Module in Purposive Communication

MODULE IN PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION
MODULE 1
Understanding Communication
Types of Communication According to Mode, Context Purpose and Style
OBJECTIVES: At the end of the period, the students must be able to:
1. Define communication as a process.
2. Conceptualize the significance of effective communication.
What is Communication?
Communication is the process of sending and receiving messages through verbal or nonverbal means,
including speech, or oral communication; writing and graphical representations (such as infographics, maps,
and charts); and signs, signals, and behavior. More simply, communication is said to be "the creation and
exchange of meaning."
Effective Communication
Effective communication is a process of exchanging ideas, thoughts, knowledge and information such
that the purpose or intention is fulfilled in the best possible manner. In simple words, it is nothing but the
presentation of views by the sender in a way best understood by the receiver.
Characteristics of Effective Communication

Just delivering a message is not enough; it must meet the purpose of the sender. Keeping this in mind,
let us discuss the elements which make communication effective:
(https://theinvestorsbook.com/effective-communication.html#Characteristics)
 Clear Message: The message which the sender wants to convey must be simple, easy to understand and
systematically framed to retain its meaningfulness.
 Correct Message: The information communicated must not be vague or false in any sense; it must be
free from errors and grammatical mistakes.
 Complete Message: Communication is the base for decision making. If the information is incomplete, it
may lead to wrong decisions.
 Precise Message: The message sent must be short and concise to facilitate straightforward interpretation
and take the desired steps.
 Reliability: The sender must be sure from his end that whatever he is conveying is right by his
knowledge. Even the receiver must have trust on the sender and can rely on the message sent.
 Consideration of the Recipient: The medium of communication and other physical settings must be
planned, keeping in mind the attitude, language, knowledge, education level and position of the receiver.
 Sender’s Courtesy: The message so drafted must reflect the sender’s courtesy, humbleness and respect
towards the receiver.
Effective Communication Skills

Conveying a message effectively is an art as well as a skill developed after continuous practice and
experience. The predetermined set of skills required for an influential communication:
(https://theinvestorsbook.com/effective-communication.html#Characteristics)
 Observance: A person must possess sharp observing skills to gain more and more knowledge and
information.
 Clarity and Brevity: The message must be drafted in simple words, and it should be clear and precise to
create the desired impact over the receiver.
 Listening and Understanding: The most crucial skill in a person is he must be a good, alert and patient
listener. He must be able to understand and interpret the message well.
 Emotional Intelligence: A person must be emotionally aware and the ability to influence others from
within.
 Self-Efficacy: Also, he/she must have faith in himself and his capabilities to achieve the objectives of
communication.
 Self-Confidence: Being one of the essential communication skills, confidence enhances the worthiness of
the message being delivered.
 Respectfulness: Delivering a message with courtesy and respecting the values, believes, opinions and
ideas of the receiver is the essence of effective communication.
 Non-Verbal Communication: To connect with the receiver in a better way, the sender must involve the
non-verbal means communication too. These include gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, postures,
etc.
 Selection of the Right Medium: Choice of the correct medium for communication is also a skill. It is
necessary to select an appropriate medium according to the situation, priority of the message, the
receiver’s point of view, etc.
 Providing Feedback: Effective communication is always a two-way process. A person must take as well
as give feedback to bring forward the other person’s perspective too.
The Communication Process

 A message or communication is sent by the sender through a communication channel to a receiver, or to
multiple receivers.
 The sender must encode the message (the information being conveyed) into a form that is appropriate to
the communication channel, and the receiver(s) then decodes the message to understand its meaning and
significance.
 Misunderstanding can occur at any stage of the communication process.
 Effective communication involves minimizing potential misunderstanding and overcoming any barriers
to communication at each stage in the communication process.
Communication Channels
 Communication channels is the term given to the way in which we communicate. It is therefore the
method used to transmit our message to a recipient, or to receive a message from someone else.
 There are multiple communication channels available to us today. These include face-to-face
conversations, telephone calls, text messages, email, the Internet (including social media such as
Facebook and Twitter), radio and TV, written letters, brochures and reports.
 Choosing an appropriate communication channel is vital for effective communication. Each
communication channel has different strengths and weaknesses.
Encoding Messages
All messages must be encoded into a form that can be conveyed by the communication channel chosen
for the message.
Decoding Messages
Once received, the recipient needs to decode the message. Successful decoding is also a vital
communication skill. People will decode and understand messages in different ways. This will depend on their
experience and understanding of the context of the message, how well they know the sender, their psychological
state and how they feel, and the time and place of receipt. They may also be affected by any Barriers to
Communication which might be present. There are therefore a wide range of factors that will affect decoding
and understanding. Successful communicators understand how the message will be decoded, and anticipate and
remove as many as possible of the potential sources of misunderstanding.
Feedback
The final part of a communication is feedback: the recipient lets the sender know that they have received
and understood the message. Recipients of messages are likely to provide feedback on how they have
understood the messages through both verbal and non-verbal reactions. Effective communicators pay close
attention to this feedback as it is the only way to assess whether the message has been understood as intended,
and it allows any confusion to be corrected. Bear in mind that the extent and form of feedback will vary with
the communication channel. Feedback during a face-to-face or telephone conversation will be immediate and
direct, whilst feedback to messages conveyed via TV or radio will be indirect and may be delayed, or even
conveyed through other media such as the Internet. Effective communicators pay close attention to this
feedback as it is the only way to assess whether the message has been understood as intended, and it allows any
confusion to be corrected
Types of Communication According to Mode

A mode, quite simply, is a means of communicating. According to the New London Group, there are
five modes of communication: visual, linguistic, spatial, aural, and gestural.
Linguistical or Alphabetic Communication
As one of the popular modes of communication, Linguistical or Alphabetic Communication mainly
refers to written or spoken communication where the sender conveys their message through writing on a paper
or through speaking.
Examples: Text messages, audio messages, emails, speech, notes and lists, etc.
Gestural Communication
Gestural Communication has its quintessential emphasis on body language and physical movements to
communicate messages. Sign Language is the best example for the gestural mode of communication as those
who can’t talk or hear are able to communicate best through their gestures and have their own set of unique
language to converse in. While this mode of communication is mainly combined with spatial, aural or linguistic
ones, it can also be used individually given that both the sender and receiver have common points of references
and meanings to have an understandable communication.
Aural Communication
As the name suggests, aural communication uses audio mode to convey messages whether it is through
sounds or spoken audios. The speaker’s voice and pronunciation need to be clear and precise with no
background noise.
Example: Radio, audio messages, music, recordings, songs, audiobooks
Visual Communication
Visual Communication can be simply termed as non-verbal communication as it comprises visual
messages from the sender to the receiver. It is one of the oldest modes of communication when the ancient
people didn’t know a language to communicate with, it is through pictures, drawings and symbols that they
were able to talk and converse with each other.
Examples: Pictures, Videos, Charts, Graphs, Symbols
Spatial Communication
Spatial Communication elaborates upon the use of physical space in text as well as its overall structure
to convey certain meanings and messages. The physical layout of any written text is deliberately designed to
make it look a certain way and adhere to a particular theme. Websites also use this unique mode of
communication in choosing a certain font, style, design and layout to make any website user-friendly and more
interactive.
3 Modes of Communication
Communication is the process of sharing information between individuals using a set of common rules,
behavior, symbols, and signs. This process of disseminating information can be done through 3 major modes
namely,
 Interpretative Communication
 Presentational Communication
 Interpersonal Communication
Interpretive Communication
Also referred to as the “one-way communication”, in this mode, the information conveyed by the sender
is interpreted by the receiver in its original form. The target has to understand the message in both written and
spoken form keeping various aspects in mind. For example, in a class, the learners may not understand every
word said by the teacher but are expected to understand the main crux of the topic. Some of the main highlights
of Interpretative Communication are:
 Learners understand, interpret, and analyze what is heard, read, or viewed on a variety of topics.
 This mode of communication involves interpreting the author or producer’s intent.
 There is no alternative to the active negotiation of meaning with the writer, speaker, or the producer.
Interpersonal Communication
Interpersonal communication is the process by which people exchange information through verbal and
nonverbal messages. It is an unmediated mode of communication that occurs when we interact and attempt to
mutually influence each other, simultaneously, in order to manage relationships. Although interpersonal
communication can encompass oral, written, and non-verbal forms of communication, the term is usually
applied to spoken communication that takes place between two or more individuals on a personal or face to face
level.
Modes of Communication: Key Differences
Component Interpersonal Interpretive Presentational

Type Two-way mode communication One-way communication One-way communication
Negotiation Active negotiation of No active negotiation of No reasonable means of
meaning between individuals meaning with the engaging the masses
writer, producer or
speaker
Mode of Speaking, Listening, Reading and Reading viewing and Writing and Speaking are
Communication Writing are the main modes of listening texts the 2 main modes of
conveying and interpreting communication
messages.
Examples Social Media, text Stories, literature, articles, Articles, fliers, short stories,
messages, telephone, etc. speeches, songs, radio, news, reports, presentations,
videos, movies, presentations, skits, debates, speeches,
etc. etc.
Breathe, Ponder then Answer!

1. Explain why effective communication is important in an organization.
2. What are the pros and cons if there is a flaw in communication?
MODULE 2
Effective Communication
The Communication
Process
1 Explain interrelated various forms of communication
process. 2.Identify the various forms of noise in
communication.
What is the communication process?

The communication process refers to a series of actions or steps taken in order to successfully
communicate. It involves several components such as the sender of the communication, the actual message
being sent, the encoding of the message, the receiver and the decoding of the message. There are also various
channels of communication to consider within the communication process. This refers to the way a message is
sent. This can be through various mediums such as voice, audio, video, writing email, fax or body language.
The overall goal of the communication process is to present an individual or party with information and have
them understand it. The sender must choose the most appropriate medium in order for the communication
process to have worked successfully.
Parts of the communication process

The communication process has several components that enable the transmission of a message. Here
are the various parts:
1. Sender: This is the person that is delivering a message to a recipient.
2. Message: This refers to the information that the sender is relaying to the receiver.
3. Channel of communication: This is the transmission or method of delivering the message.
4. Decoding: This is the interpretation of the message. Decoding is performed by the receiver.
5. Receiver: The receiver is the person who is getting or receiving the message.
6. Feedback: In some instances, the receiver might have feedback or a response for the sender. This
starts an interaction.
How does the communication process work?
In order to successfully communicate, it's important to understand how the process works. Here are the
seven steps in the communication process:
1. The sender develops an idea to be sent

The beginning of the communication process involves the sender creating an idea that they plan to send
to another person or group of people. Essentially, they're planning the overall subject matter or information they
want to transmit.
2. The sender encodes the message

Once the sender develops an idea, they translate it into a form that can be transmitted to someone else.
This means they transform the thoughts of the information they want to send into a certain format. For example,
if you are writing a letter, you'll translate your idea into words. The message can also be nonverbal, oral or
symbolic.
3. The sender selects the channel of communication that will be used
Next, the sender decides how the message will be sent. This involves selecting the most suitable
medium for the message they're relaying. Some communication mediums include speaking, writing, electronic
transmission or nonverbal communication. If you're communicating at work, make sure to select the proper and
most professional channel of communication.
4. The message travels over the channel of communication

After the medium is chosen, the message then begins the process of transmission. The exact process of
this will depend on the selected medium. In order for the message to be properly sent, the sender should have
selected the appropriate medium.
5. The message is received by the receiver

Next, the message is received by the recipient. This step in the communication process is done by
hearing the message, seeing it, feeling it or another form of reception.
6. The receiver decodes the message

The receiver then decodes the sender's message. In other words, they interpret it and convert it into a
thought. After they've done this, they analyze the message and attempt to understand it. The communication
process is performed effectively when the sender and receiver have the same meaning for the transmitted
message.
7. The receiver provides feedback, if applicable

Lastly, unless it's a one-way communication, the receiver will provide feedback in the form of a reply to
the original sender of the message. Feedback provides the recipient with the ability to ensure the sender that
their message was properly received and interpreted. Between two people, this is two-way communication.
Tips for improving the communication process

Here are some tips to consider to improve your communication skills and the communication process overall:
 Simplify your message: In order to ensure your message is properly understood, you should keep your
language simple and to the point.
 Know your audience: It's also important to consider the audience that will receive your message as
well as their needs and interests.
 Be a good listener: As a communicator, it's important to actively listen to what those around you are
saying. This will ensure that you're sending the right message.
 Ask questions: It's also important to ask good questions to keep the communication flowing. Make sure
your questions are insightful and engaging.
 Take the time to respond: When communicating, it's important to consider how you might reply to a
person to ensure you know what you want to say.
 Consider your body language: If you're communicating through a different medium, it's important to
be mindful of your body language. In addition, be aware of the body language of the person you're
communicating with, as well.
 Maintain eye contact: It's also important to make contact with the person or group you're
communicating with. This will show that you're actively listening to who you're communicating with.
 Clarify your message if needed: If the recipient of your message is unclear about what you're trying to
say, it's important to clarify your message. This will help them to better understand you.
Noise is anything that interferes with communication.
4 Types of Noise
There have been many models and diagrams of communication throughout the years, but here it is in its
simplest form.
 You speak.
 The listener listens.
 The listener speaks.
 You listen.
However, missing from that simple description of communication is what we call noise.
4 Types of noise that can disrupt communication

1. Physical noise interferes with communication
Physical noise is interference that is external to both speaker and listener; it hampers the physical
transmission of the signal or message.
Examples of physical noise:
 loud party at the neighbors while you’re trying to record
 loud kids who don’t want to take their nap
 irritating hum of your computer, air conditioner, or heater.
2. Physiological noise interferes with communication

Physiological noise is created by barriers within the sender or receiver.
 articulation problems
 mumbling
 talking too fast
 talking too slow
 forgetting to pause
 forgetting to breathe
An example of physiological noise on the listener’s side: hearing problems. Maybe the listener can’t
hear high tones as clearly as they used to. For some, low tones are the problem. Their difficulty in literally
hearing words and sounds becomes physiological noise.
3. Psychological noise interferes with communication

Psychological noise is mental interference in the speaker or listener.
Three examples of psychological noise are wandering thoughts, preconceived ideas, and sarcasm.
1. “Wandering thoughts” can be a kind of psychological noise
This is primarily a listener problem. If you’re trying to communicate a concept in your podcast,
“wandering thoughts” is an obstacle because your listener may be distracted and have difficulty keeping up with
you. This is often a problem when talking about abstract ideas. Sometimes as podcasters, we cause a listener’s
thoughts to wander, especially if we talk too fast, too slow, or fail to pause. But occasionally “wandering
thoughts” can be a podcaster problem, too. Have you ever started talking about one point only to find yourself
lost talking about something completely unrelated? It takes a lot of concentration (and maybe planning) to stay
focused.
2. “Preconceived ideas” can be a kind of psychological noise

Another type of psychological noise is when people think they already know something. That noise
interferes with a listener’s willingness to hear a new perspective. Other preconceived ideas include biases,
prejudices, presuppositions, and closed-mindedness. When there is psychological noise like this, you have to
work harder than usual to make sure you’re communicating clearly.
3. “Sarcasm” can be a kind of psychological noise

If you don’t care to actually persuade someone to see things your way, then sarcasm is the easy way.
Sarcasm is noise to your listener unless your listener already agrees with you. If your listener disagrees with
you, then sarcasm guarantees they won’t pay attention to your message. Sarcasm can also rile them up. When
they come back at you with their knee-jerk response, that’ll be noise to you. And then true communication
stops. Finally, there is another type of noise that appears to be psychological, but it’s actually linguistic and
deserves its own category.
4. Semantic noise interferes with communication
Semantic noise is interference created when the speaker and listener have different meaning systems.
Maybe when I use a word, you have a slightly different meaning in mind. This can cause confusion.
Jargon can be semantic noise

Jargon is a fantastic linguistic shortcut. If everyone listening agrees and understands the terminology,
then jargon makes communication quicker and clearer. However, if listeners have different definitions of the
terminology, then jargon becomes noise. This is especially noisy to people outside your particular job or field.
Abstract ideas can be semantic noise

Another kind of semantic noise is when your words and sentences are unclear or ambiguous. Some
people find it almost impossible to speak concretely. All communication contains noise. You can’t get rid of the
noise for every person who listens to you.
Here are three ways to reduce the noise.

