momentum
• When molecules collide against a wall, they bounce off, changing their momentum.
When molecules (in a gas) collide against a wall, they undergo a change in momentum
• There are many such collisions every second, resulting in a large change in momentum each second.
• This change in momentum each second results in a force being exerted against the wall:
• The pressure exerted by the gas is equal to this force divided by the area of the wall.
Brownian Motion
• When small particles (such as pollen or smoke particles) are suspended in a liquid or gas, the particles
can be observed through a microscope moving around in a random, erratic fashion.

Brownian Motion: The erratic motion of small particles when observed through a microscope
• This movement is called Brownian Motion.

• This motion is caused by molecules in the gas (or liquid) colliding at high speeds with the small
particles.
Gas molecules, moving at high speeds, collide with larger particles, giving them a little nudge
• These collisions give the particles a little nudge, causing them to change their speed and directions
randomly, each time they are struck by a molecule.
• This effect provides important evidence concerning the behaviour of molecules in gases.
Extended Only
Massive Particles Moved by Small Molecules

Topic-Evaporation Page | 6
• The small particles observed in Brownian motion are significantly bigger than the molecules that
cause the motion.
• The molecules are able to affect the particles in this way because they are travelling at very high
speeds (much higher than the particles) and so have a lot of momentum, which they transfer to the
particles when they collide.
Question
Answer
Evaporation
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Cooling by Evaporation
• Evaporation is a change in state of a liquid to a gas that can happen at any temperature from the
surface of a liquid.
• The molecules in a liquid have a range of different energies:

Some have lots of energy, others have very little.
• Evaporation occurs when more energetic molecules near the surface of the liquid have enough energy
to escape.

Topic-Evaporation Page | 7
Evaporation occurs when more energetic molecules near the surface of a liquid escape
• When this happens energy is lost from the liquid:

o The average energy of the remaining molecules decreases.
o This means that the temperature of the remaining liquid will also decrease.
Question
Answer
Extended Only
Factors Affecting Evaporation
• A number of factors affect the rate of evaporation:
o The temperature of the liquid – At higher temperatures, more molecules have enough energy
to escape.

Topic-Pressure Changes Page | 8
o The surface area of the liquid – If the liquid has a greater surface area there will be more area
from which the molecules can escape.
o The movement of air across the surface of the liquid – The presence of a draft can help to
remove less energetic molecules (which might not have quite enough energy to escape) from
the liquid.
• The process of evaporation can be used to cool things down:

o If an object is in contact with an evaporating liquid, as the liquid cools the solid will cool as
well.
o This process is used in refrigerators and air conditioning units.
Question
Answer
Pressure Changes
Revision notes on the topic 'Pressure Changes' for CIE IGCSE (0972 / 0625) Physics
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Pressure & Temperature

• The molecules in a gas move around randomly at high speeds, colliding with surfaces and exerting
pressure upon them.

Gas molecules collide with surfaces, exerting pressure
• When the temperature of a gas is increased, the speeds of the molecules increases.
• This causes them to collide harder against surfaces, increasing the pressure.
• Increasing the temperature of a gas (whilst keeping its volume fixed) will increase the pressure.
Question
Answer
Pressure & Volume

• When a gas is compressed, the density of the gas increases.

When a gas is compressed it becomes more dense, increasing the pressure
• This means there will be more collisions against surfaces, which will also increase the pressure.
• Decreasing the volume of a gas (whilst keeping the temperature fixed) will increase the pressure.
Extended Only
Boyle’s Law
• If a gas has an original pressure, P 1 , and temperature, V 1 , then its final pressure and temperature
(P 2 and V 2 ) will be given by the relationship:
Note: The above equation only works if the temperature of the gas remains constant
Question

Topic- Page | 11
Answer

Topic-7. Thermal Energy Page | 1
7. Thermal Energy
What is Thermal Expansion?
• When (most) materials are heated, they expand.

• This expansion happens because the molecules start to move around (or vibrate) faster, which
causes them to knock into each other and push each other apart.
When a solid is heated, the molecules vibrate more, pushing each other apart
Note: When this happens, it is the space taken up by the molecules that increases. The molecules
themselves remain the same size.
Extended Only
Thermal Expansion in Solids, Liquids & Gases
• When solids, liquids and gases are heated:

Question
Answer
Applications & Consequences
• The thermal expansion of materials can have some useful applications, but also has some
undesirable consequences.
• Applications:
•
o The expansion of a liquid in a thermometer can be used to measure temperature.
o A bimetallic strip, consisting of two metals that expand at different rates, can be made to
bend at a given temperature, forming a temperature-activated switch.
The bimetallic strip will bend upwards when heated, closing the circuit
• Consequences:
o The expansion of solid materials can cause them to buckle if they get too hot.
o This could include:
 Metal railway tracks.
 Road surfaces.
 Bridges.
o Things that are prone to buckling in this way often have gaps built into them, providing
some room for them to expand into.
Question

Measuring Temperature
• When a substance is heated, some of its physical properties can change.

• These properties include things such as:
o The volume (and density) of the substance.
o The electrical resistance of the substance.
• If these properties change in a well-defined way, by measuring the property you can determine
the temperature.
• In order to build a thermometer based on one of these properties, you need to start by measuring
the property at some well-defined fixed points.
• A fixed point is a temperature at which some easily identifiable change occurs, such as the melting
of ice (at 0 °c) or the boiling of pure water (at 100 °c).
Ice melts and water boils at well-defined temperatures (fixed points) which may be used to calibrate
thermometers
• These fixed points allow you to know the temperature without having to measure it directly.
• Usually two fixed points are used:
o The lower fixed point: the melting temperature of ice.
o The upper fixed point: the boiling temperature of pure water.
• Once a property (such as electrical resistance) has been measured at these two fixed points, the
values of that property at other temperatures can be worked out.

Measuring some property at two fixed points allows you to then work out the temperature for other
values of that property
Sensitivity, Range & Linearity
• The above description has made a big assumption about the way in which the property changes
with temperature: That it does so at a steady rate.
• Properties that change in this way are said to be linear, and linearity is a very useful property for
something to have as it makes it easy to work out the relationship between that thing and the
temperature.
• Other important properties when designing a device such as a thermometer include:

o Sensitivity – if the thing you are measuring changes significantly when the temperature
changes, it makes it easier to detect small changes in temperature: Your thermometer is
more sensitive.
o Range – What are the lowest and highest temperatures the thermometer can measure? If
a liquid-thermometer is too short, there may not be enough room for the liquid to expand
into.
Question

Liquid Thermometers
• A liquid-in-glass thermometer consists of a thin glass capillary tube containing a liquid that
expands with temperature.
• At one end of the tube is a glass bulb, containing a larger volume of the liquid which expands
when heated, moving into the narrower tube.
• A scale along the side of the tube allows the temperature to be measured based on the length of
liquid within the tube.
As the bulb is heated, the liquid expands and moves along the capillary tube

The Sensitivity of Liquid Thermometers
• The liquids used in liquid-in-glass thermometers are chosen for their thermal expansion
properties:
o They expand linearly with temperature.
o They expand significantly, giving them greater sensitivity.
o They have low freezing points and high boiling points, allowing them to be used over a
greater range of temperatures.
• The use of a large glass bulb coupled to a very narrow tube also results in greater sensitivity, as a
small change in volume results in the liquid moving a significant distance along the tube.
Thermocouples
• A thermocouple consists of two different types of wire attached together.

• When the joint between the two wires is heated, a potential difference (voltage) is created
between the two wires.
• The greater the temperature, the greater the potential difference.
A thermocouple consists of two dissimilar wires connected together
• Thermocouples are not as sensitive as liquid-in-glass thermometers, but because the metals have
high melting points, they can be used to measure very high temperatures.
• Thermocouples are also very responsive to rapidly changing temperatures.

Question
Temperature & Heat

Internal Energy
• When a substance is heated, its internal energy (sometimes referred to as thermal energy or
heat) increases.
• As a substance’s internal energy increases, so will its temperature.
The higher the temperature of a substance, the more internal energy it possesses.
As the temperature of a substance is increased, the total energy of the molecules (the internal energy)
increases
Internal Energy & Molecules
• The molecules within a substance possess two forms of energy:

o Kinetic energy (due to their random motion/vibration).
o Potential energy (due to the bonds between the molecules).
• Together, these two forms of energy make up the internal (thermal) energy of the substance.
• When a substance is heated, that heat will usually cause the kinetic energy of the molecules to
increase.
The temperature of the material is related to the average kinetic energy of the molecules.
Question

Thermal Capacity
What is Thermal Capacity?
• The thermal capacity of an object is the amount of heat energy required to raise the
temperature of that object by 1 °c.
• The greater the thermal capacity of an object, the more heat energy it takes to raise its
temperature.
• The thermal capacity is also equal to the amount of heat energy an object will give out when it
cools by 1 °c.
• The energy, E, required to raise the temperature of an object by an amount T is given by the
equation:
E = thermal capacity × T
Thermal Capacity & Specific Heat Capacity
• The thermal capacity of an object is related to the specific heat capacity by the equation:
(where c is the specific heat capacity of the material the object is made from, and m is the object’s mass.)
Question

Specific Heat Capacity

What is Specific Heat Capacity?
• The specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of thermal energy required to raise the
temperature of 1kg of that substance by 1 °C.
• Specific heat capacity has units of joules per kilogram per degree Celsius (J/kg °C).
(Note: Different substances have different specific heat capacities)
• From the definition of specific heat capacity, it follows that if you have more than 1 kg of a
material, you will need more thermal energy.
Likewise, if you want to raise its temperature by more than 1 °C, you will also need to add more
thermal energy.
• The amount of thermal energy needed is given by the equation:
• Note that in the above equation:

o ΔE is used to mean the change in internal energy
o C is used to mean the specific heat capacity of the substance
o ΔT is used to mean the change in temperature.
(The symbol Δ in maths is used to denote a change in value.)
Question

Measuring Specific Heat Capacity
• In your IGCSE examination you may be asked to describe an experiment to determine the specific
heat capacity of a substance.
A method for carrying out such an experiment is given below.
• In this experiment you need to use the following equation to determine the specific heat capacity
of the substance:
• The following apparatus will be needed:

o A block of the substance (preferably 1kg in mass) or in the case of a fluid, a beaker
containing a known mass of the fluid.
o A thermometer.
o An appropriate heater (e.g. an immersion heater).
o A power source.
o A joule meter or a voltmeter, ammeter and stopclock (I will assume we have the latter).
Apparatus to determine the specific heat capacity of a 1kg aluminium block
• Start by assembling the apparatus and measure the initial temperature of the substance.

• Turn on the power supply and start the stop-clock.

• Whilst the power supply is on take several periodic measurements of the voltage and current, and
calculate an average of these values.
• After 5 minutes (300 seconds) switch off the power supply, stop the stop-clock and leave the
apparatus for a few more minutes.
• Monitor the thermometer and make a note of the highest temperature reached.
• Calculate the rise in temperature.
• The heat supplied to the substance can be calculated using the equation:
energy = current × voltage × time

(Note: The time must be in seconds)
• These values, along with the mass of the substance, can now be substituted into the top equation
to find the specific heat capacity of the substance.
• The biggest problem with the above experiment is that not all of the heat supplied by the heater
will go into the substance – some will go into the surroundings and the substance will also lose
heat whilst it is being heated.
• This means that the value for the heat added will be too great which means that the calculated
specific heat capacity will also be too great.
Question
Melting & Boiling

Changing State
• A change of state refers to a substance changing its state between solid, liquid or gas.

The various changes of state between solids, liquids and gases
• Usually, when a substance is heated its temperature increases.

• However, whilst a substance changes its state (from solid to liquid or from liquid to gas) the
temperature of that material remains constant, even though energy is still being added.

When a substance changes state, its temperature remains constant, even though it is still gaining (or
losing) internal energy
• This happens because the energy is being used to break the bonds between the molecules instead
of increasing the kinetic energy of the molecules (and hence the temperature).
• When a substance turns from gas to liquid (condensation) or from liquid to solid (solidification)
the opposite happens:
o The temperature remains constant whilst the bonds reform (giving out energy in the
process).
• The melting point and boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which that substance
changes state.
Question
Answer

Boiling vs Evaporation
• Boiling and Evaporation both refer to a change in state from liquid to gas, however:
o Boiling occurs at a fixed temperature and happens throughout the liquid.
o Evaporation can occur at any temperature and happens from the surface of the liquid.
Evaporation occurs when higher energy molecules near the surface of a liquid escape and become a
gas. This can occur at any temperature
Latent Heat
• Latent Heat is the energy required to change the state of a substance.

• This energy is required to break the bonds holding molecules together
(It is also given out again once the bonds reform).
o Latent Heat of Fusion is the energy required to turn a solid into a liquid.
o Latent Heat of Vaporisation is the energy required to turn a liquid into a gas.
• The Specific Latent Heat, L, of a substance is the energy required to change the state of 1 kg of
that substance.
• For an object of mass m, the total energy required to change its state is given by the equation:
Energy = m × L
Question

Measuring Specific Latent Heat
• In your IGCSE examination you may be asked to describe an experiment to determine the specific
latent heats for steam or ice.
A method for determining the specific latent heat for steam is given below.
• In this experiment you need to use the following equation:
• The following apparatus will be needed:

o A vacuum flask containing pure water
o A top pan balance
o An appropriate heater (e.g. an immersion heater).
o A power source.
o A joule meter or a voltmeter, ammeter and stop-clock (I will assume we have the latter).

Topic- Page | 16
Image showing apparatus to measure the specific latent heat for steam
• Start by measuring (and recording) the mass of the vacuum flask along with the water.
• Next place the heater into the water and connect it to the power supply.
• Turn on the power supply and wait until the water starts to boil.
• Once the water is boiling start the stop-clock and take several measurements of the potential
difference (on the voltmeter) and current (on the ammeter), and calculate an average of these
values.
• After 5 minutes (300 seconds) switch off the power supply and stop the stop-clock.
• Now measure the mass of the vacuum flask and water once more, and calculate how much the
mass has decreased by. This will give the mass of water that has changed state (which you will use
in determining your result).
• The heat supplied to the material can be calculated using the equation:
energy = current × voltage × time
• These values, along with the change in mass, can now be substituted into the top equation to find
the specific latent heat for steam.
• A similar experiment can be carried out for ice (in a beaker this time), but the ice must be
measured separately from the beaker otherwise you’ll be measuring the mass of the water as
well.
• It is also important to ensure that the temperature of the ice is 0 °c at the start of the
experiment. This will be the case if the ice has started to melt.

Topic-8. Waves Page | 1
8. Waves
Waves: Basics
• Waves transfer energy between points, without transferring matter:

o When a wave travels between two points, no matter actually travels with it: the points on
the wave simply vibrate back and forth about fixed positions.
• The wavelength of a wave is the distance from a point on one wave to the same point on the next
wave. Usually this is measured from the top of one wave to the top of the next wave.
Wavelength is usually measured in metres (a distance).
• The amplitude of a wave is its height, measured from the middle of the wave to its top (or from
the middle to its bottom).
Diagram showing the amplitude and wavelength of a transverse wave
• Wavefronts are a useful way of picturing waves from above: Each wavefront is used to represent
a single wave.
Diagram showing a wave drawn as a series of wavefronts
• The frequency of a wave is the number of waves passing a point (or being created or received)
every second – it is helpful to think of it as being the waves per second.
The units of frequency are hertz (Hz).

Topic-8. Waves Page | 2
Longitudinal & Transverse Waves
• Waves can exist as one of two main types:

o Transverse
o Longitudinal
Transverse Waves
• For a transverse wave, the points along the wave vibrate at 90 degrees to the direction in which
the wave is moving (the direction of energy transfer).
With a transverse wave, the vibrations are at 90 degrees to the direction of energy transfer
Longitudinal Waves
• For a longitudinal wave, the points along the wave vibrate in the same direction that the wave is
moving in.
With a longitudinal wave, the vibrations are parallel to the direction of energy transfer

Topic- Page | 3
The Wave Equation
• The speed of a wave (v) is related to the frequency (f) and wavelength (λ) by the equation:
wave speed = frequency × wavelength

v = f×λ

Topic-Reflection of Light Page | 1
Reflection of Light
Incidence & Reflection
• Light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum – a family of transverse waves.

• As with all wave, when light reflects:
angle of incidence, i = angle of reflection, r
Mirrors
• When an object is placed in front of a mirror, an image of that object can be seen in the mirror.
• The image:
o Is the same size as the object
o Is the same distance behind the mirror as the object is in front of it.
o Is directly in line with the object.
Virtual Image & Ray Diagram
• The formation of this image can be understood by drawing a ray diagram.
Diagram showing the formation of an image in a mirror by the reflection of light

• Light from the object hits the mirror, and reflects from it.
(i=r)
• To an observer, the reflected ray appears to have come from the right-hand side of the mirror.
The reflected ray can be traced back in this direction, forming a virtual ray.
• This can be repeated for another ray travelling in a slightly different direction.
• An image of the object will appear where these two virtual rays cross.
• The type of image formed in the mirror is called a virtual image.

• A virtual image is formed by the divergence of rays from the image, and cannot be projected onto
a piece of paper (because the rays don’t actually go through the image).
Refraction of Light
• When light enters a glass block, it slows down, causing it to change direction.
• When it leaves the block it speeds up again, changing direction once more.
Diagram showing the refraction of light as it passes through a rectangular block
• As the light enters the block it bends towards the normal line.
(Remember: Enters Towards)
• When it leaves the block it bends away from the normal line.
(Remember: Leaves Away)

Investigating Refraction
• In your examination you might be asked to write a method explaining how you might investigate
the refraction of light through differently shaped blocks.
• As part of this method you should describe:
o What equipment you need
o How you will use the equipment
o How you will trace the rays of light before, while and after they pass through the block.
Diagram showing a ray box alongside three differently shaped glass blocks
Method:
1. Place the glass block on a sheet of paper, and carefully draw around the block using a pencil.
2. Take a ray box and carefully aim the box so that a single ray of light passes through the block.
3. Using a pencil, mark some points along the path of the ray:
a) Before it reaches the block;
b) Where it hits the block;
c) Where it leaves the block;
d) After it has left the block.
4. Now remove the block from the paper and, using a ruler and pencil, draw straight lines connecting
points: a and b; b and c; c and d. The resulting line will show the path of the ray.
5. Replace the block within its outline and repeat the above process for a ray striking the block at a
different angle.

Snell’s Law
When light enters a denser medium (such as glass) it slows down and bends towards the normal.
Diagram showing the angle of incidence, i, and the angle of refraction, r, of a ray of light entering a
glass block
• Snell’s law gives the relationship between the angle of incidence i, and the angle of refraction r:
Where n is the refractive index of the material
• The refractive index is related to the speed of light in the material (which is less than its speed in a
vacuum):
• The refractive index is a number that is always bigger than 1 and is different for different
materials (n is about 1.5 for glass).