1. Make your language more precise.
Choose words that you know will be understood by your listeners.
2. Practice
Practice speaking. Practice articulating. Practice using your recording and editing tools.
3. Invite feedback
Sometimes listeners hesitate before they respond. So, invite feedback often. Once you start hearing from your
listeners, you can begin to tweak your message so it becomes clearer and better understood.

1. List down 10 tips on how to avoid the different types of noise in communication.
2. Think of five nonverbal messages that you always send to other people.
MODULE 3
Models of Communication
Principles of Effective Oral and Written Communication
1. Differentiate the different models of communication.
2. Explain the different principles of effective oral and written communication.
Communication Models
1. Aristotle’s Model of Communication
Aristotle was the first to take an initiative and design the communication model. According to this
model, the speaker plays a key role in communication. He is the one who takes complete charge of the
communication. The sender first prepares a content which he does by carefully putting his thoughts in words
with an objective of influencing the listeners or the recipients, who would then respond in the sender’s
desired way. No points in guessing that the content has to be very impressive in this model for the audience or
the receivers to get convinced. The model says that the speaker communicates in such a way that the listeners
get influenced and respond accordingly.
The speaker must be very careful about his selection of words and content in this model of
communication. He should understand his target audience and then prepare his speech. Making eye contact
with the second party is again a must to create an impact among the listeners. Stammering, getting nervous
in between of a conversation must be avoided. Voice modulations also play a very important role in creating
the desired effect. Blank expressions, confused looks and similar pitch all through the speech make it
monotonous and nullify its effect. The speaker should know where to lay more stress on, highlight which words
to influence the listeners.
2. Berlo’s Model of Communication

While the Aristotle model of communication puts the speaker in the central position and suggests that
the speaker is the one who drives the entire communication, the Berlo’s model of communication takes into
account the emotional aspect of the message. Berlo’s model of communication operates on the SMCR model.
In the SMCR model –
 S - Stands for Source
 M - Message
 C - Channel
 R – Receiver
1. Source
The source in other words also called the sender is the one from whom the thought originates. He is the
one who transfers the information to the receiver after carefully putting his thoughts into words. How does
the source or the sender transfer his information to the recipient? It is done with the help of communication
skills, Attitude, Knowledge, Social System and Culture.
 Communication Skills
An individual must possess excellent communication skills to make his communication effective and
create an impact among the listeners. The speaker must know where to take pauses, where to repeat the
sentences, how to speak a particular sentence, how to pronounce a word and so on. The speaker must not
go on and on. He should also make a point to cross check with the recipients and listen to their queries as well.
An individual must take care of his accent while communicating. A bad accent leads to a boring
conversation.
 Attitude
It is rightly said that if one has the right attitude, the whole world is at his feet. There is actually no
stopping for the person if he has the right attitude. A person might be a very good speaker but if he doesn’t
have the right attitude, he would never emerge as a winner. The sender must have the right attitude to create a
long-lasting impression on the listeners.
 Knowledge
Here knowledge is not related to the educational qualification of the speaker or the number of degrees he
has in his portfolio. Knowledge is actually the clarity of the information which the speaker wants to convey
to the second party. One must be thorough in what he is speaking with complete in-depth knowledge of the
subject. Remember questions can pop up anytime and you have to be ready with your answers. You need to be
totally familiar with what you are speaking. Before delivering any speech, read as much you can and
prepare the subject completely without ignoring even the smallest detail.
 Social System
Imagine a politician delivering a speech where he proposes to construct a temple in a Muslim dominated
area. What would be the reaction of the listeners? They would obviously be not interested. Was there any
problem in the communication skills of the leader or he didn’t have the right attitude? The displeasure of the
listeners was simply because the speaker ignored the social set up of the place where he was
communicating. He forgot the sentiments, cultural beliefs, religious feelings of the second party. Had it
been a Hindu dominated society, his speech would have been very impressive.
Culture
Culture refers to the cultural background of the community or the listeners where the speaker is
communicating or delivering his speech.
2. M - Message
When an individual converts his thoughts into words, a message is created. The process is also called as
encoding.
Any message further comprises of the following elements:

 Content
One cannot show his grey matter to others to let him know what he is thinking. A thought has to be put
into words and content has to be prepared. Content is actually the matter or the script of the conversation. It is
in simpler words, the backbone of any communication. It is very important for the speaker to carefully
choose the words and take good care of the content of the speech. The content has to be sensible, accurate,
crisp, related to the thought to hit the listeners bang on and create an immediate impact.
 Element
It has been observed that speech alone cannot bring a difference in the communication. Keep on
constantly speaking and the listeners will definitely lose interest after some time. The speech must be coupled
with lots of hand movements, gestures, postures, facial expressions, body movements to capture the
attention of the listeners and make the speech impressive. Hand movements, gestures, postures, facial
expressions, body movements, gestures all come under the elements of the message.
 Treatment
Treatment is actually the way one treats his message and is conveys to the listeners. One must
understand the importance of the message and must know how to handle it. If a boss wants to fire any of his
employees, he has to be authoritative and can’t express his message in a casual way. This is referred to as the
treatment of the message. One must understand how to present his message so that the message is conveyed in
the most accurate form.
 Structure
A message cannot be expressed in one go. It has to be properly structured in order to convey the
message in the most desired form.
 Code
Enter a wrong code and the locks will never open. Enter a wrong password, you will not be able to open
your email account. In the same way the code has to be correct in the communication. Your body
movements, your language, your expressions, your gestures are actually the codes of the message and
have to be accurate otherwise the message gets distorted and the recipient will never be able to decode
the correct information.
3. C - Channel
Channel actually refers to the medium how the information flows from the sender to the receiver. How
does one know what the other person is speaking? - Through Hearing. How does one know whether the pasta he
has ordered is made in white sauce or not? - Through Tasting. How does one know that there is a diversion
ahead or it’s a no parking zone? - Through Seeing. How will an individual come to know that the food is fresh
or stale ? How do we find out the fragrance of a perfume? - Through Smelling. How will you find out whether
the milk is hot or not ? - Through Touching. All the five senses are the channels which help human beings to
communicate with each other.
4. R - Receiver
When the message reaches the receiver, he tries to understand what the listener actually wants to
convey and then responds accordingly. This is also called as decoding. The receiver should be on the same
platform as the speaker for smooth flow of information and better understanding of the message. He should
possess good communication skills to understand what the speaker is trying to convey. He should have the right
attitude to understand the message in a positive way. His knowledge should also be at par with the listener
and must know about the subject. He should also be from the same social and cultural background just like
the speaker.
There are several loopholes in the Berlo’s model of communication. According to the Berlo’s model of
communication, the speaker and the listener must be on a common ground for smooth conversion which is
sometimes not practical in the real scenario.
Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication

Shannon and Weaver model is the most popular model of communication and is widely accepted all
over the world.
Shannon and Weaver model simply propose that a message actually originates from the person who
gets the thought or has the information. The sender is also called the Source of information or the
Information Source. The information then gets transmitted from the brain to the mouth and comes out as a
signal which then reaches the recipient after joining hands with several noises and other disturbances. The
recipient then further passes on the message to its final destination or other minds of other individuals.
Schramm’s Model of Communication
After learning the Shannon and Weaver model, let’s find out about Schramm’s model of communication
which has its roots from the Shannon weaver model itself. Wilber Schramm proposed the model of
communication in 1954.
Information is of no use unless and until it is carefully put into words and conveyed to others.
Encoding plays a very important role because it initiates the process of communication by converting the
thought into content. When the information reaches the recipient, his prime responsibility is to understand
what the speaker intends to convey. Unless and until the second party is able to understand or decode the
information what the sender wants to communicate, the message is actually of no use.
Thus, encoding and decoding are two most important factors of an effective communication
without which information can never flow between two individuals. Schramm’s model also revolves around the
above principle. According to the Schramm’s model, coding and decoding are the two essential processes
of an effective communication.
He also emphasizes that the communication is incomplete unless and until the sender receives a
feedback from the recipient. Imagine a person sharing his thoughts with his friend and his friend not
responding to him. Is the communication complete? NO. Schramm believed that communication is actually
a two-way process between the first party and the second party. According to Schramm’s model, whenever
the information reaches the recipient, it becomes his responsibility to give the feedback and let him know if he
has downloaded the message in exactly the same manner the speaker wanted. If he is not clear with anything or
has any doubts, it must be cleared with the speaker. Thus, when the speaker conveys any message to the
listener, the listener, decodes the message and once again passes the message to the speaker after understanding
it and completing the full circle.
Sender
M↓ ↑M
Receiver
M - Stands for message
Schramm believed that an individual’s knowledge, experience and cultural background also play an
important role in communication. Individuals from diverse cultures, religion or background tend to interpret the
message in different ways. There are some messages which are more or less same for everyone. They are called
as messages with a Denotative meaning which are almost the same for all individuals and in such cases
chances of misinterpretation and misunderstanding gets nullified. A message can also get distorted due to
wrong body movements, gestures, facial expressions and many other factors.
To conclude, according to this model of communication, when a sender passes on the information to the
receiver, the receiver must interpret it in the desired form the sender wants and give him the feedback or
respond accordingly.
Helical Model of Communication

Another very important model of communication is the Helical Model of communication. The Helical
Model of communication was proposed by Frank Dance in 1967 to throw some more light on communication
process. Dance thought of communication process similar to helix.
What is a helix?
A Helix is nothing but a smooth curve just like a spring which if goes upwards also comes
downwards. The Helical model of communication was designed by Frank Dance keeping the simple Helix in
mind. According to the Helical model of communication, the process of communication evolves from the
very birth of an individual and continues till the existing moment. All living entities start communicating
from the very first day of their origin. When seeds are planted, they convey the message to the gardener that
they need to be watered daily and should be treated well with fertilizers and manure. When a plant emerges
from the seed it also starts communicating its need for water, sunlight, manure and fertilizers, thus supporting
the Helical model of communication. The same also applies for animals, birds, fishes and all living creatures.
According to the Helical model, as the process of communication moves forward, it also comes back
and is largely dependent on the past behavior of the individual. The model believes that communication
process is just like a helix which moves forward as well as comes backward and is dependent on the behavior
patterns of the past definitely with some modifications and changes. As the child grows up, he does make slight
changes in his past body movements or past pronunciation or facial expressions. He makes certain changes,
modifications in his communication and tries to get rid of the communication errors. An individual will
definitely get less nervous in his teenage days as compared to his childhood days.
Westley and MacLean’s Model of Communication

Yet another achievement in the discipline of communication was the Westley and MacLean’s model of
communication proposed in the year 1957 by Bruce Westley and Malcolm S. MacLean Jr. This model considers
a strong relation between the signals from the surroundings and the process of communication. According
to this model the process of communication begins with receiving messages rather than sending messages.
(Receives message)
Environment Sender then sends message
(Communication starts)
In this model it is not necessary that the signals coming from the surroundings are intentionally sent to
start the process of communication. Sometimes events might accidentally occur or the thought can be
accidentally received. This is a common loophole of this model of communication, where the information
sometimes gets modified when it is passed from one person to the other individual.
Effective Communication: Five Principles to Perfect

Here are a few principles to consider as you adjust and refine your communication skills.
1. Understand yourself. Understanding who you are and what your natural tendencies are is the first step
to being an effective and genuine communicator. Do you tend to be chatty, or do you like to listen? Are you
assertive? Are you direct? Are you comfortable with ambiguities, uncertainties, and risks? Do you choose your
words carefully, or, do you tend to use words more like a blunt instrument? Do you tend to unintentionally
offend or miscommunicate with others? Do you tend to overreact, or do you tend to stay calm and collected?
Another part of understanding yourself is to be clear about your values and goals, both in general and in
the context of each communication. When you are clear on why you’re communicating, your genuine self will
shine through and add credibility and vigor to your communication. After all, being “real” leads to more
effective communication.
2. Understand your audience. As important as it is to understand yourself, it is also important to

understand your audience and their natural tendencies, motivations, goals, challenges, and opportunities. Does
your audience want to be heard, enlightened, or get things done? How much time does your audience have? Is
your audience patient and forgiving? Are you interacting with a competitor, collaborator, or superior party?
What pains and opportunities — real or imaginary — does your audience perceive? Is there a third party that is
not present whose interest must be addressed to help you communicate more effectively? Another part of
understanding your audience is to be clear about their values and goals. For example, is your audience
focused on maximizing profits or social good?
3. Listen actively. Listening is usually an important part of most communications. It is not enough to
merely listen, however. You also want to make sure that others feel heard. To that end, it is not enough to use
your ears. Active listening that helps people feel heard involves eye contact, nodding, appropriate and
timely responses, and overall high engagement. Asking good, relevant questions and then actively listening
helps to build rapport and trust. Active listening also involves looking for more subtle, nonverbal cues; one’s
body language will often tell you as much as, if not more than, the substantive message.
4. Simplify. Simple, concise messages that can be delivered quickly and powerfully usually have the
highest impact, especially when you address an audience that is overworked or overwhelmed with information.
And these days, who isn’t overworked or overwhelmed with information? Distilling complex materials into
digestible terms that your audience can understand and use is an art worth pursuing, because it often makes a
difference between getting what you want and not. Cut out the technical jargon and business speak, reduce
complexity, and cut right to the chase by saying exactly what you mean in as few words as possible. Also
consider using graphics, stories, or analogies to drive your point home in a more powerful and memorable way.
5. Find a perfect time. A good idea is only good when it comes at the right time. As an effective
communicator, you need to be on the lookout for a window of opportunity that allows you to be the most
effective. For example, offering a solution, product, or service just when your audience is looking for one is a
perfect time to deliver your message. In fact, addressing the needs of others in a timely way is the most
guaranteed (though not necessarily the quickest) way to get a desired outcome and be an effective
communicator. Consider being more alert and flexible in order to more effectively influence the outcome and
get what you want in the long run.
Principle for effective oral communication

The first impression (5 seconds)
 A judgment is formed
 An assessment of competence
 A view of how they look and communicate
 An understanding of what motivates them
 A lasting first impression is established
The content of talking

 Keep your speaking clear, simple and make sense.
Make sure speak clear and logical and logical sequence. Ask yourself questions, how do they sound, can
they be immediately understandable. Unorganized ideas can't provide clear idea to audience and make people
confused
 Adjust your choice of words to audience

Use carefully worded transition as you move through your oral communication. Words can have
different meaning to different people in different situation in oral communication, thus you should just use
common, simple, nature and familiar words to ensure audiences can understand you correctly.
 Be aware of distracting habits

Someone may like ask questions during communication, so be aware of these habits and try not be
disrupted.
 Voice (pacing and high volume)

Using natural voice, sometimes unnatural voice my distort the message. Using nature voice would
make communication more effective. Clear pronunciation, make sure you can speak clearly, pronounce clearly,
otherwise the communication would be confused.
 Be attractive
It makes oral communication effective. You should deliver his speech in a very nice and sweet language
so that audiences can be actively participate into the communication.
 In presentation, a dynamic format is better rather than a static one

It has been reported that about 60-65% people are visualized people, which means people can remember
thing easier via eyes. Dynamic means forceful, alive and moving, such as video, and some interesting images,
it means your audiences could remember your information easily.
 Use language best suited to ear, not the eye

Use language for the ear, in your presentation, ensure don't put too much information in your
presentation slides. Audiences need to hear important information from your talking but not your slides.
 Thus, be careful in your introduction

The good introduction could make your presentation more efficiently, the purposes of the introduction is
1) to arrest the attention of the hearer; 2) to awaken interest in your subject; 3) to introduce your subject; 4)
to introduce the text; 5) to make a smooth transition into the body of idea.
 The closing of your introduction

Conclusion will include the visualization and action steps. It will development returns to your purpose.
The best method in your closing is use illustration and application to picture the experience of the purpose for
the audiences.
 Understand your nervousness

It is common, most of people will feel nervous about speaking in public, therefore you need to learn
how to manage your nervousness.
Here are some tips to help you to manage your nervousness.