Total Internal Reflection

How does Total Internal Reflection Occur?
• When light is moving from a denser medium towards a less dense one, most of the light is
refracted, but a small amount of it can be internally reflected.
• However, if the angle of the light is great enough then instead of being refracted, ALL of the light
is reflected.
• This is called total internal reflection and happens when the angle of the incident ray is greater
than the critical angle for that material.
Diagram showing refraction, the critical angle and total internal reflection
• Two conditions are necessary for total internal reflection to occur:

o The light must be going from a more dense medium towards a less dense one.
o The angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle.
Refractive Index & Critical Angle Equation
• The critical angle, c, of a material is related to its refractive index, n.
Optical Fibres
Total internal reflection is also used to reflect light along optical fibres, allowing the high-speed
transmission of data on the internet.
Light travelling down an optical fibre is reflected each time it hits the edge of the fibre
• Additionally, optical fibres can be used in medicine in order to see within the human body.

Topic-Thin Converging Lens Page | 6
Thin Converging Lens
• When parallel rays of light (travelling parallel to the principal axis) pass through a lens, they are
brought to a focus at a point known as the principal focus.
A converging lens brings parallel rays of light to a focus
• The distance of the principal focus from the lens is called the focal length, and depends on how
curved the lens is.
Forming a Real Image
• Lenses can be used to form images of objects placed in front of them.

• The location (and nature) of the image can be found by drawing a ray diagram:
Diagram showing the formation of a real image by a lens
1. Start by drawing a ray going from the top of the object through the centre of the lens. This ray will
continue to travel in a straight line.
2. Next, draw a ray going from the top of the object, travelling parallel to the axis to the lens. When
this ray emerges from the lens it will travel directly towards the principal focus.
3. The image is found at the point where the above two rays meet.

• The above diagram shows the image that is formed when the object is placed a distance between
one focal length (f) and two focal lengths (2f) from the lens.
• In this case, the image is:
o Real
o Enlarged
o Inverted
• The following diagram shows what happens when the object is more distance – further than twice
the focal length (2f) from the lens:
• In this case the image is:

o Real
o Diminished (smaller)
o Inverted
• If the object is placed at exactly twice the focal length (2f) from the lens:

o Real
o Same size as the object
o Inverted

Features of a Real Image
• A real image is one formed by the convergence of rays of light.

• A real image can be projected onto a screen
Magnifying Glasses
• If the object is placed closer to the lens than the focal length, the emerging rays diverge and a real
image is no longer formed.
• When viewed from the right-hand side of the lens, the emerging rays appear to come from a
point on the left. This point can be found by extending the rays backwards (creating virtual rays).
• A virtual image will be seen at the point where these virtual rays cross.
A virtual image is formed by the divergence of rays from a point

o Virtual
o Enlarged
o Upright
• Using a lens in this way allows it to be used as a magnifying glass.

• When using a magnifying glass, the lens should always be held close to the object.

Topic-Dispersion of Light Page | 9
Dispersion of Light
• When light enters a denser medium, such as glass, it slows down (refracts), which causes it to
bend.
• Different colours, however, slow down by different amounts, which causes them to bend by
different amounts.
• This effect is known as dispersion and can be used to separate white light into its individual
colours.
When white light is shone through a prism it is dispersed into its individual colours
• The seven colours of the spectrum are:
Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet
You can remember these colours either by remember the name:ROY G. BIV
(Richard Of York Gave Battle In Vain)
Light as a Wavelength
• Light is a transverse wave.

• The different colours of light all have different wavelengths (and frequencies).
o Red has the largest wavelength
o Violet has the shortest wavelength
• Light of a single wavelength (a single colour) is known as monochromatic.

Topic-The Electromagnetic Spectrum Page | 10
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
• Visible light is just one small part of a much bigger spectrum: the electromagnetic spectrum.
• The different parts of the spectrum have different names (and some different properties).
• These parts are shown in order below, going from the longest wavelength (and lowest frequency)
to the shortest wavelength (and highest frequency).
Visible light is just one small part of a much bigger spectrum: the electromagnetic spectrum
• All electromagnetic waves share several properties:

o They are all transverse.
o They can all travel through a vacuum
o They all travel at the same speed in a vacuum.
The Speed of Electromagnetic Waves
• The speed of light, in a vacuum, is approximately 3 x 108 m/s.

• The speed of light in air is approximately the same.

Topic-The Electromagnetic Spectrum Page | 11
Uses of Electromagnetic Waves
• Electromagnetic waves have a large number of uses. The main ones are summarised in the table
below:
• Radio waves and microwaves
o These two parts of the spectrum share a lot of similarities and uses. Their main uses
concern wireless communication – in fact many things that people often assume use radio
waves actually use microwaves (e.g. WiFi, radar, mobile phones, satellite
communications…)
o At very high intensity, microwaves can also be used to heat things: this is what happens in
a microwave oven.
• Infrared
o Infrared is emitted by warm objects and can be detected using special cameras (thermal
imaging cameras). These can be used in industry, in research and also in medicine.

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o Many security cameras are capable of seeing slightly into the infrared part of the spectrum
and this can be used to allow them to see in the dark: infrared lights are used to illuminate
an area without being seen, which is then detected using the camera.
o Remote controls also have small infrared LEDs that can send invisible signals to an infrared
receiver on a device such as a TV.
o Infrared travels down fibre optic cables more efficiently than visible light, and so
most fibre optic communication systems use infrared.
• Ultraviolet
o Ultraviolet is responsible for giving you a suntan, which is your body’s way of protecting
itself against the ultraviolet.
o When certain substances are exposed to ultraviolet, they absorb it and re-emit it as visible
light (making them glow). This process is known as fluorescence.
o Fluorescence can be used to secretly mark things using special ink – in fact most bank
notes have invisible fluorescent markings on them.
o Fluorescent light bulbs also use this principle to emit visible light.
• X-rays
o The most obvious use of x-rays is in medicine. X-rays are able to pass through most body
tissues, but are absorbed by the denser parts of the body, such as bones.
o When exposed to x-rays, bones create a shadow which can be seen using a special x-ray
detector or using photographic film.
• Gamma rays
o Gamma rays are very dangerous and can be used to kill cells and living tissue.
o If the gamma rays are carefully aimed at cancerous tissue they can be very effective at
killing it.
o Gamma rays can also be used to sterilise things by killing off the bacteria.
Dangers
Electromagnetic Waves can have some harmful side effects. In particular:
• Microwaves:
o High levels of microwaves can cause heating of internal organs. (Although there is no
evidence that the levels emitted by mobile phones or WiFi devices cause any harm).
• X-Rays
o X-rays, Gamma rays and (to a lesser extent) ultra-violet are all ionising. This means that
they can cause harm to living tissues: killing cells or possibly mutating them or causing
cancer.
o Whilst the levels used in most medical x-rays pose a minimum risk, hospitals are careful to
minimise the amount of x-ray exposure that individuals (including hospital staff) receive.

Topic-Sound & Ultrasound Page | 1
Sound & Ultrasound

Sound
• Sound waves consist of vibrating molecules. They are a type of longitudinal wave.
Sound waves are longitudinal: the molecules vibrate in the same direction as the energy transfer
• Sound waves require a medium to travel through.

If there are no molecules (e.g. in a vacuum) then the sound can’t travel.
• The Loudness of a sound is related to the wave’s amplitude.
(Greater amplitude = louder sound).
• The Pitch of a sound is related to the frequency.
(Greater frequency = higher pitch).
• As with all waves, sound waves can be reflected.
The reflection of a sound wave is called an echo.
Compression & Rarefaction
• Longitudinal waves consist of compressions and rarefactions:

o A compression is a place where the molecules are bunched together.
o A rarefaction is a place where the molecules are spread out.

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Ultrasound
• Humans can hear sounds between about 20 Hz and 20 000 Hz in frequency (although this range
decreases with age).
Humans can hear sounds between 20 and 20 000 Hz
• Ultrasound is the name given to sound waves with a frequency greater than 20 000 Hz.
Applications of Sound Wave

Sonar
Disintegration of Kidney Stone

High intensity ultrasound wave is used to break kidney stone in a patient's body.

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Ultrasound Scanning
1. Ultrasound is used for the scanning of fetus in the womb.
2. Ultrasound is used in ultrasonography for visualizing body structures including tendons, muscles,
joints, vessels and internal organs.
Cleaning
Jewelers use ultrasound to clean rings and watches.
The Speed of Sound

Experiments to Determine the Speed of Sound
• In your IGCSE examination you might be asked to describe a method of measuring the speed of
sound.
• When giving your method, try and include the following things:
1. List all of the apparatus that you will need
2. Choose a suitable (realistic) distance over which you will measure the sound.
3. Describe how you will measure this distance.
4. Explain how you will produce a loud enough sound.
5. Explain how you will time the sound (and how the timer will be started and stopped).
6. Explain how you will calculate the speed (give an equation).
7. State that you will then repeat the experiment several times and take an average.

Three methods for carrying out this experiment are given below:
Method 1
Measuring the speed of sound directly between two points
1. Two people stand a distance of around 100m apart.

2. The distance between them is measured using a trundle wheel.
3. One of the people has two wooden blocks, which he bangs together above his head.
4. The second person has a stopwatch which he starts when he sees the first person banging the
blocks together and stops when he hears the sound.
5. This is then repeated several times and an average value is taken for the time.
6. The speed of sound can then be calculated using the equation:
A trundle wheel can be used to measure large distances

Method 2
Measuring the speed of sound using echoes
1. A person stands about 50m away from a wall (or cliff). This distance is measured using a trundle
wheel.
2. The person claps two wooden blocks together and listens for the echo.
3. The person then starts to clap the blocks together repeatedly, in rhythm with the echoes.
4. A second person has a stopwatch and starts timing when he hears one of the claps and stops
timing 20 claps later.
5. The process is then repeated and an average time calculated.
6. The distance travelled by the sound between each clap and echo will be (2 x 50) m.
7. The total distance travelled by sound during the 20 claps will be (20 x 2 x 50) m.
8. The speed of sound can be calculated from this distance and the time using the equation:
Method 3
Measuring the speed of sound using an oscilloscope
1. Two microphones are connected to an oscilloscope and placed about 5 m apart.

(This distance can be measured using a tape measure).
2. The oscilloscope is set up so that it triggers when the first microphone detects a sound, and the
time base is adjusted so that the sound arriving at both microphones can be seen on the screen.

Topic- Page | 6
3. Two wooden blocks are used to make a large clap next to the first microphone.
4. The oscilloscope is then used to determine the time at which the clap reaches each microphone,
and the time difference between them.
5. This is repeated several times and an average time difference calculated.
6. The speed can then be calculated using the equation:
Speed of Sound by Medium
• Sound travels at different speeds in different mediums:

o It travels fastest in solids
o Slowest in gases.

Topic 10- Electricity - Electrons Page | 1
Electrons
Charge & Electrons
• Electrons are negatively charged particles.

• Usually the number of electrons around an atom is equal to the number of (positive) protons in
the nucleus of the atom, and hence the atom is neutral.
The number of negative electrons in an atom balances the number of positive protons
• If, however, an object gains extra electrons, it will gain an overall negative charge.
• If it loses some of its electrons it will be left with a positive charge.
o Negative charges are the result of gaining electrons.
o Positive charges are the result of losing electrons.
Conductors & Insulators
• A conductor is a material that allows charge to flow through it

• An insulator is a material that does not allow the flow of charge through it.
• The table below lists some common conductors and insulators:

Topic 10- Electricity - Electric Fields Page | 2
Electrons & Conduction
• The properties of conductors and insulators come from electrons within a material:
o In conductors the electrons are free to move around, allowing a flow of charge.
o In insulators the electrons are bonded to atoms and cannot move around.
Diagram showing the structure of metals. The delocalised electrons are free to move around the metal
allowing it to conduct electricity
Electric Fields
Simple Field Patterns
• Electric charges create electric fields in the regions surrounding them
(Similar to the way in which magnets create magnetic fields).
• The electric field is the region in which another charge will experience a force.
• Fields lines always go away from positive charges and towards negative charges.
They have the same direction as the direction of the force on a positively charged particle at a
point in that field.
Some simple field patterns that you ought to know:
Electric fields are always directed away from positive charges and towards negative charges

Topic 10- Electricity - Electric Charge Page | 3
The electric field between two parallel plates

The electric field between two opposite
charges
Electric Charge
Positive & Negative Charges
• Objects can be given one of two types of electric charge:

o Positive
o Negative
• When two charged objects are brought close together, there will be a force between those
objects.
Like charges repel; opposite charges attract
Measuring Charge
• Electric charge is measured in units called coulombs (C).
Demonstrating Electric Charge

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Charging by Induction
• When a charged object is held close to a conductor, electrons in the conductor are able to move
towards (or away from) the charged object:
Negative electrons in the aluminium are attracted to the positive rod
• In the diagram above, electrons in the aluminium foil are attracted to the positively charged rod.
• This causes the top of the foil to become negatively charged, whilst the bottom edge of it will be
left with a positive charge.
• The attraction between the positive rod and the negative charges on the top surface of the foil
will cause the foil to be attracted to the rod.

Topic 10- Electricity - Page | 5
Uses of static charge

Topic 10- Electricity - Current Page | 6
Current
Electric Current
• When two oppositely charged conductors are connected together (by a length of wire), charge
will flow between the two conductors.
Charge can flow between two conductors
• This flow of charge is called an electric current.

o The greater the flow of charge, the greater the electric current.
Charge, Current & Time
• The current is the charge passing a point in a circuit every second.

(It is helpful to think of current as the charge per second).
• Charge, current and time are related by the following equation:
Charge = Current × time

Q = I × t
Where Q stands for charge (measured in coulombs, C) and I stands for current (measured in amps, A)

Topic 10- Electricity - Current Page | 7
Measuring Current
• Current is measured using an ammeter.

• Ammeters should always be connected in series with the part of the circuit you wish to measure
the current through.
An ammeter can be used to measure the current around a circuit
Current & Electrons
• In a metal, current is caused by a flow of electrons.
In metals, the current is caused by a flow of free (delocalised) electrons
Electrons & Conventional Current

• Electrons are negatively charged.
• This means that the electrons flow from negative to positive.
• Conventional current, however, is still defined as going from positive to negative.
By definition, conventional current always goes from positive to negative (even though electrons go the
other way)

Topic 10- Electricity - Electromotive Force Page | 8
Electromotive Force
• The Electromotive Force (EMF) is the name given to the Potential Difference (Voltage) of the
power source in a circuit.
• The Electromotive Force (EMF) is measured in Volts (V).
The EMF is the voltage supplied by a power supply: 12 V in the above case
EMF & Energy
• The EMF of a power supply (measured in volts, V) is the amount of energy (measured in joules, J)
supplied to each coulomb of charge passing through that power supply.
Potential Difference
What is Electromotive Force?
• As charge flows around a circuit, energy is transferred to or from the charge.

• The potential difference (voltage) between two points in a circuit is related to the amount of
energy transferred between those points in the circuit.
• Potential different is measured in volts (V).
The potential difference is the voltage across each component: 5 volts for the bulb (on the left) and 7
volts for the resistor (on the right)

Topic 10- Electricity - Potential Difference & Energy Page | 9
Potential Difference & Energy

• The potential difference between two points in a circuit is the amount of energy transferred by
each unit of charge passing between those two points.
• The unit of voltage, the volt (V), is the same as a joule per coulomb (J/C).
1 V = 1 J/C
• So, for example:

o If a bulb has a voltage of 3 V, every coulomb of charge passing through the bulb will lose 3
J of energy.
Measuring Potential Difference
• Potential difference can be measured using a voltmeter.

• The voltmeter should be connected in parallel with the part of the circuits you want to measure
the potential difference of.
Potential difference can be measured by connecting a voltmeter between two points in a circuit

Topic 10- Electricity - Resistance Page | 10
Resistance
What is Resistance?
• Resistance is the opposition to current.

o For a given potential difference:
The higher the resistance, the lower the current.
• Potential difference, current and resistance are related by the following equation:
potential difference = current × resistance

V = I × R
• The unit of resistance is the ohm (Ω).
Determining Resistance
• To find the resistance of a component, set up a circuit like the one shown below.
A circuit to determine the resistance of a component

Topic 10- Electricity - The Resistance of a Wire Page | 11
• The power supply should be set to a low EMF (voltage) to avoid heating the component – 1 or 2
volts is typically enough.
• Measurements of the potential difference and current should then be taken from the voltmeter
and ammeter respectively.
• Finally, these readings should be substituted into the following equation:
The Resistance of a Wire
• As electrons pass through a wire, they collide with the metal ions in the wire.
Electrons collide with ions, which resist their flow
• The ions get in the way of the electrons, resisting their flow.
• If the wire is longer, each electron will collide with more ions and so there will be more resistance:
The longer a wire, the greater its resistance.
• If the wire is thicker (greater diameter), there is more space for the electrons and so more
electrons can flow:
The thicker a wire, the smaller its resistance.
Resistance of a Wire


Topic 10- Electricity - I-V Graphs Page | 13
I-V Graphs
Current & Potential Difference
• As the potential difference (voltage) across a component is increased, the current in the
component also increases.
• The precise relationship between voltage and current can be different for different types of
components, which is shown by an IV graph:
IV graphs for a resistor and a filament lamp

• The IV graph for a resistor is very simple:

The current is proportional to the potential difference.
• This is because the resistor has a constant resistance.
• For a lamp the relationship is more complicated:
The current increases at a proportionally slower rate than the potential difference.
• This is because:
o The current causes the filament in the lamp to heat up
o As the filament gets hot its resistance increases.
o This opposes the current, causing it to increase at a slower rate.
Electrical Power
• Power is the rate of energy transfer (the amount of energy transferred per second).
• The power of an electrical component (or appliance) is given by the equation:
Power = Current × potential difference

P = I×V
• The unit of power is the watt (W), which is the same as a joule per second (J/s)
• Note that the above equation is related to the equation for energy – after all, power is just energy
per second, and so:

Topic 10- Electricity - Electrical Energy Page | 15
Electrical Energy
• As electricity passes around a circuit, energy is transferred from the power source to the various
components (which may then transfer energy to the surroundings).
o As charge passes through the power supply, it is given energy.
o As it passes through each component, it loses some energy (in transferring that energy to
the component).
The current transfers electrical energy from the power source and to the components
Calculating Electrical Energy
• The amount of electrical energy used by a component or appliance depends upon three things:
o The current
o The potential difference
o The amount of time the device is used for.
• The energy transferred can be calculated from the equation:
energy transferred = current × potential difference × time

E = I×V×t
Where the unit of energy is the joule (J)

Topic 10- Electricity - Circuit Diagrams Page | 16
Circuit Diagrams
Standard Symbols
• The diagram below shows the various circuit symbols that could be used in circuit diagrams. You
will be expected to know what each one is.
You are expected to be able to recognise and draw the above symbols
Diodes
• In addition to the above, you should be able to recognise and draw the circuit symbol for a diode:
A diode is a component that only allows a current in one direction
(Note: Diodes are occasionally drawn without the horizontal line running through the middle of them)

Topic 10- Electricity - Series & Parallel Circuits Page | 17
Series & Parallel Circuits

Series Circuits
• A series circuit consists of a string of two or more components, connected end to end:
Diagram showing two bulbs connected in series
• In a series circuit the current is the same at all points.
The current is the same at all points in a series circuit
Potential Difference in Series
• When several cells are connected together in series, their combined EMF is equal to the sum of
their individual EMFs.
The total EMF of these cells is equal to the sum of their individual EMFs
• In a series circuit, the sum of potential differences across the components is equal to the total
EMF of the power supply.