1. Your performance is important, but the most important thing is sharing information, your message,
your idea, feeling. it’s about learning together.
2. Nobody can be perfect. If you mess up something, just fix it and go on.
3. Sometime, some nervousness is a good thing. It will energize your presentation, enhance your
alertness and animation, and boost audience engagement.
4. Use relaxation techniques, before your presentation, sit quiet, focus on letting the tension go out of your
body, breathe deeply from your abdomen.
5. Smile.

1. Explain the different models of communication through an example.
2. How can you improve yourself to become an effective communicator?
MODULE 4
Value of Message in Communication
1. Define and rationalize the real value of message in communication.
2. Identify and explain the three variables that make up a message.
3. Identify and explain the purposes of the message.
4. Know the ways of conveying the message clearly.
5. Identify the target audience.
6. Identify and explain the other ways of presenting the message.
Why Messaging Is Important

Strategic messaging drives marketing and sales activities streamlining communication so that what
prospects read on your website translates well into demo and sales conversation. Strategic messaging should be
translated into a compelling story. Storytelling is a subject for a different post, but it’s important to understand
how strategic messaging translates to stories that your marketing and sales team will communicate. In
rhetorical and communication studies, a message is defined as information conveyed by words (in speech or
writing), and/or other signs and symbols. A message (verbal or nonverbal, or both) is the content of the
communication process. The originator of the message in the communication process is the sender. The sender
conveys the message to a receiver.
Three Variables of Message

1. Content. In communication context, content maybe classified as referential and relational. The ideas
contained in a message or the ideas the speaker says as he thinks about something are referred to as
referential, whereas when the speaker's ideas or messages insinuate that there is a relationship between him
and his listener, the content of his message may be considered as relational. A typical example of which is
when the speaker talks to someone and he mentions his name and hints at his familiarity with him in his talk.
2. Structure. In every communication situation, achieving clarity of the message or information shared is
deemed important. It is much needed that the speaker guides or directs his listeners to the topics or arguments
that he intends to bring and to discuss with them. In this regard, coherent pattern of organization is indeed
significant. The message to be shared with the listeners should be structured or organized. No matter how
nervous the speaker is, it is necessary that he provides patterns for the audiences to follow so as for them to be
guided accordingly to the ideas he hopes to share. A basic numerical form can be used, to wit.. first, second…
next… finally… or as intricate as a full outline with points and sub- points.
3. Style. The third variable of spoken message is style. It is referred to the careful manner of gathering and
arranging the words to express the speaker's message which somehow reveals what kind of a person he is
when speaking. Styles can be personal or impersonal, literal or ironic, plain or elevated, philosophical or
poetic. The use of variations in sentence structures determines the speaker's style in expressing his spoken
message.
What is the Purpose of the Message?
1. Informative messages can be short or long, formal or casual in tone, internal or external in focus, and
direct or indirect in structure, depending on the situation. Like all forms of communication, the purpose of
informative messages is to promote understanding, encourage action, stimulate thinking, or promote
ideas.
Informative messages can take on almost any form of electronic communication: IMs, chats, emails,
presentations, memos, blogs, podcasts, press releases, and reports. As was stated earlier in this module, the
situation at hand will dictate how the message is crafted and how it is sent. Despite the variety of informative
messages and how they can be sent, there are some guidelines that pertain to all effective business
communication.
1. Get to the main idea as quickly as possible.
2. Use a greeting to identify the audience.
3. Be clear and concise with the presentation of information.
4. Check your message for grammatical errors.
5. Include a call to action.
2. A persuasive message is the central message that intrigues, informs, convinces, or calls to action.
Persuasive messages are often discussed in terms of reason versus emotion. Every message has elements of
ethos, or credibility; pathos, or passion and enthusiasm; and logos, or logic and reason. If your
persuasive message focuses exclusively on reason with cold, hard facts and nothing but the facts, you may or
may not appeal to your audience. People make decisions on emotion as well as reason, and even if they
have researched all the relevant facts, the decision may still come down to impulse, emotion, and desire. On
the other hand, if your persuasive message focuses exclusively on emotion, with little or no substance, it may
not be taken seriously. Finally, if your persuasive message does not appear to have credibility, the message
may be dismissed entirely.
Strategies for persuasive messages

Your product or service may sell itself, but you may want to consider using some strategies to help
ensure your success:
1. Start with your greatest benefit. Use it in the headline, subject line, caption, or attention statement.
Audiences tend to remember the information from the beginning and end of a message, but have less recall
about the middle points. Make your first step count by highlighting the best feature first.
2. Take baby steps. Promote, inform, and persuade on one product or service at a time. You want to hear “yes,”
and if you confuse the audience with too much information, too many options, steps to consider, or related
products or service, you are more likely to hear “no” as a defensive response as the audience tries not to make a
mistake. Avoid confusion and keep it simple.
3. Know your audience. The more background research you can do on your audience, the better you can
anticipate their specific wants and needs and tailor your persuasive message to meet them.
4. Lead with emotion, and follow with reason. Gain the audience’s attention with drama, humor, or novelty
and follow with specific facts that establish your credibility, provide more information about the product or
service, and lead to your call to action.
5. Goodwill messages are special messages. Unlike good news message that say “yes" to the reader related to
business, goodwill messages are meant to build goodwill. These messages are always appreciated.
Goodwill messages are very nice letters to receive because they often come as a pleasant surprise. Unlike good
news letters that give positive news related to business, goodwill letters build relationships. Finding the right
words to express feelings is sometimes more difficult than writing ordinary messages. A ready-made card, even
one that's well designed and attractive, simple does not have the same emotional impact as a personalized letter.
Dr. Mary Ellen Guffey, best-selling author, recommends these five S’s of Goodwill Messages:
1. Be selfless. Focus on the reader, not on the sender. A sincere thank you to a customer should not include a
notice of an upcoming sale.
2. Be specific. Instead of vague statements (You did a good job), include special details (Your strategy for
approaching customers proved to be outstanding)
3. Be sincere. Show your honest feelings with conversational, everyday language.
4. Be spontaneous. Strive to make the message natural, fresh and direct. Avoid canned phrases (If I may be of
service, please do not hesitate...)
5. Be short. Goodwill messages are fairly brief
Seven Steps to Clear and Effective Communication by Joel Garfinkle

1. Stay on Message.
Be clear exactly what ideas you are trying to express or the message you are trying to convey to the other
person or group. What do you most want them to understand?
2. Make It a Two-Way Conversation.

Try to really hear and understand where others are coming from. What are they trying to say? What
messages are they trying to get across to you? Ask yourself, “Do I really understand them?” Pay special
attention not just to what they are saying, but to what isn’t being said.
3. Making Sense of It All.

Always ask yourself, “Does what I’m saying make sense? Does the feedback I’m receiving make sense?
What is the perspective they are trying to get across? Does it make sense that they have this perspective?”
When both parties in the conversation are truly able to say they understand or that “it makes sense,” clear and
effective communication has been achieved.
4. You’re Responsible for Any Failure to Communicate.

Remember, as the primary communicator you are 100% responsible for the other person’s
understanding of the communication. In other words, if you don’t feel that you are being understood, you have
not completed the job of communicating. You must re-communicate your position to ensure that you’ve been
properly heard.
5. Can You Hear Them Now?

Do you really hear what others are saying? To really listen requires your full attention and being able to
feed back to them exactly what you have heard them say.
6. Repetition, Repetition, Repetition.

An equally effective way to make sure others understand exactly what you are communicating is to ask
them to repeat back their interpretation of what has been said or asked of them. In order to guarantee the results
or reaction you want, you need to make sure that your audience can give you a clear explanation of what is
being required of them.
7. Respect Your Audience as You Respect Yourself.

To be a clear and effective communicator, you must first recognize that your message is not just about
you or what you want. It’s about “what’s in it for the audience.” You must both believe in your message and
sincerely care about the needs and the unique perspectives of those you are communicating to if you truly want
to be heard. After all, they took the time and trouble to hear what you have to say, so it’s equally important to
recognize and respect that we each have different perspectives based on our positions, motivations, and needs.
How to determine your target audience
Your target audience are the individuals, groups and communities that have influence and decision-
making power over your brands’ products or services. They are the ones you are trying to attract and sell to –
they are the people want to communicate with.
A business that strategizes and creates messages around a specific target audience will be more likely to
succeed than an organization that just creates strategy for “the general public”. Your target audience are the
people who are going to react positively to your messages and take action.
The key is to dedicate time to really refine your audience before you start ‘talking’ to them. To clarify
your target audiences, answer these questions:
*Who needs to hear your message? Who are the people that would be interested in hearing and learning
about what you have to offer them?
* Who are the influencers? All target audiences have people who have great influence over their
decisions. They can be family members, friends, authoritative figures such as doctors and even the
media.
* Who must be moved to action? Who are the targets that actually follow through with the purchase?
* Who has the greatest impact on the business’s outcome? Who are the people who will affect
whether you fail or succeed?
Once you have researched and determined your target audience, you can now begin to create strategies,
messages and tactics that are tailored to your target audience’s needs, wants and values.
Clearly defining your target audience will help you get the best results because your efforts will be
targeted to the people who are most likely to respond positively.
Read more at: https://publicrelationssydney.com.au/how-to-determine-your-target-audience/
7 Ways to Make Your Presentation Message

Eric Fitzpatrick of Toastmasters International has seven tips that will help:
1. Be different. Work out how you can stand out from all the other speakers. For example, Steve Jobs stood
out as a presenter because of his appearance, because he stepped out from behind the lectern, because he rarely
if ever used notes, because his power point slides mostly contained images instead of text and because he
ignited the imagination of his listeners. Work out how you can be different.
2. Tell stories. People are wired for stories. Stories allow listeners to create pictures in their mind which help
them to understand the speaker’s message. A presenter’s story allows the listener to recall their own version
of that story which makes it easier to relate to the message. Stories are easier to remember. A good story is
easier to recall a day, a week, even a year after it was heard.
3. Use humor. At a conference, the speaker who can make their audience laugh will be long remembered.
Listeners want useful information but they need to be entertained. Humor breaks down barriers between a
presenter and their audience. Humor allows an audience to relax – and relaxed audiences learn. An audience
that laughs is more likely to remember your message and buy into it.
4. One message. Whether you are speaking for five minutes or forty-five minutes, give your listeners one
message. Make three to five points that support that message but give them one message only. Before you start
creating your presentation ask yourself the following question “What is my objective?” The answer will be the
message you want to get across.
5. Use concrete images. The best way to explain abstract ideas or technical information is with metaphors or
similes. Comparing difficult to understand subjects to visually strong or familiar images will make them easier
to comprehend. If you want your message to be remembered, explain it in terms your listener is already familiar
with.
6. Connect emotionally. It has been said that 80 per cent of the decisions we make are based upon emotion.
We are all connected by six emotions; happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise and disgust. If you want to
connect with your audience, connect with one or more of these emotions.
7. Focus on your audience. Create a presentation that focuses on the benefits to your listener and NOT the
features of the product. Your audience is thinking “what’s in this for me?” Answer that question in terms of
benefits to your audience and they will be focused on your message.
It takes work to stand out from the crowd but the rewards can be great. Using these seven ideas will
allow your audience to catch all of your key points, including the message you want them to come away with.
1. Rationalize the real value of message in communication.