Topic 10- Electricity - Series & Parallel Circuits Page | 18
In a series circuit the components share the EMF of the power supply
Parallel Circuits
• A parallel circuit consists of two or more components attached along separate branches of the
circuit.
Diagram showing two bulbs connected in parallel
• The advantages of this kind of circuit are:

o The components can be individually controlled, using their own switches.
o If one component stops working the others will continue to function.
• In a parallel circuit the current splits up – some of it going one way and the rest going the other.
• This means that the current in each branch will be smaller than the current from the power
supply.

Determining Current in Parallel
• Because the current splits up, the sum of currents in each branch will equal the current from the
power supply.
In a parallel circuit the current splits up, dividing between the various branches of the circuit
• Note that the current does not always split equally – often there will be more current in some
branches than in others.
• The current in each branch will only be identical if the components along each branch are
identical (or at least have the same resistance).

Topic 10- Electricity - Resistors in Series & Parallel Page | 20
Resistors in Series & Parallel

Resistors in Series
• When two or more components are connected in series:

o The combined resistance of the components is equal to the sum of individual
resistances.
When several components are connected in series, their combined resistance is equal to the sum of
their individual resistances
Resistors in Parallel
• When resistors are connected in parallel, the combined resistance decreases and are less than the
resistance of any of the individual components.
• If two resistors of equal resistance are connected in parallel, then the combined resistance will
halve.
Determining Resistance in Parallel

• More generally, to determine the combined resistance of any combination of two resistors, you
must use the equation:
Note: The above equation is not the same as R = R 1 + R 2 – a common (but incorrect) simplification that
people make

Topic 10- Electricity - Use of Circuit Components Page | 21
Use of Circuit Components

Potentiometers
• When two resistors are connected in series, the potential difference across the power source is
shared between them.
A potential divider splits the potential difference of a power source between two components
• The potential difference across each resistor depends upon its resistance:
o The resistor with the largest resistance will have a greater potential difference than the
other one.
o If the resistance of one of the resistors is increased, it will get a greater share of the
potential difference, whilst the other resistor will get a smaller share.
• A potentiometer is a single component that (in its simplest form) consists of a coil of wire with a
sliding contact, midway along it.
A potentiometer is a kind of variable resistor
Moving the slider (the arrow in the diagram)

changes the resistances (and hence potential differences) of
the upper and lower parts of the potentiometer

• Relay
• A relay consists of two parts:

o A coil (an electromagnet)
o A magnetic switch
When there is a current in the coil, it attracts the switch which completed the right-hand part of the
circuit
• When there is a current in the coil, it creates a magnetic field which attracts the switch, closing it.
• This can be used to control a switch in a separate circuit, as shown in the above diagram.
Thermistors & LDRs
• A thermistor is a type of resistor (a thermal resistor) which changes its resistance when it is
heated up:
o As a thermistor gets hotter, its resistance decreases.
o As it gets colder, its resistance increases.
A Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
• An LDR (Light Dependent Resistor) is a type of resistor which changes its resistance when light is
shone on it:
o When more light is shone on an LDR its resistance decreases.
o If an LDR is covered up (reducing the light hitting it) its resistance increases.
• Note: The symbol for an LDR is often drawn with a circle going around it.

Sensing Circuits
• Thermistors (or LDRs) may be used to create heat (or light) sensitive circuits, which perform
certain actions when temperature (or light) reaches a certain level.
The above circuit can be used to turn on a light when it gets dark
• In the above circuit an LDR is used, along with a relay, to control a bulb.
o When it gets darker, the resistance of the LDR increases.
o This causes the potential difference across the LDR to increase.
o When this potential difference increases the current in the coil (part of the relay) will
increase.
o When the current gets large enough the coil will attract the switch, closing it and allowing
a current to pass through the right-hand side of the circuit.
• Temperature controlled circuits may be created by replacing the LDR with a thermistor, and
replacing the LDR with a suitable component such as a buzzer or heater.

Diodes
A diode is a component which only allows a current when the potential difference is in the direction of
the arrow
• A diode is a component which only allows charge to flow in one direction through it.
• If a power source is connected back to front then there will be no current.
In order to have a current, the diode must point around the circuit from positive to negative
• If a diode is connected to an a.c. (alternating current) power supply, it will only allow a current
half of the time.
(This is called rectification).
A diode can be used to rectify an alternating current

Topic 10- Electricity - Living with Electricity Page | 25
Living with Electricity

Topic 10- Electricity - Living with Electricity Page | 26
Three-Pin Plug
• Power plugs provide a relatively safe method for attaching appliances to power source.
• The plugs are designed to complete the circuit for the desired appliance, sending power into and
taking unused power out from appliances.
• Some plugs are also designed to insulate the appliance user against accidental shock through a
ground terminal.
• The features of a plug are:

• The case is made from tough plastic or rubber, because these materials are good electrical
insulators.
• The three pins are made from brass, which is a good conductor of electricity.
• There is a fuse between the live terminal and the live pin. It breaks the circuit if too much
current flows.
• The cable is secured in the plug by a cable grip. This should grip the cable itself, and not
the individual wires inside it.

Topic-11.1 Magnetism Page | 1
11.1 Magnetism
Magnetic Fields
• In the space around a magnet there is a magnetic field.

• Magnetic field lines are a useful way of helping us to picture that field: its strength and its
direction.
The magnetic field around a bar magnet
• Magnetic field lines obey a couple of rules:

o They always go from north to south ((indicated by an arrow midway along the line).
o They never touch or cross other field lines.
• When two magnets are held close together, there will be a force between the magnets:
Opposite poles attract; like poles repel
• Magnetic materials (which are not magnets) will always be attracted to the magnet, regardless of
which pole is held close to it.
• A magnet can only repel another magnet.(This can be a useful test for a magnet).

Topic-11.1 Magnetism Page | 2
Magnetic Forces
• Magnetic forces are caused by the interaction of magnetic fields.
Plotting a Magnetic Field
• In your IGCSE examination you might be asked to describe a method of plotting the magnetic field
around a bar magnet.
• There are two principle ways of doing this.
Using Iron Filings
• Place a piece of paper on top of the magnet.

• Gently sprinkle iron filings on top of the paper.
• Now carefully tap the paper to allow the iron filings to settle on
the field lines.
Using Plotting Compasses
• Place the magnet on top of a piece of paper.

• Draw a dot at one end of the magnet (near its corner).
• Place a plotting compass next to the dot, so that one end of the needle of the compass points
towards the dot.
• Use a pencil to draw a new dot at the other side of the compass needle.
• Now move the compass so that it points towards the new dot, and repeat the above process.
• Keep repeating until you have a chain of dots going from one end of the magnet to the other.
Then remove the compass, and link the dots using a smooth curve – the magnetic field line.
• The direction of the field line is the same as the direction of the plotting compass.
• You can now repeat the whole process several times to create several other magnetic field lines.

Topic-11.2 Magnetic Materials Page | 3
11.2 Magnetic Materials

What are Magnetic Materials?
• A magnetic material is a material that experiences a force when placed in a magnetic field.
• Although all magnetic materials are metallic, not all metals are magnetic.
• Common magnetic materials include:
o Iron
o Steel (an alloy of iron)
o Nickel
o Cobalt
• Note: Copper and Aluminium are non-magnetic.
Magnetic materials, such as iron, steel, nickel (the coin) and cobalt, are attracted to magnets
Hard & Soft Materials
• Magnetically soft materials (e.g. Iron):

o Are easy to magnetise.
o Easily lose their magnetism.
• Magnetically hard materials (e.g. Steel):
o Are hard to magnetise.
o Do not easily lose their magnetism.
• Permanent magnets are made out of magnetically hard materials, as we don’t want them to lose
their magnetism.
• Electromagnets are made out of magnetically soft materials, as we want them to be able to easily
gain and lose their magnetism.