2. Explain the three variables that make up a message.
MODULE 5
Ethics of Communication
Features of a Good TED
Talk
1. Demonstrate ethics in communication
2. Discuss the features of a good TED talk.
Ethics of Communication
Ethical Communication
Defined
Ethical communication is a type of communication that is predicated upon certain business values, such
as being truthful, concise, and responsible with one’s words and the resulting actions. As a set of
principles, ethical communication understands that one’s thoughts must be conveyed and expressed effectively
and concisely, and that the resulting actions or consequences will [potentially] be based solely on how the
message was communicated. Thus, ethical communication defines a framework or set of acceptable
communication principles that align with an enterprise’s overarching code of conduct or code of ethics.
Fundamentals of Ethical Communication

1. Honesty
Any attempt to mislead or present confusing information is not ethical communication. Additionally,
the “honesty” principle of ethical communication is linked inexorably to other core principles - consistency and
responsibility. This entails that information presented to different parties be consistent, and that short-term and
long-term consequences of honest communication are to be accepted as one’s responsibility. Being honest is
linked to one’s personal and professional trustworthiness and integrity.
2. Openness and Transparency

Truthfulness & honesty is the most core principle of ethical communication. This means that speaking
99 percent of the truth in a matter - while leaving out one percent of the facts - is not ethical communication, as
omitting any detail (intentionally) changes the way that a listener will perceive an event. Thus, being 100
percent open and transparent, and hiding nothing, is key in order for all business relationships - whether within
a business between its members, or with business and their partners, or even customers - to succeed in the short
term and long term.
3. Consideration for Any Potential Roadblocks

When communicating with another party, truly ethical communication entails considering any potential
factor that may influence how the recipient understands - or receives - the information that is being
communicated. If there are any known roadblocks, then ethical communication principles dictate that the
speaker/communicator utilize whatever means possible to mitigate or attenuate the roadblocks and ensure that
the recipients of the information are able to fully understand what is being communicated.
Several examples below where roadblocks may present themselves, resulting in the communicator
needing to take steps to attenuate any potential instances of miscommunication:
3.1 Language Use
Obviously, ethical communication dictates that speakers utilize the language that listeners
understand. It would make little sense to present a business presentation in English to a non-English speaking
Chinese audience. Taking this example further, it would also be unethical to communicate the information
mostly in Chinese, with a certain section in English, presenting only parts of the data to the Chinese audience.
3.2 Jargon
Every industry has its own jargon. When speaking to a layperson, it is ethical to speak with simple,
easy-to-understand words, while avoiding the use of heavy jargon, resulting in portions of the
presentation/communication being incomprehensible to a portion of the audience.
3.3 Language Fluency

Ethical communication takes into account the level of fluency as well as the language spoken by
listeners so that recipients of the communication (whether it be spoken or written) are able to fully understand
what is being communicated.
3.4 Accessibility to Technology

In this information and digital age, some take accessibility to advanced technology for granted. For
instance, while smartphones are readily available, and translation apps are abundant, not everyone is able to
access such applications or platforms. If a business wanted to present certain pieces of information to an
audience while expecting the audience to translate it into their native language via an application, there may be
confusion. Thus, the ability to access certain technology - and the know-how on how to use certain applications
- may be a roadblock when it comes to ethically communicating to a particular audience.
4. Development of Relationship
The art of communication allows people to express themselves in order to develop relationships. In
business, this can be an employee dealing with a manager, executives communicating with stakeholders, or
managers talking with other business representatives. It is critical for there to be no confusion or
misunderstandings when businesses try to develop relationships within themselves and with other business
entities or clients/customers. To accomplish this, ethical communication principles must be followed, ensuring
that all parties can receive the consistent truth, and understand what needs to be done, and how it needs to be
done.
5. Active Listening
Hearing someone and listening to them are two different things. In order for ethical communication to
be effective, it is necessary for the recipient to pro-actively listen to the speaker, and to not just hear what they
want to hear, or to hear only parts of the conversation. This also means asking questions when any point is not
completely understood, for the sake of clarification.
6. Speak Non-Judgmentally
Ethically and concisely communicating means speaking in a non-judgmental manner with every
recipient, negating unnecessary conflict, which typically creates a breakdown in communication and causes
misunderstandings. Unnecessary conflict is never good for any business, and such conflicts usually result
from unethical communications, with judgmental, accusatory, and overly-critical comments often being the
catalyst for such breakdowns in communication.
7. Speak from Your Own Experience

Bringing your personal experience into a dialogue with business listeners is important, providing
backup for your arguments with something more tangible. Such a communication method (experiential
communication) paints a complete picture for your audience and helps to prove your points so that the listeners
have a better understanding of what is being said.
8. Consider the Receiver’s Preferred Communication Channel
You risk losing an audience if you use a communication channel that is not preferred by your intended
receiver. To effectively communicate with your listeners, use the most preferred communication channel,
whether that be face-to-face, email, conference call, phone call, messenger app, etc. Also, when presenting data
to a business audience, be aware of the preferred method of presentation for that business, whether it be graphs,
slides, PowerPoint presentations, etc. Additionally, since body language is very important, it is often preferred
to meet business clients face-to-face.
9. Strive to Understand
While it is important to be proactive in listening, it is important for listeners to also strive to fully
understand what is being said before responding. While asking for clarification or confirmation of a point is
fine, many times questions that listeners pose have already been answered. Listeners should think about what
has been said before constructing a reply. Reading “in between the lines” is also an important skill that allows
for understanding what isn’t said, but was implicitly said or implied.
10. Avoid A Negative Tone

Ethically communicating assumes the speaker will avoid rudeness, be polite and professional, and
have tact. The ethical communicator knows that it’s not only important what you say, but how you say
it. Tone is one of the most critical facets of communication. A listener may miss the meaning altogether if the
tone is wrong, which can lead to unnecessary confrontations that decrease business productivity.
Controlling one’s tone goes along with self-control, a soft skill that allows one to know how they wish
to reply to a terse business message (for instance) versus the most effective manner for replying. Essentially,
keeping the tone positive or neutral is best, as the tone of a written message - or of one’s voice - is always
picked up by the receiver, and can alter how the message is received and/or understood.
11. Do Not Interrupt Others

Allowing others to speak is important for the creation of a civil, effective working environment.
Interrupting others results in misunderstandings and unnecessary conflicts and a breakdown in workplace
communications, which only hinders corporate progress and creates problems. Interrupting others not only
shows a lack of respect, but does not allow the listener to fully grasp what is being said, which often results in
incorrect assumptions being made.
12. Respect Privacy and Confidentiality

Most businesses should include a clause in their code of ethics defining what is appropriate when it
comes to honoring client and employee confidentiality and privacy. This can have a wide range of implications,
including minimizing workplace gossip, and mitigating toxic conversations about the private lives of clients
and/or personnel.
13. Accept Responsibility

As noted before, a core tenant within any ethical communication framework is taking responsibility for
the actions that result from one’s words, whether it be good or bad. This includes both short term and long-term
consequences of one’s communications. Owning one’s words reinforces the importance of being
conscientious about ethical communication.
Ethical Communication in An Organization

In business organizations, communicating concisely, ethically, and appropriately are all necessary so a
business can operate effectively and efficiently. Operating according to a communication-based code of ethics
is important for both small- and large-scale person-to-person conversations. For larger audiences it is often
important for business members to employ additional values to their communication principles, such as:
1. Choosing the right place/time:
Speaking about a particular topic in a business often requires choosing the most pertinent and
appropriate time and place in order for the message to be most effective. This requires knowing the recipients
and having tact, along with utilizing strategy and planning.
2. Knowing one’s Audience:

Certain audiences may prefer different verbiage or jargon, or may prefer one communication channel
over another. Being an effective communicator means knowing your audience in order to communicate in the
way that he/she will understand the best.
3. Business communication requires ethical values to form the foundation of all of its relationships, which
ensures that all enterprise workflows, short term projects, and long-term projects are effectively managed and
carried out. Any lapse in efficient and ethical communication can result in misunderstandings, conflicts,
delays with projects, and the creation of an ineffective working environment
What is TED talk?

A TED talk is a video created from a presentation at the main TED (technology, entertainment,
design) conference or one of its many satellite events around the world. TED talks are limited to a maximum
length of 18 minutes but may be on any topic.
5 Elements of a Great TED Talk

1. Begin with the end in mind, and have a clear idea of your central idea. Donovan writes that “laser focus
on a single concept will give a fine mesh filter for editing your material.”
2. Have a catchphrase. The author advises that the best catchphrases are short and include a call to action.
Think “Yes We Can” or “If it Doesn’t Fit, You Must Acquit.”
3. Avoid intro buzzkill. Donovan points out that nothing sets a speaker up for misery more than a poor
introduction. Not your intro, but the person introducing you. (People who stand up and just read verbatim from
speaker bios drive me crazy.) The author writes that “constructive introductions are limited in scope to
information that ties to the speaker’s central unifying idea.” Could we adopt this rule, please?
4. Open strong to hook your audience. The best openings? A personal story, a shocking statement, or a
powerful question.
5. Reiterate the “why.” Donovan points out that your conclusion is your “final opportunity to inspire your
audience to change their perspective or call them to action.” He highlights several ways to accomplish this,
including shortening your sentences and giving your audience an easy way, they can take that next step.
6. The strength of How to Deliver a TED Talk is its simplicity. Like the best TED talks, it is filled with stories
(in this case examples from various presentations) that illustrate how to spread your ideas with grace and
eloquence. In addition, the author ends with a call to practice and prepare to be a great speaker. Whether you’re
preparing for your first presentation or looking for ways to elevate your effectiveness, this book is filled with
advice and “ideas worth spreading.”
What makes TED talk interesting?

Choose a topic you're personally passionate about; Play with different ways to narrate (take us on)
your journey of discovery around that topic; Stay focused on your most important point; and. Understand
what makes all of this important to your audience.
A Ted Talk on Ted Talks: To watch a video on how to give a great talk, go
to www.ted.com/talks/chris_anderson_teds_secret_to_great_public_speaking.
https://www.apa.org/monitor/2017/02/tips-speaking
1. Using the knowledge on how to communicate effectively, prepare a five-minute TED talk on any
topic that interests you most.
MODULE 6
British English vs. American English vs. Philippine English
1. Distinguish the differences between British English, American English and

Philippine English.
2. Use the word/s correctly when using the kind of spoken/written English.
Introduction
Given the number of places around the world that English is spoken, differences are
bound to emerge. Despite how much the USA and UK have in common, there are enough
differences between their two versions of the English language that someone may not always
understand exactly what someone from the other country is saying. Not only are there 160
distinct dialects of the English language, but there's also different spelling and even words,
used to describe one or other thing. Fortunately, the US State Department has created a series
of these useful graphics to help clear things up between the British English Vs. American
English usage.
Did you know, that the difference between spelling words like American color and
British colour, or humor and humour, comes from the Brits adopting, their now called British
words, from Old French language? When it came to America later, the spelling was simplified.
And so is with many other American English and British English differences, as the adaptation
of grammar took its part.
The US and the UK's imperial histories and modern influence over the world have
changed the English wording forever. Because it was exported to countries all over the world, it
has been forced to accept different variations of the same language, the most known one to be
the British Vs. American.
Even if you're not a native speaker of UK or US English, there's a good chance you'll
learn something new here. Check the brilliant graphs about British Vs. American English
language differences below.
The Influence of the Americans on Filipino English
Filipino English and American English are often compared due to their similarities in pronunciation and
spelling. Rooting back, the Philippines has been colonized by the American for 48 years and the influence it
created to the Filipinos did play a significant role in the country’s educational system.
Due to this influence, the Filipino English accent is almost the same as the American English accent
except for the fact that it’s a little strong compared to the latter. It is interesting to note that now English is
considered as the 2nd language of the Philippines, if not the official language by some Filipino people
especially those who are living in metropolitan cities like Metro Manila and Cebu. Surely, wherever you are in
the Philippines, Filipino will wow you with their English communication skills.
But did you know that Filipino English has gotten its own variant of English? What’s sillier is that these
terms common ONLY in Filipino English but never in American English. Now, let me teach you about the 6
Crazy Terms Used in Filipino English.

Salvage and Savage Are Twins.
Who would have thought that the word SALVAGE means “to Kill extra-judicially” in the
Philippines? While the dictionary meaning of the word is “to save”, in the Philippines it is the total opposite.
For Filipinos, this word has the exact meaning of “to kill”. Many believed that the meaning of the
word “salvage” became popular during the regime of Marcos dictatorship. According to some, it was first used
during the regime of Marcos dictatorship when he ordered the military to execute thousands of Filipino without
legal proof, cause, or trial. The term is believed to have originated from the Tagalog word ‘salbahe’ (derived
from the Spanish salvaje), which means brutal or savage. In the present time, it seems that the words
“SAVAGE” and “SALVAGE” are twins in Filipino English! Fun Fact!
It’s Rest Room for Americans but C.R. for Filipinos!

Call of Nature? You better rush yourself to the CR! Yes, you hear it right because Filipino’s are more
familiar with the term than with American terms’ Restroom or Washroom. Some Filipinos might take you to the
bedroom because that is literally a room where you can rest or to the shower room because you sure can wash
and clean yourself inside a washroom. Hilarious!
You’re a Hostess? Disgusting!

In American English, a hostess refers to a woman who hosts or throws a party but in Filipino English, it
has its own negative connotation. In fact, if your Filipina friends find out that you’re a hostess, be ready to lose
them all. Why? Simply because the word “Hostess” means a “prostitute” in Filipino English same goes with
the acronym G.R.O., meaning Guest Relations Officer. If you still want to receive another party invitation
again, better forget that term hostess and just say “someone who throws a party.” The Longer, the safer!
‘Ref’ for Filipinos. ‘Fridge’ for Americans!

The shorter the better! This is what Filipinos love to do. If you ask someone where the cold drinks are,
he sure will answer “The drinks are inside the REF!” For Filipinos, the word refrigerator is exhausting to
pronounce because it’s LONG. A fridge is a little long, but a REF is just too short! To sum it up, it’s ‘Ref’ in the
Philippines but ‘Fridge in the USA.
Fill Up Vs. Fill Out

When you are in the Philippines, signing a document can become a little tricky. Some Filipinos will
instruct you to “FILL UP” a form. Hold your breath and make sure you don’t laugh at them. By definition, the
phrasal verb “FILL UP” in American English means to make something full or to become full. However, in
Filipino English, “FILL UP” means to complete something with the information, like a form or a survey. By
now, you should know that “FILL UP” and “FILL OUT” have no difference at all.
Nose Bleed!
The chance of hearing this term is unavoidable! Yes, Filipinos can understand and speak English but
some of them are scared and have a hard time expressing themselves in fluent English. “NOSE
BLEED” doesn’t mean his/her nose bleeding. It is a term used in self-deprecating humor and means that
Filipino can’t keep up with the other person’s English or has difficulty understanding his accent. It is their way
of indirectly telling you that they no longer understand what you are talking about. When you hear a Filipino
speaking says, “WAIT, NOSEBLEED”, don’t laugh because that simply means “STOP, I DON’T REALLY
UNDERSTAND YOU ANYMORE or SORRY, MY ENGLISH IS LIMITED.” So, when you hear this expression,
don’t get pissed. Just laugh along with them and just repeat yourself and use simpler and easier words.
Conclusion
These are but some of the funny terms you can’t hear in AMERICAN ENGLISH because they are
ORIGINALLY found ONLY in FILIPINO ENGLISH! These terms truly represent how quirky and creative
Filipinos are. American English sounds really fun but I say Filipino English is absolutely FUNNER!
1. Explain why one should be consistent in using the kind of English either British or
American when speaking and writing.
2. Why should Filipinos learn to speak and write properly the kind of English when in the USA
or in the UK?
MODULE 7
Language Register
Idioms
1. Identify and explain the styles in spoken and written language register.
2. Apply the various rules about written language registers.
3. Learn some widely used idioms.
What Is Register in Linguistics?