Topic-11.3 Induced Magnetism Page | 4
11.3 Induced Magnetism

• When a magnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, the material can temporarily become
magnetised:
o One end of the material will become a north pole
o The other end will become a south pole.
When a magnet is held close to a magnetic material, the material temporarily becomes magnetised
• This process is known as magnetic induction and results in a force being exerted on the material.
• When the material is removed from the magnetic field, it will start to lose its magnetism
(depending on whether it is magnetically hard or soft).
11.4 Magnets & Electromagnets

Creating & Destroying Magnets
• Magnets are usually made from hard magnet materials

• There are several ways in which a magnet can be created:
Stroking with a magnet:
A magnetic material can be magnetised by stroking it with one end of another magnet

Topic-11.4 Magnets & Electromagnets Page | 5
Using a direct current (d.c.) in a coil:
Placing a magnetic material in a coil and then passing a direct current through the coil will also
magnetise it
• If the material is placed in a magnetic field and then hit with a hammer, the material will also
become magnetised.
Methods of Demagnetisation
• Magnets can be demagnetised by using one of the following methods:

o Hit the material with a hammer (when it is not in a magnetic field).
o Heat the material (until it begins to glow) and then slowly let it cool.
o Place the material in a coil containing alternating current (a.c.) and then slowly withdraw
the material (with the a.c. power source still attached to the coil).
Electromagnets
• When a current (d.c.) is passed through a long coil, the current creates a magnetic field around
the coil similar to that of a bar magnet.
The magnetic field around a solenoid (a long coil) is identical to the magnetic field of a bar magnet
• Placing a soft magnetic material (such as iron) inside the coil will make the field much stronger:
The coil becomes an electromagnet.

Topic-11.5. The Magnetic Effect of a Current Page | 6
An electromagnet consists of a coil of wire surrounding a soft iron core
• Electromagnets have an advantage over ordinary magnets as they can be turned on and off and
the magnetic field strength can be changed.
• The strength of an electromagnet’s magnetic field may be increased by:
o Increasing the current in the coil.
o Adding more turns to the coil.
11.5. The Magnetic Effect of a Current

The Field around a Wire
• When there is a current in a wire, a magnetic field is created around the wire.
Diagram showing the magnetic fields When the thumb is pointing in the direction of the
around a current-carrying wire current, the fingers will curl in the direction of the field
• The magnetic field lines form concentric circles around the wire.
• The direction of the field is given by the right-hand grip rule:

Topic-11.5. The Magnetic Effect of a Current Page | 7
Magnetic Field Strength & Direction
• The direction of a magnetic field is defined as being:

o The direction of the force on the north pole of a magnet placed at that point.
• The strength and direction of the field depend on the size and direction of the current:
o If the current is increased, the field will get stronger.
o If the direction of the current is changed, the direction of the field will change.
• The strength of the magnetic field is related to the distance between the field lines:
As the field lines spread out, the field gets weaker.
• The field lines around a wire get further apart the further they are from the wire.
The Field around a Coil
• When a wire is looped into a coil, the magnetic field lines circle around each part of the coil,
passing through the centre of it.
Diagram showing the magnetic field around a flat circular coil
• A solenoid is a long coil.

• The magnetic field around a solenoid looks the same as the magnetic field around a bar magnet:
The magnetic field around a solenoid (a long coil) is identical to the magnetic field of a bar magnet
• One end of the solenoid behaves like the north pole of a magnet; the other side behaves like the
south pole.

Topic- Page | 8
Strength & Direction within a Solenoid
• Inside the solenoid the field lines straighten up and are very close together – they form a strong
uniform field.
Solenoid Applications
• A solenoid can be used as an electromagnet by adding a soft iron core.

(This increases the strength of the magnetic field significantly).
• Electromagnets are used in a wide variety of applications including:
o Doorbells
o Electronic door locks
• An electromagnet is also used in a relay:
When a current passes through the coil, it attracts the switch, closing it, which allows a current in the
right-hand part of the circuit

Topic-11.6 Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor Page | 9
11.6 Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor

The Motor Effect
• When a current passes through a wire in a magnetic field, a force is exerted on the wire.
Diagram showing the force acting on a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field
• The direction of this force depends on:

o The direction of the field.
o The direction of the current.
• Reversing either of the above will reverse the direction of the force.
The Left-Hand Rule
• The force is always directed at 90 degrees to both the field and the current.
• The direction of the force on a current-carrying wire can be worked out by using the left-hand
rule:
The left-hand rule can help you figure out the direction of the force on a current-carrying wire
• Start by pointing your First Finger in the direction of the (magnetic) Field.
• Now rotate your hand around the first finger so that the seCond finger points in the direction of
the Current.
• The THumb will now be pointing in the direction of the THrust (the force).

Topic- Page | 10
How a Magnetic Field Deflects a Charged Particle
• When a charged particle passes through a magnetic field, the field can exert a force on the
particle, deflecting it.
• This happens because the moving charge forms a current.
When a charged particle (such as an electron) enters a magnetic field, it is deflected by the field
• The force is always at 90 degrees to both the direction of travel and the magnetic field lines, and
can be worked out by using the left-hand rule.
o However:
If the particle has a negative charge (such as an electron), then the second finger (the
current) must point in the opposite direction to the direction of travel.
• The deflection of charged particles can be demonstrated either by using a cathode ray tube and a
pair of magnets, or by passing a collimated beam of beta particles (high energy electrons)
between the poles of a horseshoe magnet.
(Note: A cathode ray tube fires electrons at high speed towards a target. Old TV sets contained cathode
ray tubes, but you must be careful using these, as holding a magnet to the screen can permanently affect
the image.)

Topic-11.7. D.C. Motor Page | 11
11.7. D.C. Motor

Simple D.C Motor: Basics
• The simple d.c. motor consists of a coil in a uniform magnetic field:
• When there is a current in the coil, the magnets exert a turning effect on the coil, causing it to
rotate.
• The force supplied by a motor can be increased by:
o Increasing the current in the coil.
o Increasing the strength of the magnetic field.
How It Works
• When a current passes through the coil:
o The current creates a magnetic field around the coil,
o which interacts with the field of the magnets,
o exerting a force on the coil,
o in accordance with the left-hand rule (see below).
o This pushes one side of the coil up and the other side down, causing it to spin.
• The commutator:
o Reverses the direction of the current in the coil every half turn.
o This reverses the direction of the forces, which keeps the coil spinning.

Topic-11.8. Electromagnetic Induction Page | 12
11.8. Electromagnetic Induction

Inducing an EMF in a Conductor
• When a conductor (such as a metal wire) is moved through a magnetic field, it cuts through the
field lines, inducing an EMF in the wire.
As the wire moves downwards, it cuts through field lines, inducing an EMF in the wire
• A similar effect occurs if a magnet is pushed into, or taken out of a coil:

o As the magnet moved through the coil, the field lines cut through the turns on the coil.
o This induces an emf in the coil.

When the magnet enters the coil, the field lines cut through the turns, inducing an EMF
Factors Affecting EM Induction
• The size of the induced EMF is proportional to the rate at which the field lines are cut:
o If the field lines are cut at a faster rate, the EMF will increase.
• This can be achieved by:

o Moving the wire (or magnet) faster.
o Using a stronger magnet (increasing the number of field lines).
o Adding more turns to a coil (assuming a coil is being used, and not just a wire).

The RIght-Hand Rule
• When moving a wire through a magnetic field, the direction of the induced EMF can be worked
out by using the Right-Hand Dynamo rule:
The Right Hand Dynamo rule can be used to deduce the direction of the induced EMF
• To use the rule:

o Start by pointing the first finger (on your right hand) in the direction of the field.
(First Finger Field)
o Next, rotate your hand so that the thumb point in the direction that the wire is moving in.
(ThuMb Motion)
o Your Second finger will now be pointing in the direction of the current (or, strictly
speaking, the EMF).
(SeCond Current)
• The direction of the induced EMF always opposes the change that produces it.
• This means that any magnetic field created by the EMF will act so that it tries to stop the wire or
magnet from moving.
Alternating vs Direct Current
• An alternating current (a.c.) is one that continuously changes its direction, going back and forth
around a circuit.
• A direct current (d.c.) is one that is steady, constantly going the same way around a circuit, from
positive to negative.
Two graphs showing the variation of current with time for alternating current and direct current

Topic-11.9. A.C. Generator Page | 15
11.9. A.C. Generator

A.C. Generator: Basics
• A generator looks very similar to a motor, but instead of connecting it to a power supply, the coil
is spun by some mechanical process which then produces electricity.
When a coil is spun in a magnetic field, a voltage is induced between the ends of the coil
• As the coil rotates, it cuts through the field lines.

• This induces an EMF between the end of the coil
(which can then create a current).
• The size of this EMF can be increased by:
o Turning the coil faster
o Increasing the strength of the magnetic field
• Slip rings, attached to the ends of the coil, transfer the current to metal brushes whilst allowing
the coil to rotate freely.

Topic- Page | 16
The Output
• The A.C. generator creates an alternating current, varying in size and direction as the coil rotates.
o The induced EMF is greatest when the coil is horizontal, as in this position it cuts through
the field at the fastest rate.
o The EMF is smallest when the coil is vertical, as in this position it will not be cutting
through field lines.

Topic- Page | 17

Topic-11.10. Transformers Page | 18
11.10. Transformers
What is a Transformer?
• A transformer is an electrical device that can be used to increase or decrease the voltage of an
alternating current.
(Transformers only work with a.c.)
A transformer consists of two coils of wire wrapped around a soft iron core
• A step-up transformer increases the voltage of a power source.

• A step-up transformer has more turns on the secondary coil than on the primary coil.
• A step-down transformer decreases the voltage of a power source.
• A step-down transformer has fewer turns on the secondary coil than on the primary coil.
How It Works
• When an alternating current is supplied to the primary coil, a changing magnetic field is produced
by the primary coil.
• This field passes through the soft iron core and through the secondary coil.
• The changing field in the secondary coil induces an EMF.
• This EMF is also alternating and has the same frequency as the original current.
The Transformer Equation

• The output voltage of a transformer depends on the number of turns on each of the coils as well
as the input voltage:
The ratio of the voltages is equal to the ratio of the number of turns

Power
• Although transformers can increase the voltage of a power source, due to the law of conservation
of energy, they cannot increase the output power.
(Increasing the voltage decreases the current, and vice-versa).
• If a transformer if 100% efficient:
Where I P and I S are the currents in the primary and secondary coils
• Hence, if the voltage is increased by some factor, the current must decrease by the same factor.

Transmitting Electricity
High-Voltage Transmission
• When electricity is transmitted along overhead cables, it is done at high voltages.

o A step-up transformer is used to raise the potential difference (voltage) before
transmissions.
o A step-down transformer is then used to step the potential difference back down to
normal levels when it reaches its destination.
Electricity is transmitted at high voltage, which reduces both the current and the loss of power
How High Voltage Reduces Power Loss
• When electricity is transmitted over large distances, the current heats the wires, resulting in
energy loss.
• By raising the voltage at which the electricity is transmitted at, the same amount of
power (energy per second) can be transmitted using a much smaller current (P=I×V).
• This results in less heat being produced in the wire and hence there is less energy loss.

Topic-12. Atomic Model & Radioactivity Page | 1
12. Atomic Model & Radioactivity

THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
• Atoms consist of small, dense positively charged nuclei, surrounded by negatively charged
electrons.
An atom: a small positive nucleus, surrounded by negative electrons
• (Note: The atom is around 100 000 times larger than the nucleus!)
A-PARTICLE SCATTERING
• Evidence for the structure of the atom comes from the study of α-particle scattering.
When α-particles are fired at thin gold foil, most of them go straight through but a very small number
bounce straight back
• When α-particles are fired at thin pieces of gold foil:

o The majority of them go straight through (A)
This happens because the atom is mainly empty space.
o Some are deflected through small angles (B)
This happens because the positive α-particles are repelled by the positive nucleus.
o A very small number are deflected straight back (C)
This is because the nucleus is extremely small.

PROTONS & NEUTRONS
• Atoms are made up of three different particles:
Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus of an atom
• The properties of each of these particles is shown in the table below:
• The atom shown in the above diagram can also be represented using an atomic symbol:
Atomic symbols, like the one above, describe the constituents of nuclei
• The top number is called the nucleon number, A, and is equal to the total number of particles
(protons and neutrons) in the nucleus.
• The lower number is called the proton number, Z, and is equal to the total number of protons in
the nucleus.
• (Note: Chemists refer to the nucleon number as the mass number, and the proton number as
the atomic number).
• When given an atomic symbol, you can figure out the total number of protons, neutrons and
electrons in the atom:
o Protons: The number of protons is equal to the proton number.
o Electrons: Atoms are neutral, and so in a neutral atom the number of negative electrons
must be equal to the number of positive protons.
o Neutrons: The number of neutrons can be found by subtracting the proton number from
the nucleon number.
• The term nucleon is used to mean a particle in the nucleus – i.e. either a proton or a neutron.
• The term nuclide is used to refer to a nucleus with a specific combination of protons and
neutrons.

ISOTOPES
• Although all atoms of the same element always have the same number of protons (and hence
electrons), the number of neutrons can vary:
The three atoms shown above are all forms of hydrogen, but they each have different numbers of
neutrons
• The number of neutrons in an atom does not affect the chemical properties of an atom, only its
mass. Such atoms are called isotopes:
• Isotopes are atoms (of the same element) that have equal numbers of protons but different
numbers of neutrons.
NUCLEAR REACTIONS
NUCLEAR FISSION
• Usually large unstable nuclei break up gradually by the process of radioactive decay, but a small
number (including Uranium-235, a naturally occurring isotope of Uranium) can break up in one big
go – a process known as nuclear fission.
• In order to undergo nuclear fission, a nucleus usually requires some energy which can be given by
hitting the nucleus with a neutron.
(Neutrons are used because they are chargeless and so are not repelled by the positive charge of
the nucleus).
Nuclear fission: a Uranium-235 nucleus is struck by a neutron, breaking it into two smaller daughter
nuclei and 2 or 3 neutrons
• When this happens, the original nucleus breaks apart into two smaller ‘daughter’ nuclei, along
with two or three neutrons.
• These fission products carry away the energy released in the form of kinetic energy.

NUCLEAR FUSION
• Nuclear fusion involves taking small nuclei (such as hydrogen) and colliding them together at high
speed to form larger nuclei.
Fusion is the process in which small nuclei, such as hydrogen, are fused together to form larger nuclei
• This process also releases energy.
NUCLEAR EQUATIONS
• Nuclear reactions, such as fission and fusion, can be represented using nuclear equations (which
are similar to chemical equations in Chemistry).
• Example:
• The above equation represents a fission reaction in which a Uranium nucleus is hit with a neutron
and splits into two smaller nuclei – a Strontium nucleus and a Xenon nucleus, releasing two
neutrons in the process.
• In the above reaction:
The sum of top (nucleon) numbers on the left-hand side equals the sum of top number on the
right-hand side:
235+1=236= 90+144+2×1
The same is true for the lower (proton) numbers:
92+0=92=38+54+2×0
• By balancing equations in this way, you can determine, for example, the number of neutrons
emitted by a process like this.
• Example:
• In the above example, balancing the numbers on the top shows that 3 neutrons must be released
in the reaction (i.e. N = 3).

DETECTION OF RADIOACTIVITY
BACKGROUND RADIATION
• Background radiation is the radiation that is always present around us in the environment.
Background radiation is the radiation that is present all around in the environment
• Although most background radiation is natural, a small amount of it comes from artificial sources,
such as medical procedures (including X-rays).
(Radiation from Nuclear Power come to less than 0.1% of the total).
• Levels of background radiation can vary significantly from place to place.
DETECTING RADIATION
• When radiation passes close to an atom, it knocks out electrons, ionising the atom.
• Radiation detectors work by detecting the presence of these ions or the chemical changes that
they produce.
• Examples of radiation detectors include:
o Photographic film (often used in badges)
o Geiger-Muller (GM) tubes
o Ionisation chambers
o Scintillation counters
o Spark counters
A Geiger-Muller tube (or Geiger counter) is a common type of radiation detector

CHARACTERISTICS OF RADIATION
THE NATURE OF DECAY
• Radiation consists of high energy particles (or waves) emitted from the nucleus of an unstable
atom.
Unstable nuclei decay by emitting high energy particles – radiation
• There are three (main) types of radiation: alpha (α) particles, beta (β−) particles, or gamma (γ)
rays.
• Radiation is emitted randomly.
This means that, although we understand why some nuclei emit radiation, it is impossible to
predict exactly when a nucleus will emit radiation.
THE PROPERTIES OF RADIATION
• Alpha (α) particles are high energy particles made up of 2 protons and 2 neutrons (the same as a
helium nucleus).
They are usually emitted from nuclei that are too large.
• Beta (β−) particles are high-energy electrons emitted from the nucleus (even though the nucleus
does not normally contain any electrons).
They are usually emitted by nuclei that have too many neutrons.
• Gamma (γ) rays are high-energy electromagnetic waves.
They are emitted by nuclei that need to lose some energy.
• If these particles hit other atoms, they can knock out electrons, ionising the atom.
When radiation passes close to atoms, it can knock out electrons, ionising the atom

• Ionisation can cause chemical changes in materials, and can damage or kill living cells.
• The nature and properties of the different types of radiation are summarised in the table below:
• Note that when you go down the table, the range and penetration increase, but the ionisation
decreases.
Diagram showing the penetrative abilities of alpha (α) particles, beta (β−) particles, and gamma (γ)
rays. Note how some of the gamma rays are able to penetrate the lead
DEFLECTION IN ELECTRIC & MAGNETIC FIELDS
• Because of their charges, alpha and beta particles can be deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
Alpha and Beta particles can be deflected by electric fields
• Because they have opposite charges, alpha and beta particles are deflected in opposite
directions.
• Beta is deflected more than alpha, because beta particles have a much smaller mass.
• Gamma is not deflected because gamma rays have no charge.

Alpha and Beta particles can also be deflected by magnetic fields
IONISATION
• Alpha is by far the most ionising form of radiation.

o Alpha particles leave a dense trail of ions behind them, affecting virtually every atom they
meet.
o Because of this they quickly lose their energy and so have a short range.
o Their short range makes them relatively harmless if handled carefully, but they have the
potential to be extremely dangerous if the alpha emitter enters the body.
• Beta particles are moderately ionising.

o The particles create a less dense trail of ions than alpha, and consequently have a longer
range.
o They tend to be more dangerous than alpha because they are able to travel further and
penetrate the skin, and yet are still ionising enough to cause significant damage.
• Gamma is the least ionising form of radiation (although it is still dangerous).

o Because Gamma rays don’t produce as many ions as alpha or beta, they are more
penetrating and have a greater range.
o This can make them hazardous in large amounts.
APPLICATIONS
• Radioactivity has a large number of uses in both medicine and industry, some of which are listed
below:
Measuring the thickness of materials:
Beta particles can be used to measure the thickness of thin materials such as paper, cardboard or
aluminium foil

• As a material moves above a beta source, the particles that are able to penetrate it can be
monitored using a detector.
• If the material gets thicker more particles will be absorbed, meaning that less will get through.
• If the material gets thinner the opposite happens.
• This allows the machine to make adjustments to keep the thickness of the material constant.
• Note: Devices like this use beta radiation because it will be partially absorbed by the material.
If alpha particles were used all of them would be absorbed and none would get through.
If gamma were used almost all of it would get through and the detector would not be able to
sense any difference if the thickness were to change.
Tracers:
• Tracers are radioactive isotopes that can be added to some fluid so that the flow of that fluid can
be monitored.
• Tracers have numerous uses in both medicine and industry:
o In medicine tracers can be added to the blood to check blood flow around the body and
search for blockages (blood clots).
o In industry tracers may be added into an oil pipeline in order to check for any leaks.
• In all cases:
o The amount used is kept to a minimum to reduce people’s exposure to radiation.
o Isotopes are chosen that have short half-lives of around a few hours: long enough to carry
out the procedure, but not so long that they cause long-term harm.
o Gamma radiation is used as it is highly penetrating (you can detect it) and low ionising
(minimising harm).
Radiotherapy:
• Radiotherapy is the name given to the treatment of cancer using radiation.