In linguistics, the register is defined as the way a speaker uses language differently in different
circumstances. Think about the words you choose, your tone of voice, even your body language. You probably
behave very differently chatting with a friend than you would at a formal dinner party or during a job interview.
These variations in formality, also called stylistic variation, are known as registers in linguistics. They
are determined by such factors as social occasion, context, purpose, and audience.
Registers are marked by a variety of specialized vocabulary and turns of phrases, colloquialisms and the
use of jargon, and a difference in intonation and pace; in "The Study of Language," linguist George Yule
describes the function of jargon as helping " to create and maintain connections among those who see
themselves as 'insiders' in some way and to exclude 'outsiders.'"
Registers are used in all forms of communication, including written, spoken, and signed. Depending on
grammar, syntax, and tone, the register may be extremely rigid or very intimate. You don't even need to use an
actual word to communicate effectively.
Types of Linguistic Register

Some linguists say there are just two types of register: formal and informal. This isn't incorrect, but it
is an oversimplification. Instead, most who study language say there are five distinct registers.
1. Frozen: This form is sometimes called the static register because it refers to historic language or
communication that is intended to remain unchanged, like a constitution or prayer. Examples: The
Bible, the United States Constitution, the Bhagavad Gita, "Romeo and Juliet."
2. Formal: Less rigid but still constrained, the formal register is used in professional, academic, or legal
settings where communication is expected to be respectful, uninterrupted, and restrained. Slang is
never used, and contractions are rare. Examples: a TED talk, a business presentation, the
Encyclopaedia Brittanica, "Gray's Anatomy," by Henry Gray.
3. Consultative: People use this register often in conversation when they're speaking with someone who
has specialized knowledge or who is offering advice. Tone is often respectful (use of courtesy titles)
but may be more casual if the relationship is longstanding or friendly (a family doctor.) Slang is
sometimes used, people may pause or interrupt one another. Examples: the local TV news broadcast, an
annual physical, a service provider like a plumber.
4. Casual: This is the register people use when they're with friends, close acquaintances and co-workers,
and family. It's probably the one you think of when you consider how you talk with other people,
often
in a group setting. Use of slang, contractions, and vernacular grammar is all common, and people may
also use expletives or off-color language in some settings. Examples: a birthday party, a backyard
barbecue.
5. Intimate: Linguists say this register is reserved for special occasions, usually between only two
people and often in private. Intimate language may be something as simple as an inside joke between
two college friends or a word whispered in a lover's ear.
(https://www.thoughtco.com/register-language-style-1692038)
Language Register
Language register is the level of formality with which you speak. Different situations and people call for
different registers.
The three most common language registers in writing are:
 Formal
 Informal
 Neutral
We use different language registers for different types of writing, just as we speak differently to
different people.
The formal register is more appropriate for professional writing and letters to a boss or a stranger.
The informal register (also called casual or intimate) is conversational and appropriate when writing to
friends and people you know very well.
The neutral register is non-emotional and sticks to facts. It is most appropriate for technical writings.
Formal Language Register
Formal writing is probably the most difficult type of writing. It is impersonal, meaning it is not written
for a specific person and is written without emotion.
Some kinds of writing are always written in formal English.
Formal writing includes

 Business Letters
 Letters of complaint
 Some essays
 Reports
 Official speeches
 Announcements
 Professional emails
There are many rules for writing in formal writing. We will discuss some of the most common
rules here. When in doubt, check the rules in an APA style guide.
Rules of the formal language register:

1. Do not use contractions
Contractions are not usually used in formal writing, even though they are very common in spoken
English.
In formal writing, you should spell out contractions.
Examples:
In formal writing, you should use:
 cannot instead of can’t
 have not instead of haven’t
 will not instead of won’t
 could not instead of couldn’t
 is not instead of isn’t
Contractions CAN be used if you are quoting someone’s exact words in your writing.
Example:
“Two-thirds of my eighth-grade students can’t read at grade level,” the professor stated.
Keep in mind that an apostrophe does not always make a contraction.
Apostrophes are also added to nouns to show ownership. These are used in all language registers,
including formal.
Examples:
 children’s classroom
 professor’s report
 elephant’s trunk

2. Spell out numbers less than one hundred
Examples:
 nineteen
 twenty-two
 seventy-eight
 six
3. Write in third person point of view

In formal writing, we usually do not use first person or second person unless it is a quote.
Avoid using:
 I
 You
 We
 Us
Examples:
 You can purchase a car for under $10,000.
One can purchase a car for under $10,000.
 OR
A car can be purchased for under $10,000.
 You will probably see an elephant on an African safari.
One may see elephants on an African safari.
OR
Elephants are a common sight on African safaris.
 We decided to invest in the company.
The group decided to invest in the company.
4. Avoid using too much passive voice

In formal writing it is better to use an active voice.
Passive sentences:
 The bone was eaten by the dog.
 The research was completed by the students in 2009.
Active sentences:
 The dog ate the bone.
 The students completed the research in
2009. In 2009, the students completed the
research.
5. Avoid using slang, idioms, exaggeration (hyperboles) and clichés

Slang is common in informal writing and spoken English. Slang is particular to a certain region or area.
Examples of slang:
 awesome/cool
 okay/ok
 check it out
 in a nutshell
A cliché is a phrase that is overused (said too often).
Common clichés:
 too much of a good thing
 moment of truth
 Time is money.
 Don’t push your luck.
 Beauty is only skin deep.
6. Avoid abbreviations and acronyms

If you use an acronym or abbreviation, write it out the first time When using acronyms, write the entire
name out the first time it appears, followed by the acronym. From then on, you can use the acronym by itself.
Examples:
 National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
 Kansas Department of Transportation (KDOT)
For abbreviations, write the complete word the first time, then use the abbreviation.
Examples:
 influenza => flu
 United States of America => U.S.A or USA
 tablespoon => tbsp.
 Kansas => KS
Do not use slang abbreviations or symbols that you would use in friendly emails and texts.
Examples:
 LOL (laugh out loud)
 ttyl (talk to you later)
 
 &
 b/c (because)
 w/o (without)
 w/ (with)
7. Do not start sentences with words like and, so, but, also
Here are some good transition words and phrases to use in formal writing:
 Nevertheless
 Additionally
 However
 In addition
 As a result of
 Although
8. Always write in complete sentences.

9. Write longer, more complex sentences.
Informal Language Register

Informal writing is written in the way we talk to our friends and family. We use informal writing
when we are writing to someone we know very well.
Some kinds of writing can be written in an informal style.

Informal writing includes:
 Personal e-mails
 Phone texts
 Short notes
 Friendly letters
 Most blogs
 Diaries and journals
There are no major rules to informal writing.
With informal writing, you can include things such as:

 Slang and clichés
 Figurative language
 Symbols and abbreviations
 Acronyms
 Incomplete sentences
 Short sentences
 First person, second person, and third person
 Paragraphs or no paragraphs
 Jokes
 Personal opinions
 Extra punctuation (Hi Bob!!!!!!!)
 Passive and active voice
Neutral Language Register

We use the neutral language register with non-emotional topics and information. Neutral writing is
not necessarily formal or informal. It is not usually positive or negative. A neutral register is used to deliver
facts. Some writings are written in a neutral register. This means they are not specifically formal or informal.
Writing in the natural language register includes:

 Reviews
 Articles
 Some letters
 Some essays
 Technical writing
https://www.really-learn-english.com/language-register.html
What are Idioms?
A group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual
words (e.g., rain cats and dogs, see the light). Idioms are used frequently in both written and spoken English.
So, let’s take a look at the most popular idioms and common idioms in the English language and what they
mean.
40 Popular Idioms and Their Meanings

by Greg Secrist | Dec 21, 2020 | GrammarSpot |
1. A blessing in disguise
Meaning: A good thing that initially seemed bad
2.A dime a dozen

Meaning: Something that is very common, not unique
3. Adding insult to injury

Meaning: To make a bad situation even worse
4. Beat around the bush

Meaning: Avoid sharing your true viewpoint or feelings because it is uncomfortable
5. Beating a dead horse

Meaning: Giving time or energy to something that is ended or over
6. Bite the bullet

Meaning: To get an unfavorable situation or chore over with now because it will need to get finished eventually
7. Best of both worlds

Meaning: The choice or solution has all of the advantages of two contrasting things at the same time
8. Biting off more than you can chew

Meaning: Not having the capacity to take on a new assignment or task that is just too taxing
9. By the skin of your teeth

Meaning: Just barely making it
10. Don’t judge a book by its cover

Meaning: Not judging something by its initial appearance
11. Doing something at the drop of a hat

Meaning: Doing something at the moment of being asked
12. Don’t count your chickens before they hatch

Meaning: Not to count on something happening until after it’s already happened
13. Caught between a rock and a hard place

Meaning: Making a choice between two unpleasant choices
14. Costs an arm and a leg

Meaning: Something that is overpriced or very expensive
15. Cutting corners
Meaning: Not performing a task or duty correctly in order to save time or money
16. Devil’s advocate

Meaning: To take the side of the counter-argument, or offer an alternative point of view
17. Feeling under the weather

Meaning: Not feeling well, or feeling sick
18. Fit as a fiddle

Meaning: Being in good health
19. Getting a taste of your own medicine

Meaning: Being treated the way that you have been treating others
20. Getting a second wind

Meaning: Having energy again after being tired
21. Giving the benefit of the doubt

Meaning: Believing someone’s story without proof even though it may seem unbelievable
22. Giving someone the cold shoulder

Meaning: Ignoring someone
23. Going on a wild goose chase

Meaning: Doing something that is pointless
24. Heard it on the grapevine

Meaning: Hearing rumors about someone or something
25. Hitting the nail on the head

Meaning: Performing a task with exactness
26. Killing two birds with one stone

Meaning: Accomplishing two different tasks in the same undertaking
27. Letting someone off the hook

Meaning: Not holding someone responsible for something
28. Letting the cat out of the bag

Meaning: Sharing information that was intended to be a secret
29. No pain, no gain

Meaning: You have to work hard in order to see results
30. On the ball

Meaning: Doing a good job, being prompt, or being responsible
31. Once in a blue moon

Meaning: Something that doesn’t happen very often
32. Piece of cake
Meaning: A task or job that is easy to complete
33. Pulling someone’s leg

Meaning: Joking with someone
34. Speak of the devil

Meaning: When the person you have just been talking about arrives
35. Stealing someone’s thunder

Meaning: Taking credit for someone else’s achievements
36. Straight from the horse’s mouth

Meaning: Reading or hearing something from the source
37. The last straw

Meaning: The last difficulty or annoyance that makes the entire situation unbearable
38. The elephant in the room

Meaning: An issue, person, or problem that someone is trying to avoid
39. Throwing caution to the wind

Meaning: Being reckless or taking a risk
40. Your guess is as good as mine

Meaning: To not know something
20 Familiar English Idioms

1. A snowball effect
Meaning: Something has momentum and builds on each other, much like rolling a snowball down a hill to
make it bigger
2. An apple a day keeps the doctor away

Meaning: Apples are healthy and good for you
3.Burning bridges
Meaning: Damaging a relationship beyond repair
4.Every dog has his day

Meaning: Everyone gets their chance to do something big
5.Fit as a fiddle
Meaning: Excellent health
6.Go down in flames

Meaning: To fail in a spectacular manner
7.Getting a second wind

Meaning: Having energy again after being tired or worn out
8.Having your head in the clouds
Meaning: Day dreaming, not paying attention
9.He/She is off their rocker
Meaning: Someone who is acting crazy or not thinking rationally
10.It’s always darkest before the dawn

Meaning: Things always get worse before they get better
11.It takes two to tango

Meaning: One person usually isn’t the only responsible party
12.Like riding a bike

Meaning: Something that you never forget how to do
13.Like two peas in a pod

Meaning: Two people who are always together
14.Run like the wind

Meaning: To run really fast
15.Through thick and thin

Meaning: Everyone experiences hard and good times
16.Time is money
Meaning: Work faster or more efficiently
17.Weather the storm

Meaning: Enduring a trial or hardship
18.Can’t make an omelet without breaking some eggs

Meaning: You can’t make everyone happy
19.You can lead a horse to water, but you can’t make him drink
Meaning: You can’t force someone to make what is seemingly the right decision
20.Clouds on the horizon

Meaning: wandering around
https://www.bkacontent.com/40-popular-idioms-and-their-meanings/

1. Explain why different situations and people call for different registers.
2. Use at least 10 idioms in a paragraph of any topic.

MODULE 8
Formal Language vs. Informal Language
Challenges of Intercultural
Communication
1. Differentiate formal from informal language.
2. Explain the challenges in intercultural communication
What is Formal Language?

Formal language does not use colloquialisms, contractions or first-person pronouns such as
'I' or 'We'. Informal language is more casual and spontaneous. It is used when communicating with
friends or family either in writing or in conversation.
10 Differences Between Formal and Informal Language

Knowing when to use formal or informal English at work will depend on the business, the industry, who
you are speaking with, and what you are talking about. When you are working cross-culturally or with people
you do not know very well, using formal language helps eliminate any misunderstandings and helps you sound
polite and professional.
Here are 10 tips on how to use formal and informal language.

1. Know in which situations you can use informal language
This table shows the main scenarios in which it is best to use formal language. Using very formal
English in everyday situations can sound pompous, so always think about the context and your target audience.
Formal Language Informal Language

1.When you are communicating with someone that Situations that are more relaxed and that involve
you don’t know very well people that you know well or know each other
well
2. Business emails Some business correspondence
3. Academic writing/ articles In everyday conversations
4. Professional academic situations Personal emails
5. Presentations Social media
6. Reports Advertising
7. Public tenders Spontaneous speech
8. Official documents Text messages
9. Talking to superiors Talking to peers
10. Legal documents Some meeting minutes
11. Public speaking (speeches, lectures, etc) Networking or socializing with clients
12.Job interviews Team meetings
2. Grammar
In formal language, grammar is more complex and sentences are generally longer. For example:
F. We regret to inform you that the delivery will be delayed due to adverse weather conditions [formal]
In. Sorry, but the delivery will be late because of the weather [informal]
F. Have you seen my glasses? [formal]

In. Seen my glasses? [informal]
F. I am sorry to have kept you waiting [formal]
In. Sorry to keep you waiting [informal]
3. Modal verbs
Formal language uses modal verbs. For example:
1. We would be grateful if….
2. Could you kindly inform us as to whether..?
4. Pronouns
Formal language is less personal, and is more likely to use the ‘we’ as a pronoun rather than ‘I’:
For example:
We can assist in the resolution of this matter. Contact us on our help line number [formal]
I can help you solve this problem. Call me! [informal]
We regret to inform you that……
[formal] I’m sorry, but…. [informal]
We have pleasure in announcing….
[formal] I’m happy to say…[informal]
5. Vocabulary
In formal language, words are generally longer. For
example: Require [formal] vs need [informal]
Purchase [formal] vs buy [informal]
Acceptable [formal] vs okay [informal]
Assistance [formal] vs help [informal]
Require [formal] vs want [informal]
6. Pronunciation
Speech is generally slower in formal language, allowing for correct and clear pronunciation, and the
tone of the voice is more serious.
7.Contractions
These are not used in formal language. In informal language they are used for easier flow and faster
speech.
For example:
She has decided to accept the job offer [formal]
She’s decided to accept the job offer [informal]
8. Abbreviations and acronyms

These are not used in formal
language. For example:
‘As soon as possible’ [formal] vs ‘asap’ [informal]
Advertisement’ [formal] vs ‘ad’ or ‘advert’
[informal] ‘Photograph’ [formal] vs ‘photo’
[informal]
9. Colloquial language
This is not used in formal
language. For example:
Would you like a cup of tea? [formal] vs Fancy a cuppa?
[informal] Would you like to…’ [formal] vs ‘Do you want….’
[informal]
10. Emojis are never used in formal language!

Glossary
Eliminate: to remove or eliminate
something. Pompous: grand, solemn, or self-
important.
Resolution: a firm decision to do or not to do something.
Serious: grave, thoughtful or subdued.
Six Fundamental Patterns of Cultural Differences

As people from different cultural groups take on the exciting challenge of working together, cultural
values sometimes conflict. We can misunderstand each other, and react in ways that can hinder what are
otherwise promising partnerships. Oftentimes, we aren't aware that culture is acting upon us. Sometimes, we are
not even aware that we have cultural values or assumptions that are different from others.
Different Communication Styles

1. Different Attitudes Toward Conflict
Some cultures view conflict as a positive thing, while others view it as something to be avoided. In the
U.S., conflict is not usually desirable; but people often are encouraged to deal directly with conflicts that do
arise. In fact, face-to-face meetings customarily are recommended as the way to work through whatever
problems exist. In contrast, in many Eastern countries, open conflict is experienced as embarrassing or
demeaning; as a rule, differences are best worked out quietly. A written exchange might be the favored means
to address the conflict.
2. Different Approaches to Completing Tasks

From culture to culture, there are different ways that people move toward completing tasks. Some
reasons include different access to resources, different judgments of the rewards associated with task
completion, different notions of time, and varied ideas about how relationship-building and task-oriented work
should go together.
When it comes to working together effectively on a task, cultures differ with respect to the
importance placed on establishing relationships early on in the collaboration. A case in point, Asian and
Hispanic cultures tend to attach more value to developing relationships at the beginning of a shared
project and more emphasis on task completion toward the end as compared with European-Americans.
European-Americans tend to focus immediately on the task at hand, and let relationships develop as
they work on the task. This does not mean that people from any one of these cultural backgrounds are more or
less committed to accomplishing the task, or value relationships more or less; it means they may pursue them
differently.
3. Different Decision-Making Styles

The roles individuals play in decision-making vary widely from culture to culture. For example, in the
U.S., decisions are frequently delegated -- that is, an official assigns responsibility for a particular matter to a
subordinate. In many Southern European and Latin American countries, there is a strong value placed on
holding decision-making responsibilities oneself. When decisions are made by groups of people, majority
rule is a common approach in the U.S.; in Japan consensus is the preferred mode. Be aware that individuals'
expectations about their own roles in shaping a decision may be influenced by their cultural frame of reference.
4. Different Attitudes Toward Disclosure
In some cultures, it is not appropriate to be frank about emotions, about the reasons behind a conflict or
a misunderstanding, or about personal information. Keep this in mind when you are in a dialogue or when you
are working with others. When you are dealing with a conflict, be mindful that people may differ in what
they feel comfortable revealing. Questions that may seem natural to you -- What was the conflict about?
What was your role in the conflict? What was the sequence of events? -- may seem intrusive to others. The
variation among cultures in attitudes toward disclosure is also something to consider before you conclude that
you have an accurate reading of the views, experiences, and goals of the people with whom you are working.
5. Different Approaches to Knowing

Notable differences occur among cultural groups when it comes to epistemologies -- that is, the ways
people come to know things. European cultures tend to consider information acquired through cognitive
means, such as counting and measuring, more valid than other ways of coming to know things. Compare that
to African cultures' preference for affective ways of knowing, including symbolic imagery and rhythm.
Asian cultures' epistemologies tend to emphasize the validity of knowledge gained through striving toward
transcendence.
Recent popular works demonstrate that our own society is paying more attention to previously
overlooked ways of knowing. Indeed, these different approaches to knowing could affect ways of analyzing a
community problem or finding ways to resolve it. Some members of your group may want to do library
research to understand a shared problem better and identify possible solutions. Others may prefer to visit
places and people who have experienced challenges like the ones you are facing, and get a feeling for what has
worked elsewhere.
Guidelines for Multicultural Collaboration
 Learn from generalizations about other cultures, but don't use those generalizations to stereotype,
"write off," or oversimplify your ideas about another person. The best use of a generalization is to add it to your
storehouse of knowledge so that you better understand and appreciate other interesting, multi-faceted human
beings.
 Practice, practice, practice. That's the first rule, because it's in the doing that we actually get better at
cross-cultural communication.
 Don't assume that there is one right way (yours!) to communicate. Keep questioning your
assumptions about the "right way" to communicate. For example, think about your body language; postures that
indicate receptivity in one culture might indicate aggressiveness in another.
 Don't assume that breakdowns in communication occur because other people are on the wrong
track. Search for ways to make the communication work, rather than searching for who should receive the
blame for the breakdown.
 Listen actively and empathetically. Try to put yourself in the other person's shoes. Especially when
another person's perceptions or ideas are very different from your own, you might need to operate at the edge
of your own comfort zone
 Respect others' choices about whether to engage in communication with you. Honor their opinions
about what is going on.
 Stop, suspend judgment, and try to look at the situation as an outsider.
 Be prepared for a discussion of the past. Use this as an opportunity to develop an understanding from
"the other's" point of view, rather than getting defensive or impatient. Acknowledge historical events that
have
taken place. Be open to learning more about them. Honest acknowledgment of the mistreatment and
oppression that have taken place on the basis of cultural difference is vital for effective communication.
 Awareness of current power imbalances -- and an openness to hearing each other's perceptions
of those imbalances -- is also necessary for understanding each other and working together.
 Remember that cultural norms may not apply to the behavior of any particular individual. We are
all shaped by many, many factors -- our ethnic background, our family, our education, our personalities --
and are more complicated than any cultural norm could suggest. Check your interpretations if you are
uncertain what is meant.

1. What is the importance of knowing when to use formal and informal language?
2. Explain the challenges in intercultural communication
MODULE 9
Characteristics of Academic Writing
OBJECTIVES: At the end of the period, the students must be able

to: 1, Explain the characteristics of academic writing.
2. Apply the basic knowledge learned in formal writing.
What is academic writing?
Academic writing refers to a style of expression that researchers use to define the intellectual
boundaries of their disciplines and specific areas of expertise.
Academic writing is clear, concise, focused, structured and backed up by evidence. Its purpose is to
aid the reader's understanding. It has a formal tone and style, but it is not complex and does not require the use
of long sentences and complicated vocabulary.
What makes academic writing formal?
A number of language features make academic writing appear formal:

1. Vocabulary choice - you can develop a broader academic vocabulary by focusing on vocabulary as you
read: when you come across a word, you’re not sure of, google it or use a dictionary to find out its meaning and
use; think how you would use that word in speaking or if you were explaining it to someone; notice how often
that word or phrase is used in academic texts you are reading. If you come across it frequently, it’s worth
making sure you know how to use it.
Caution – writers are careful not to make claims that are too strong. Words like “may” and “might” are often
used to make claims less strong. Writers are also very precise about the circumstances in which a claim is valid.
2. Impersonality – with the exception of reflective writing, write in the 3rd person – do not use “I” and “you”.
3. Relevance – you should only include information that is relevant to the question. A common mistake is to
give too much unnecessary descriptive detail, which uses up too many words, while not demonstrating critical
understanding of the issue. You need to decide:
□ What is relevant?
□ How much detail do I need to give?
4. Precision – this relates to formality. Words and terms have very specific meanings and it is important
that you use them correctly. If you are not sure what a word means, do not use it without checking that it
makes sense, both in meaning and grammatical use. It is usually obvious to the reader when a writer has not
understood a word or an idea.
5. Conciseness – in order to write within the word count, you have to write concisely.
□ Avoid repeating yourself – do not repeat an idea because you think that will show its importance.
□ Use as few words as you can without losing meaning or complexity. We use more words in spoken
than written English, so writing often involves finding alternative words to the words we use in everyday
speech.
□ Edit your work carefully to find ways you can reduce word count
6. Grammatical complexity – in this context complexity refers to grammar structures not the difficulty of
understanding an idea.
A simple sentence expresses one grammatical idea

the dog attacked the man
a complex sentence contains more than one grammatical
idea. The sentences below increase in grammatical
complexity
 the dog attacked the man as he came into the house
 the dog attacked the man who lives opposite
 the dog attacked the man who lives opposite when he tried to give him a biscuit
Even though the dog knows the man well, he attacked him as he came into the house yesterday
The sentences in academic texts tend to be dense, in other words they contain lots of highly
grammatically complex sentences. A variety of grammatical structures are used to create complex sentences.
This is one of the reasons why academic reading is demanding – both the ideas and the sentence structures can
be complex. It is useful to be aware of this and to develop the range of grammatical structures and vocabulary
that you use by thinking about what they mean and trying to use them in your own writing.
However, don’t use words and phrases that you are not familiar with just because you think it will
make your writing more “academic”. If you don’t know what a word or phrase means, there’s a good chance
you’ll misuse the word and the reader/marker will know you don’t understand what you are reading.
What are the characteristics of academic writing?

Characteristics of academic writing include a formal tone, use of the third-person rather than first-
person perspective (usually), a clear focus on the research problem under investigation, and precise word
choice. Like specialist languages adopted in other professions, such as, law or medicine, academic writing is
designed to convey agreed meaning about complex ideas or concepts for a group of scholarly experts.
The accepted form of academic writing in the social sciences can vary considerable depending on
the methodological framework and the intended audience. However, most college-level research papers
require careful attention to the following stylistic elements:
I. The Big Picture

Unlike fiction or journalistic writing, the overall structure of academic writing is formal and
logical. It must be cohesive and possess a logically organized flow of ideas; this means that the various
parts are connected to form a unified whole. There should be narrative links between sentences and
paragraphs so that the reader is able to follow your argument. The introduction should include a
description of how the rest of the paper is organized and all sources are properly cited throughout the
paper.
II. Tone
The overall tone refers to the attitude conveyed in a piece of writing. Throughout your paper, it
is important that you present the arguments of others fairly and with an appropriate narrative tone. When
presenting a position or argument that you disagree with, describe this argument accurately and without
loaded or biased language. In academic writing, the author is expected to investigate the research
problem from an authoritative point of view. You should, therefore, state the strengths of your
arguments confidently, using language that is neutral, not confrontational or dismissive.
III. Diction
Diction refers to the choice of words you use. Awareness of the words you use is important
because words that have almost the same denotation [dictionary definition] can have very different
connotations [implied meanings]. This is particularly true in academic writing because words and
terminology can evolve a nuanced meaning that describes a particular idea, concept, or phenomenon
derived from the epistemological culture of that discipline [e.g., the concept of rational choice in political
science]. Therefore, use concrete words [not general] that convey a specific meaning. If this cannot be
done without confusing the reader, then you need to explain what you mean within the context of how
that word or phrase is used within a discipline.
IV. Language
The investigation of research problems in the social sciences is often complex and multi-
dimensional. Therefore, it is important that you use unambiguous language. Well-structured
paragraphs and clear topic sentences enable a reader to follow your line of thinking without difficulty.
Your language should be concise, formal, and express precisely what you want it to mean. Do not use
vague expressions that are not specific or precise enough for the reader to derive exact meaning ["they,"
"we," "people," "the organization," etc.], abbreviations like 'i.e.' ["in other words,"], 'e.g.' ["for
example"], or 'a.k.a.' ["also known as"], and the use of unspecific determinate words ["super," "very,"
"incredible," "huge," etc.].
V. Punctuation
Scholars rely on precise words and language to establish the narrative tone of their work and,
therefore, punctuation marks are used very deliberately. For example, exclamation points are rarely
used to express a heightened tone because it can come across as unsophisticated or over-excited. Dashes
should be limited to the insertion of an explanatory comment in a sentence, while hyphens should be
limited to connecting prefixes to words [e.g., multi-disciplinary] or when forming compound phrases
[e.g., commander-in-chief]. Finally, understand that semi-colons represent a pause that is longer than
a comma, but shorter than a period in a sentence. In general, there are four grammatical uses of semi-
colons: when a second clause expands or explains the first clause; to describe a sequence of actions or
different aspects of the same topic; placed before clauses which begin with “nevertheless”, “therefore”,
“even so,” and “for instance”; and, to mark off a series of phrases or clauses which contain commas. If
you are not confident about when to use semi-colons [and most of the time, they are not required for
proper punctuation], rewrite using shorter sentences or revise the paragraph.
VI. Academic Conventions

Citing sources in the body of your paper and providing a list of references as either footnotes
or endnotes is a very important aspect of academic writing. It is essential to always acknowledge the
source of any ideas, research findings, data, paraphrased, or quoted text that you have used in your paper
as a defense against allegations of plagiarism. Equally important, the scholarly convention of citing
sources allow readers to identify the resources you used in writing your paper so they can independently
verify and assess the quality of findings and conclusions based on your review of the literature. Examples
of other academic conventions to follow include the appropriate use of headings and subheadings,
properly spelling out acronyms when first used in the text, avoiding slang or colloquial language,
avoiding emotive language or unsupported declarative statements, avoiding contractions, and using first
person and second person pronouns only when necessary.
VII. Evidence-Based Reasoning
Assignments often ask you to express your own point of view about the research problem.
However, what is valued in academic writing is that opinions are based on what is often termed, evidence-
based reasoning, a sound understanding of the pertinent body of knowledge and academic debates that
exist within, and often external to, your discipline. You need to support your opinion with evidence
from scholarly sources. It should be an objective stance presented as a logical argument. The quality of
your evidence will determine the strength of your argument. The challenge is to convince the reader
of the validity of your opinion through a well-documented, coherent, and logically structured piece of
writing. This is particularly important when proposing solutions to problems or delineating recommended
courses of action.
VIII. Thesis-Driven
Academic writing is “thesis-driven,” meaning that the starting point is a particular perspective,
idea, or position applied to the chosen topic of investigation, such as, establishing, proving, or disproving
solutions to the research questions posed for the topic. Note that a problem statement without the
research questions does not qualify as academic writing because simply identifying the research problem
does not establish for the reader how you will contribute to solving the problem, what aspects you believe
are most critical, or suggest a method for gathering data to better understand the problem.
IX. Complexity and Higher-Order Thinking

Academic writing addresses complex issues that require higher-order thinking skills applied
to understanding the research problem [e.g., critical, reflective, logical, and creative thinking as opposed
to, for example, descriptive or prescriptive thinking]. Higher-order thinking skills include cognitive
processes that are used to comprehend, solve problems, and express concepts or that describe abstract
ideas that cannot be easily acted out, pointed to, or shown with images. Think of your writing this way:
One of the most important attributes of a good teacher is the ability to explain complexity in a way that
is understandable and relatable to the topic being presented. This is also one of the main functions of
academic writing--examining and explaining the significance of complex ideas as clearly as
possible. As a writer, you must adopt the role of a good teacher by summarizing a lot of complex
information into a well-organized synthesis of ideas, concepts, and recommendations that contribute to a
better understanding of the research problem.
Understanding Academic Writing and Its Jargon

The very definition of jargon is language specific to a particular sub-group of people.
Therefore, in modern university life, jargon represents the specific language and meaning assigned to
words and phrases specific to a discipline or area of study. For example, the idea of being rational may
hold the same general meaning in both political science and psychology, but its application to
understanding and explaining phenomena within the research domain of each discipline may have subtle
differences based upon how scholars in that discipline apply the concept to the theories and practice of
their work. Given this, it is important that specialist terminology [i.e., jargon] must be used accurately
and applied under the appropriate conditions. Subject-specific dictionaries are the best places to confirm
the meaning of terms within the context of a specific discipline.
Problems with Opaque Writing