(Chemotherapy is treatment using chemicals).
• Although radiation can cause cancer, it is also highly effective at treating it.
• Radiation can kill living cells. Some cells, such as bacteria and cancer cells, are more susceptible to
radiation than others.
• Beams of gamma rays are directed at the cancerous tumour.
(Gamma rays are used because they are able to penetrate the body, reaching the tumour).
• The beams are moved around to minimise harm to healthy tissue whilst still being aimed at the
tumour.
Sterilisation:
• Medical instruments are sterilised by exposing them to gamma rays.

• The gamma rays kill bacteria on the instruments and destroy viruses.
• Gamma rays are far more effective at killing bacteria than either boiling water or chemical
treatment and are able to penetrate the instruments reaching areas that may otherwise not be
properly sterilised.

RADIOACTIVE DECAY
Radioactive Decay: Basics
• Some isotopes are unstable – usually because of their large size or because the number of
protons and neutrons within them are out of balance.
• As a result, these isotope will decay – emitting little chunks (radiation) in order to reduce their
size or bring them back into balance.
Unstable nuclei decay by emitting high energy-articles – radiation
• When an isotope emits radiation, the constitution of its nucleus (the number of protons and
neutron) changes.
• As a result, the isotope will change into a different element.
Alpha Emission
• An alpha particle consists of 2 protons and 2 neutrons.

(It is emitted from large unstable nuclei)
• When an alpha particle is emitted from a nucleus:
o The nucleus loses 2 protons:
The proton (atomic) number decreases by 2.
o The nucleus loses 4 particles (nucleons) in total:
The nucleon (mass) number decreases by 4.
• Equation for alpha emission:

• Nuclear equations, just like chemical equations, balance:

o The sum of the upper (mass) numbers on the left of each equation should equal the sum
on the right.
o The sum of the lower (atomic) numbers should also balance.
Beta Emission
• A beta particle is a high-energy electron emitted from the nucleus.

• It is emitted when a neutron in the nucleus suddenly changes into a proton – an electron is
created in order to balance the positive charge of the proton.
(Note: The electron is created at the moment of decay – it is not present in the neutron
beforehand).
• When a beta particle is emitted from a nucleus:
o The number of protons in the nucleus increases by 1:
The proton (atomic) number increases by 1.
o The total number of particles in the nucleus remains the same.
The nucleon (mass) number doesn’t change.
A beta particle is emitted when a neutron turns into a proton, emitting an electron
Equation for beta emission:
• Note that the beta particle is given an atomic number of -1 in the above examples.
This is because the atomic number is being used to measure charge in this case:
Protons being positive particles, have positive atomic numbers.
Electrons being negative, have a negative number.

HALF-LIFE
Half-Life: Basics
• As an isotope decays, the number of nuclei of that isotope that remain will decrease.
• As a consequence of this, the activity of that isotope will also decrease over time.
• The half-life of an isotope is the time taken for the activity of that isotope (or the number of
original nuclei) to drop to half of its initial value.
• Every time one half-life passes, the activity (and the number of nuclei) will fall by half.
Graphs showing the change in activity of an isotope over time and its radioactive half-life
• Different isotopes have different half-lives and half-lives can vary from a fraction of a second to
billions of years in length.
• As mentioned above, every time one half-life passes the activity (and number of nuclei remaining)
halves.
However, the activity (and number of nuclei) will never quite drop to zero.

Measuring Half-Life
To find the half-life of an isotope:
• If given some data showing how the activity (or number of nuclei) changes over time:
o Plot a graph of this data (with time on the x-axis).
o Add a smooth best fit curve (the curve should get closer to, but never quite reach, the x-
axis).
o Look at the original activity (where the line crosses the y-axis) and halve it.
o Go across from the halved value (on the y-axis) to the best fit curve, and then straight
down to the x-axis.
(It’s a good idea to draw lines showing this on your graph).
o The point where you reach the x-axis should be the half-life
Use graphs like the one above to work out the half-life of an isotope
• IF you are given just two pieces of data (along with a time) – say the initial and final activity of an
isotope:
o Start by figuring out how many times you have to halve the initial activity to get to the
final activity.
o This number will be the number of half-lives that have passed.
o Divide the time by the number of half-lives to figure out the value of one half-life.
Example: An isotope has an initial activity of 120 Bq.

6 days later it’s activity is 15 Bg.
The number of half-lives that have passed is:
1. 120/2 = 60
2. 60/2 = 30
3. 30/2 = 15
• We had to halve 120 three times to get to 15, and so three half-lives have passes.
Therefore each half-life must be:
6 days/3 = 2 days.

Topic- Page | 14
Background Radiation
• Background radiation is radiation that is always present in the environment around us.
• As a consequence, whenever an experiment involving radiation is carried out, some of the
radiation that is detected will be background radiation.
• When carrying out experiments to measure half-life, the presence of background radiation must
be taken into account.
When measuring radioactive emissions, some of the detected radiation will be background
• To do this you must:

o Start by measuring background radiation (with no sources present) – this is called
your background count.
o Then carry out your experiment.
o Subtract the background count from each of your readings, in order to give a corrected
count.
o The corrected count is your best estimate of the radiation emitted from the source, and
should be used to measure its half-life.

Topic-Safety Precautions Page | 15
Safety Precautions
The Dangers
• When radiation passes close to atoms, the radiation can knock out electrons, ionising the atom.
When radiation passes close to an atom it can knock electrons out of the atom, giving the atom a
charge
• Ionisation can cause chemical changes in materials.

• If these chemical changes occur in living cells it can damage the cell and:
• Cause mutations.
• Cause a cell to become cancerous
• Kill the cell.
Safety
• The risks associated with handling radioactive sources can be minimised by following a few simple
procedures:
o Store the sources in lead-lined boxes and keep at a distance from people.
o Minimise the amount of time you handle sources for and return them to their boxes as
soon as you have finished using them.
o During use, keep yourself (and other people) as far from the sources as feasible. When
handling the sources do so at arm’s length, using a pair of tongs.
(Note: Gloves and safety specs are usually unnecessary when handling radioactive materials, unless there
is a risk of the material leaking on to things).

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Topic-1.

DISTANCE & VOLUME

A ruler can measure small distances to the nearest mm

Trundle wheels can be used to measure large distances

IGCSE Physics 0625 Revision Notes www. Hakim Abbas site

MICROMETER SCREW GAUGE

Micrometers can be used to measure very small distances

• Stopclocks and stopwatches can be used to measure time intervals.

IGCSE Physics 0625 Revision Notes www. Hakim Abbas site

MASS & WEIGHT: BASICS

weight = mass x gravitational field strength

Use the formula triangle to help you rearrange the equation

A balance can be used to compare two different weights

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF MASS

• Mass has two significant effects in Physics:

IGCSE Physics 0625 Revision Notes www. Hakim Abbas site

• Density is the mass per unit volume of a material:

• Density is related to mass and volume by the following equation:

(Note: The greek letter ρ is used to mean density)

Use the formula triangle to help you rearrange the equation

• In Physics, mass is almost always measured in kg.

IGCSE Physics 0625 Revision Notes www. Hakim Abbas site

Always zero a top pan balance before taking any measurements

• The volume can be determined in a couple of ways:

Regular shapes (e.g. cubes, spheres, cylinders):

• The volume can then be calculated using an appropriate equation:

IGCSE Physics 0625 Revision Notes www. Hakim Abbas site

• The volume can be found using a Eureka can:

o Fill the Eureka can with water.

IGCSE Physics 0625 Revision Notes www. Hakim Abbas site

2. Speed, velocity and acceleration

Use the formula triangle to help you rearrange the equation

IGCSE Physics 0625 Revision Notes www. Hakim Abbas site

ACCELERATION FORMULA TRIANGLE

(Where u is the initial velocity of an object and v is its final velocity)

• A horizontal line means stationary.

• The speed of an object is given by the gradient of the line.

IGCSE Physics 0625 Revision Notes www. Hakim Abbas site

• A velocity-time graph shows how the

If the line goes down then the object

• The distance travelled by an object can be found

• If the area beneath the graph is a rectangle

area = base x height

• The acceleration of an object is given by

• Lines that slope downwards have negative

IGCSE Physics 0625 Revision Notes www. Hakim Abbas site

In the absence of air resistance objects fall with constant acceleration

• When a parachutist jumps out of an aeroplane, two main forces act:

Diagram showing the changing forces on a skydiver

IGCSE Physics 0625 Revision Notes www. Hakim Abbas site

Graph showing how the velocity of a skydiver changes during descent

IGCSE Physics 0625 Revision Notes www. Hakim Abbas site

3.1. Hook’s law

A graph of extension against force for a metal spring

An experiment to measure the extension of a spring

• Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram.

IGCSE Physics 0625 Revision Notes www. Hakim Abbas site

IGCSE Physics 0625 Revision Notes www. Hakim Abbas site