It's not unheard of for scholars to utilize needlessly complex syntax or overly
expansive vocabulary that is impenetrable or not well-defined. When writing, avoid problems
associated with opaque writing by keeping in mind the following:
1. Excessive use of specialized terminology. It is appropriate for you to use specialist language and a
formal style of expression in academic writing, but it does not mean using "big words" just for the sake
of doing so. Overuse of complex or obscure words or writing complicated sentence constructions
gives readers the impression that your paper is more about style than substance; it leads the reader
to question if you really know what you are talking about. Focus on creating clear and elegant prose that
minimizes reliance on specialized terminology.
2. Inappropriate use of specialized terminology. Because you are dealing with concepts, research, and
data within your discipline, you need to use the technical language appropriate to that area of study.
However, nothing will undermine the validity of your study quicker than the inappropriate application of
a term or concept. Avoid using terms whose meaning you are unsure of--don't just guess or assume!
Consult the meaning of terms in specialized, discipline-specific dictionaries by searching the USC
Libraries catalog or reference database [see above].
Additional Problems to Avoid

In addition to understanding the use of specialized language, there are other aspects of academic
writing in the social sciences that you should be aware of. These problems include:
 Personal nouns. Excessive use of personal nouns [e.g., I, me, you, us] may lead the reader to believe
the study was overly subjective. These words can be interpreted as being used only to avoid presenting
empirical evidence about the research problem. Limit the use of personal nouns to descriptions of
things you actually did [e.g., "I interviewed ten teachers about classroom management
techniques..."]. Note that personal nouns are generally found in the discussion section of a paper
because this is where you as the author/researcher interpret and describe your work.
 Directives. Avoid directives that demand the reader to "do this" or "do that." Directives should be
framed as evidence-based recommendations or goals leading to specific outcomes.
 Informal, conversational tone using slang and idioms. Academic writing relies on excellent
grammar and precise word structure. Your narrative should not include regional dialects or slang
terms because they can be open to interpretation; be direct and concise using standard English.
 Wordiness. Focus on being concise, straightforward, and developing a narrative that does not
have confusing language. By doing so, you help eliminate the possibility of the reader misinterpreting
the design and purpose of your study.
 Vague expressions (e.g., "they," "we," "people," "the company," "that area," etc.). Being
concise in your writing also includes avoiding vague references to persons, places, or things. While
proofreading your paper, be sure to look for and edit any vague or imprecise statements that lack
context or specificity.
 Numbered lists and bulleted items. The use of bulleted items or lists should be used only if the
narrative dictates a need for clarity. For example, it is fine to state, "The four main problems with
hedge funds are:" and then list them as 1, 2, 3, 4. However, in academic writing, this must then be
followed by detailed explanation and analysis of each item. Given this, the question you should ask
yourself while proofreading is: why begin with a list in the first place rather than just starting with
systematic analysis of each item arranged in separate paragraphs? Also, be careful using numbers
because they can imply a ranked order of priority or importance. If none exists, use bullets and
avoid checkmarks or other symbols.
 Descriptive writing. Describing a research problem is an important means of contextualizing a study.

In fact, some description or background information may be needed because you cannot assume the
reader knows everything about the topic. However, the content of your paper should focus on
methodology, the analysis and interpretation of findings, and their implications as they apply to the
research problem rather than background information and descriptions of tangential issues.
 Personal experience. Drawing upon personal experience [e.g., traveling abroad; caring for someone
with Alzheimer's disease] can be an effective way of introducing the research problem or engaging
your readers in understanding its significance. Use personal experience only as an example, though,
because academic writing relies on evidence-based research. To do otherwise is simply story-telling.
NOTE: Rules concerning excellent grammar and precise word structure do not apply when quoting
someone. A quote should be inserted in the text of your paper exactly as it was stated. If the quote is
especially vague or hard to understand, consider paraphrasing it or using a different quote to convey the
same meaning. Consider inserting the term "sic" in brackets after the quoted word or phrase to indicate
that the quotation has been transcribed exactly as found in the original source, but the source has
grammar, spelling, or other errors. The adverb sic informs the reader that the errors are not yours.
Improving Academic Writing

To improve your academic writing skills, you should focus your efforts on three key areas:
1. Clear Writing. The act of thinking about precedes the process of writing about. Good writers spend
sufficient time distilling information and reviewing major points from the literature they have reviewed
before creating their work. Writing detailed outlines can help you clearly organize your thoughts.
Effective academic writing begins with solid planning, so manage your time carefully.
2. Excellent Grammar. Needless to say, English grammar can be difficult and complex; even the best
scholars take many years before they have a command of the major points of good grammar. Take the
time to learn the major and minor points of good grammar. Spend time practicing writing and seek
detailed feedback from professors. Proper punctuation and good proofreading skills can significantly
improve academic writing.
3. Consistent Stylistic Approach. Whether your professor expresses a preference to use MLA, APA or
the Chicago Manual of Style or not, choose one style manual and stick to it. Each of these style
manuals provide rules on how to write out numbers, references, citations, footnotes, and lists. Consistent
adherence to a style of writing helps with the narrative flow of your paper and improves its readability.
Note that some disciplines require a particular style [e.g., education uses APA] so as you write more
papers within your major, your familiarity with it will improve.
Evaluating Quality of Writing

A useful approach for evaluating the quality of your academic writing is to consider the following
issues from the perspective of the reader. While proofreading your final draft, critically assess the
following elements in your writing.
 It is shaped around one clear research problem, and it explains what that problem is from the outset.
 Your paper tells the reader why the problem is important and why people should know about it.
 You have accurately and thoroughly informed the reader what has already been published about this
problem or others related to it and noted important gaps in the research.
 You have provided evidence to support your argument that the reader finds convincing.
 The paper includes a description of how and why particular evidence was collected and analyzed, and
why specific theoretical arguments or concepts were used.
 The paper is made up of paragraphs, each containing only one controlling idea.
 You indicate how each section of the paper addresses the research problem.
 You have considered counter-arguments or counter-examples where they are relevant.
 Arguments, evidence, and their significance have been presented in the conclusion.
 Limitations of your research have been explained as evidence of the potential need for further study.
 The narrative flows in a clear, accurate, and well-organized way.
Considering the Passive Voice in Academic Writing
Use the passive voice when:
 You want to focus on the person, place, or thing affected by the action, or the action itself;
 It is not important who or what did the action;
 You want to be impersonal or more formal.
Form the passive voice by:

 Turning the object of the active sentence into the subject of the passive sentence.
 Changing the verb to a passive form by adding the appropriate form of the verb "to be" and the past
participle of the main verb.
1. Explain the basic characteristics of academic writing.

2. What are some important points that you have to consider in academic writing?
MODULE 10
Effects of Plagiarism
OBJECTIVES: At the end of the period, the students must be able
to:
1. Give the importance of citing sources in formal writing.
2. Explain the effects of plagiarism.
Effects of Plagiarism
Students who plagiarize or otherwise engage in academic dishonesty face serious consequences.
Sanctions may include, but are not limited to, failure on an assignment, grade reduction or course failure,
suspension, and possibly dismissal.
Consequences of Plagiarism
The consequences of plagiarism can be personal, professional, ethical, and legal. With plagiarism
detection software so readily available and in use, plagiarists are being caught at an alarming rate. Once accused
of plagiarism, a person will most likely always be regarded with suspicion. Ignorance is not an excuse.
Plagiarists include academics, professionals, students, journalists, authors, and others.
Consequences of plagiarism include:

1. Destroyed Student Reputation
Plagiarism allegations can cause a student to be suspended or expelled. Their academic record can
reflect the ethics offense, possibly causing the student to be barred from entering college from high school or
another college. Schools, colleges, and universities take plagiarism very seriously. Most educational institutions
have academic integrity committees who police students. Many schools suspend students for their first
violation. Students are usually expelled for further offences.
2. Destroyed Professional Reputation

A professional business person, politician, or public figure may find that the damage from plagiarism
follows them for their entire career. Not only will they likely be fired or asked to step down from their present
position, but they will surely find it difficult to obtain another respectable job. Depending on the offense and the
plagiarist’s public stature, his or her name may become ruined, making any kind of meaningful career
impossible.
3. Destroyed Academic Reputation

The consequences of plagiarism have been widely reported in the world of academia. Once scarred with
plagiarism allegations, an academic’s career can be ruined. Publishing is an integral part of a prestigious
academic career. To lose the ability to publish most likely means the end of an academic position and a
destroyed reputation.
4. Legal Repercussions
The legal repercussions of plagiarism can be quite serious. Copyright laws are absolute. One cannot use
another person’s material without citation and reference. An author has the right to sue a plagiarist. Some
plagiarism may also be deemed a criminal offense, possibly leading to a prison sentence. Those who write for a
living, such as journalists or authors, are particularly susceptible to plagiarism issues. Those who write
frequently must be ever-vigilant not to err. Writers are well-aware of copyright laws and ways to avoid
plagiarism. As a professional writer, to plagiarize is a serious ethical and perhaps legal issue.
5. Monetary Repercussions
Many recent news reports and articles have exposed plagiarism by journalists, authors, public figures,
and researchers. In the case where an author sues a plagiarist, the author may be granted monetary restitution. In
the case where a journalist works for a magazine, newspaper or other publisher, or even if a student is found
plagiarizing in school, the offending plagiarist could have to pay monetary penalties.
Plagiarized Research
Plagiarized research is an especially egregious form of plagiarism. If the research is medical in nature,
the consequences of plagiarism could mean the loss of peoples’ lives. This kind of plagiarism is particularly
heinous.
The consequences of plagiarism are far-reaching and no one is immune. Neither ignorance nor stature
excuses a person from the ethical and legal ramifications of committing plagiarism. Before attempting any
writing project, learn about plagiarism. Find out what constitutes plagiarism and how to avoid it. The rules
are easy to understand and follow. If there is any question about missing attribution, try using an online
plagiarism checker or plagiarism detection software to check your writing for plagiarism before turning it in.
Laziness or dishonesty can lead to a ruined reputation, the loss of a career, and legal problems.
Consequences for the College Due to Student Plagiarism

A further important point within the discussion of plagiarism which is often overlooked is that it can
have considerably adverse effects on the school, college or university itself. This is because if students
plagiarize, it reflects very poorly on the value of their degree. Thus, the academic reputation of the college or
university is put into jeopardy. This has the further knock on effect of damaging the universities brand on the
global market which could prevent international students from enrolling.
In this regard, it is important also to note that plagiarism can affect a student’s peers also studying at
the same institution. This is because it has the capacity to devalue each of their degrees which they have
worked so assiduously to attain. From all angles then, plagiarism is something which must be avoided at all
costs and at every opportunity. It is also important for students to recognize that the aftermath of engaging in
plagiarism affects a huge range of people. This should therefore encourage students to be more hyperaware of
the need to avoid plagiarism when composing an academic essay or report.
Consequences for the Economy

Although hard to believe, the act of an individual student plagiarizing can even have a significantly
adverse effect on economy. This is because it devalues the degree held by students and therefore results in
graduates not having the requisite skill sets needed to add value to the economy i.e. commercial awareness,
problem solving and the capacity to think critically. Plagiarism can also negatively impact the value of the
economy because private sector organizations may suffer from a skills shortage due to the limited range of
attributes held by graduates who have plagiarized to attain their degree. It is worth pointing out that in this
regard, students are really cheating themselves as they are unlikely to remain working for their dream company
for very long if they do have the skills necessary to succeed.
Legal Consequences
There are also legal consequences for students to consider if they are caught or found guilty of
plagiarizing the content of another author. This is because the student who plagiarizes may possibly be in
breach of copyright laws, specifically copyright infringement with regards to as student submitting data which
is not their own. An author has the legal right to sue a plagiarist in court. In the worst case, plagiarism can
become a criminal offence and is legally enforceable, however this is more relevant in the journalism and
publishing/media industry. With respect to copyright laws in particular, students must take great care in
avoiding plagiarizing the work of other authors in the field as if they are made aware of it they can choose to
sue them in civil court.
The Effect of Plagiarism on Students
Plagiarism is using another person’s ideas, words, research or other intellectual property without
properly attributing the source. Whenever you paraphrase or incorporate the work of others, you must cite the
material using a recognized style guide, such as the Publication Manual of the American Psychological
Association. Failure to do so can have far-reaching consequences for students that can derail their career
goals. Even unintentional plagiarism can result in harsh penalties, as students are expected to know how to
reference material that is not original or commonly held knowledge.
Academic Repercussions
Instructors typically have little tolerance for plagiarism because they want you to learn and earn your
grades fairly and honestly. If you are caught plagiarizing, academic sanctions can include a lower grade,
failing the course or dismissal from an academic major. An incident of plagiarism can also diminish your
chances of a good reference from the instructor for a scholarship application, study abroad program, graduate
school, internship or graduate assistantship. Your degree can be revoked if it is later discovered that you
plagiarized a capstone project, thesis or dissertation.
Disciplinary Sanctions
Plagiarism is grounds for disciplinary probation, suspension or permanent expulsion from school. An
academic misconduct notation can be placed on your transcript that may be seen by other colleges and
universities, so you may not be able to transfer as an undergrad or get into law school, medical school or any
graduate school. No refunds of tuition or fees are issued when a student is dismissed for academic dishonesty.
If you are an international student, dismissal from school can result in deportation and embarrassment to your
family.
Career Implications
When applying for jobs, especially in law enforcement or the federal government or enlisting in
military service, it is important to have a clean disciplinary history. A plagiarism charge in college could
bring into question your ethics, integrity and suitability for a profession. In a competitive job market,
potential employers consider letters of references from instructors to help them sort through applications.
Plagiarism could cost you references from instructors attesting to your character and scholarship.
Personal Toll
Plagiarism keeps you from learning, which is the reason you are in college. Cheating gives you an
unfair advantage over other students who are doing their own work. Being punished for plagiarism can
damage your reputation and undermine an instructor's trust and confidence in you. Peers may lose respect for
you and chose not to work with you on group projects. Even if you are not caught, your self-esteem can be
impacted knowing that you didn't deserve the grade you received.

1. Why is plagiarism a grievous offense?
2. What steps must be undertaken to avoid plagiarism?
MODULE 11
Documented Essay vs. Standard Essay vs Research-based Argumentative
Essay OBJECTIVES: At the end of the period, the students must be able to:
1. Differentiate a documented essay from standard essay and argumentative essay.

2. Write different kinds of essays.
Documented Essay Vs Standard Essay Vs Research Based Argumentative Essay

A research paper or documented essay is a piece of writing in which you incorporate information—
facts, arguments, opinions—taken from the writings of authorities in a particular field.
The Documented Essay General Guidelines

A research paper or documented essay is a piece of writing in which you incorporate information—
facts, arguments, opinions—taken from the writings of authorities in a particular field. Sometimes a research
paper is no more than a report of current thinking in a field, but more often a research paper demonstrates a
thesis of your own, relying on outside (secondary) sources for development and support of the thesis. In other
words, you should not think of a research paper as merely a series of quotations from several sources on a
subject, or just a summary, in your words, of those sources—although you will probably include both quotation
and summary in your paper. Rather, the research paper is your synthesis of information on a topic: the
bringing together of information from various sources to establish a new perspective and to create a new
understanding of that material. It is your contribution to the field you are studying; you have educated yourself
on the topic and have come to an original conclusion about it, original in the sense you have thought of it
yourself from the research you have done.
Writing a research paper involves moving through several stages and performing a number of tasks.
Although it is not a strictly orderly process (you will be involved in several activities simultaneously), there is a
sequence to follow with starting, developing, and finishing strategies. Characteristically, the process entails
narrowing a large, general subject to arrive at a carefully focused thesis and collecting and incorporating
evidence/information that explains, clarifies, illustrates, argues, and otherwise supports your thesis. Because
both research and writing involve going back over things as much as going ahead, you will need to give
yourself plenty of time for exploring different directions (including some that you may abandon), for seeking
more information and discovering connections and relationships within it, for clarifying your understanding of
your topic in order to create a working thesis, for refining the thesis, and for writing and revising the final
paper.
Getting Started
The first step in writing a research paper is to ask a meaningful question about a subject. A
meaningful question is one which deals with an important aspect of a subject and which can be answered, at
least tentatively, with available information. If your professor assigns a topic or a question for you to write on,
s/he has done some of your work for you. A professor's question is based on knowledge of the important issues
in her/his field. But if you are given only a broad subject or if you have to choose your own subject, you must
do some preliminary research to find out what kinds of problems or issues are dealt with by people involved in
the field. For this preliminary investigation, you may consult encyclopedias, textbooks, or other general
reference works which offer summaries of general knowledge in the field. A look at indexes or periodicals in
the field will give you a sense of the topics that experts are writing about.
Techniques For Generating Ideas

Brainstorming • on paper • into a recording device • with a classmate • with your instructor • using lists
or diagrams • questioning through who, what, where, when, why, how? Asking yourself questions • What have
I learned about the subject from class or from my notes? • What have I learned from the text(s) in the course? •
What do I know about the subject from my own experience? • What am I interested in finding out about the
subject? • Where can I find more background information on the subject that will stimulate further thought or
more questions? As you do your preliminary reading, make notes on other questions that occur to you, on areas
that particularly interest you, on problems that suggest themselves.
You must read actively, probing the material for a perspective to which you can commit yourself. It is
impossible to predict how long this first step will take, but do not expect the process to yield immediate results.
Give yourself time to consider your preliminary reading and to play with the possibilities. Consider the overall
strategy for your paper: Should it • review sources? (arrangement by ideas—not authors) • analyze and
synthesize sources? (arrangement by arguments—not authors) • persuade the reader? (argue for a thesis of your
own) • inform the reader? • do a combination of the above? When you have narrowed your subject to a
manageable topic, you can begin to focus your research on materials that refer to your particular interest. (How
large a topic you can handle depends, to a large extent, on the length of the assigned paper and the amount of
time you have.) As you continue to focus your research on a limited area, you may formulate a preliminary,
tentative thesis—a main idea or proposition which your paper will discuss. Having a preliminary thesis will
help make you an active reader. As you examine sources, look for quotes, illustrations, statistics, etc. that
support your stated position. Be aware that your thesis will evolve as you continue your research. Do not feel
obligated to stay with a thesis that does not accommodate your changing understanding of a topic
Locating Sources
Writing an effective documented essay often depends on your ability to utilize the resources. You must
go beyond Google and Wikipedia searches. Finding and examining appropriate research materials as quickly as
possible will result in more effective research. If you have not used a library for research before, begin by
consulting librarians. They can let you know what kinds of materials are available and help you use indexes,
guides, and computer data bases to locate sources of information. Second, use your sources efficiently. When
you find a book you think may be useful, scan the table of contents and the index and read the introduction to
determine whether or not the book has information you need. Check the author's bibliography to see what
sources s/he has consulted. When you identify a useful book or periodical, look for more work by that author or
check additional issues of the same magazine for related articles. Third, use your professor as a resource. S/he
should be able to guide you to promising material by helping you to evaluate your sources and directing you to
the important writers and works in a field.
Organizing the Research and The Essay

As you read, keep accurate notes. You may take notes in a notebook, but many writers find that research
is easier to organize and manipulate if it is on index cards. For each source you use, make a bibliography
card with all the information you will need for bibliography and footnote citations: the author's or authors’
name(s), the title, the publisher, the city of publication, the date of publication, and the medium . Then, on
separate note cards, copy the quotation, fact, statistic, or idea that you want to use from the source, one item to a
card. Keep track of the source for each card by noting the author's last name or a shortened version of the title
on the card. Digital note-taking options are available, but it is important to use a system that works efficiently
for you, no matter what the medium. Since you want to avoid making your paper a string of quotations, and you
want to incorporate your research into the text of your paper effectively, try to paraphrase on your note cards
instead of transcribing long blocks of quotations. A paraphrase is not a sentence from the source in which
you have changed two or three words and then used the rest of the author's sentence. A paraphrase is a
brief account of the author's meaning in your own words. Typically, you will paraphrase a passage of several
paragraphs or pages (or even longer sections) in a few sentences.
The effort of paraphrasing is worth it because the process of paraphrasing will sharpen your
understanding of a source as you draw out the main ideas. It is wise to stop every so often, perhaps after
reading each source, to reconsider your thesis. Should it be refined, qualified, expanded, abandoned? When you
begin to write the paper, your judgment may change, of course. The very act of trying to write the paper, to
shape the material, will prompt you to see your topic in new ways, clarifying what was hazy, perhaps even
leading you to revise your thesis. Your thesis is the key to organizing your paper. It defines your purpose in the
paper and so suggests a shape which will convey that purpose to a reader.
It is useful to review the notes from your reading and list important details from these notes (those that
recur or support your hypothesis, for example) as a first step to setting up categories for an outline. Moving
from notes to an outline involves connecting the information from different note cards according to categories
of important ideas. As with your tentative thesis, your outline may move through more than one stage. You may
see gaps that need to be filled, information that needs to be added or deleted, or material that needs to be
rearranged to produce a logical sequence of ideas. It may become clear to you that you need more information
about some aspect of your topic, and at this point you may return to the library for further research. You may
even do this more than once as you go through several drafts. When you have enough information to adequately
support your thesis or fulfill the paper's purpose while satisfying the required length of the assignment, you may
consider your research complete. The final outline will serve as a bridge between the information you have
gathered and the presentation of that information in the documented essay/research paper.
WRITING AND REVISING

Preparation of a first draft involves understanding the nature and function of the three basic sections of
an essay: the introduction, which places the research question within a context and presents the thesis;
the main body paragraphs, each of which develops a separate but related aspect of the topic; and the
conclusion, which usually reviews the thesis and major supporting points and may also suggest questions
for further study.
Include quotes and paraphrased material where appropriate. In general, keep quotes as short as possible,
so they serve your purpose and do not dominate the essay. Arriving at the final draft through a series of
revisions involves shifting from the point of view of a writer to that of a reader. As you write and revise,
consider your audience. Would an intelligent reader understand your argument and why you made it? Would
your argument be likely to persuade an independent thinker? To "see again" with the distance of a reader leads
the writer to analyze what s/he has written for clarity, organization, and unity. As in writing any essay, you
should not expect your paper to come out finished in one draft. Allow yourself time for rewriting.
DOCUMENTING
Citations (parenthetical citation, footnotes, or endnotes) are not so mysterious as they sometimes seem.
They are included in a research paper in order to give credit to an author for information or ideas taken from
her/his work. Documentation also includes complete publication information so that a reader can locate and
review the source material to determine if you have used information fairly and accurately or to find out more
about the subject.
A citation—either parentheses including the last name of the author, a page number, and
sometimes the year or a raised number indicating a footnote or endnote—must appear after each quote
or paraphrase in your paper. You need not cite “common knowledge” in a field— information that everyone
who studies the subject knows or facts that are generally accepted in all the sources you consult. Specific
statistics, names, dates, places, findings, and interpretations or ideas that are unique to an author must be cited.
Generally, you will have to include a Bibliography, Works Cited list, or References section, arranged
alphabetically, at the end of your paper. Information you will need to provide includes the author’s (or
authors’) full name(s), title of the work, editors (if any), publisher, city and state of publication (and
country if not published in the U.S.), the year of publication, page numbers (if necessary), and medium.
However, documentation styles vary. Whenever you are given an assignment that includes research or
documentation, be sure to ask your professor which style you should use. The order of information as well as
spacing and punctuation are different for different styles. It is important to use a style guide or manual and to
check your work very carefully to be sure that it conforms exactly to the required style.
The most prominent documentation styles include the following: MLA (Modern Language
Association), commonly used in the liberal arts and the humanities, which incorporates parenthetical
documentation within the text and a list of works cited, including full bibliographic information, at the end of
the paper; APA (American Psychological Association), used primarily in the social sciences, which utilizes
an author-date citation system within the text and lists references alphabetically in a reference list at the end of
the paper.
How To Write A Documented Essay

1. Read the essay instructions provided by the course instructor.
The rubric or project description will include the specified documentation or citation format for the
assigned essay. The instructor might assign a certain style manual for the essay or provide his or her own
system of documentation.
2. Write an outline of the essay

Write an outline of the essay according to its purpose or argument. For instance, an opinion essay would
begin with an overview of the issue. Then other viewpoints might be introduced. Next, the essay would put
forth the each claim and justify each claim with evidence. Use subheadings with bullets for a detailed outline.
3Go to the library

Go to the library. Check out any style manuals that are assigned by your instructor. Bring the outline.
Research the subject, broadly at first, then progressively narrow topics according to the information that is
needed for the essay. For instance, an instructional essay on methods of cooking eggs might start out with
research on "cooking eggs," then narrow to "hard-boiled eggs" and "egg-cooking temperature."
4Take notes
Take notes while reading the research material for use later when you write the essay. This makes
avoiding plagiarism easier by minimizing the chance the citations will be left out of the essay.
5Avoid plagiarism of any material

Avoid plagiarism of any material, no matter the source. Plagiarism means taking someone's work and
passing it off as your original material. The only material that does not need to be cited in an essay is that which
is considered public knowledge. Use quotations only when the information cannot be adequately paraphrased or
is best presented as a quotation.
6Write the rough draft according to the outline

Write the rough draft according to the outline. Document or cite information according to format in this
part of the process.
7Compile and format all works

Compile and format all work cited in the paper. Format the references page according to style guidelines
from a style manual or instructor specifications.
8.Reorganize material
Edit the rough draft and reorganize material as necessary. If some citations are taken out, remove them
from the references page and add as necessary. Some instructors allow the inclusion of sources not directly
cited in the essay under the title of "Related Works" or some other heading of the same meaning. Check with
the instructor before including sources not cited directly in the text.
Standard essay
The essay format decides the entire structure and organization of the ideas. A standard essay form
decides the title page, table of contents, main page and sub sections, introduction and conclusion and appendix.
The main parts (or sections) to an essay are the intro, body, and conclusion. In a standard short essay, five
paragraphs can provide the reader with enough information in a short amount of space.
Writing a Standard Essay

I. Introduction
A. Use a creative, interesting opening to catch the reader’s attention. You can use interesting facts, figures,
quotes, anecdotes, etc. (Keep it related to your thesis).
B. Provide brief background information of your paper’s topic (just enough for the reader to have a context for
your thesis / this also explains why your opening is relevant).
C. Provide a preview of the main points in your essay (briefly touch on the subject areas that you plan on
incorporating).
D. Establish your thesis. This affirms and concisely articulates the paper’s main idea/argument and topics that
you will be writing about.
II. Body Paragraphs

A. Provide a topic sentence for each paragraph. This states the main idea of the paragraph and transitions from
the paragraph before it. Topic sentences always connect back/expands on/argues for your thesis.
 Tip: If you cannot find some connection to your thesis within your topic sentence/paragraph, it’s probably
arbitrary information and better left out.
B. Use supporting details to defend or strengthen the topic sentence. Supporting details include primary or
secondary sources, facts, examples, and expert opinions. Ensure that every source is introduced and properly
cited with in-text citation and referenced on your reference page.
C. Add personal commentary on the sources. Elaborate on why you included your sources and what relevance
they have on your thesis.
D. Paragraphs must be at least 5 solid sentences. Avoid paragraphs longer than half a page.
E. Standard essays have at least 3 body paragraphs, but strong essays have more.
III.Conclusion
A. Restate your thesis, but reword slightly to avoid unnecessary repetition.
B. Briefly summarize your main points proving that your thesis has been proved. This ties everything together.
C. End strong. Articulate why this paper matters and relate it to the larger audience.
 Tip: This answers the “So what?” question. Why does your paper matter? What relevance does it have to the
audience?
Research-Based Argumentative Essay

The argumentative essay is a specific type of writing in which a student chooses a topic (often a
controversial topic), researches it extensively, and then uses the evidence gathered in their research process to
establish their opinion or position on the topic in an essay designed to persuade others to share that ..
How To Outline an Argumentative Essay in 4 Steps

1. Introductory paragraph. The first paragraph of your essay should outline the topic, provide background
information necessary to understand your argument, outline the evidence you will present and states your thesis.
2.The thesis statement. ...
3. Body paragraphs. ...
4. Conclusion.
Essays are shorter and aim at presenting the writer's opinion with supporting arguments. Research
papers are more complex and require a deep study on the matter and presentation of other scientists' opinions as
well as the writer's conclusion.
There are main features to an essay and research paper, such as:
1. Both have a strict outline;
2. Both require research on the subject;
3. The prove students’ writing and analytical skills;
4. Both have particular lengths requirements;
5. Both types deal with citation format (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.);
6. Have citations and the bibliography.
At the same time, there is a distinct difference between these two types. An essay is smaller in amount
and requires less research; the second type deals more with analysis and data processing.
Essay VS Research Paper: 10 Points of Difference

Here is a comparative table on essay vs paper that underlines 10 main differences so that you can know
exactly what demands to apply to each type of assignment.
Essay Research Paper
1. It is shorter; usually 5 paragraphs (starting from the 1- 1. It is longer and takes at least 8 pages
page essay)
2. Any types of essays deal with the writer’s personal view 2. Presents other scientists’ perception of
on the issue, and the sources are generally used to support the subject as well as the opinion of the
this perspective. writer
3. Requires a deep analysis of the topic and
3. Doesn’t usually requires the deep research of the topic
proper research of various sources
4. The main goal is to provide deep
4. The main goal is to prove one’s writing abilities and
knowledge of the subject, analyze data and
capability to give an opinion
ability to make a conclusion based on that
5. Different types of essays may or may not require 5. Always requires familiarity with main
familiarity with main sources on the subject sources on the subject
6. Should be logically organized and
6. Deals with the reader’s perception as well
academically formulated
7. Presents the writer’s opinion 7. Presents research facts and perspectives
in particular order and provides the writer’s
conclusion
8. Types of an essay: persuasive essay, argumentative 8. There are several types of research paper:
essay, literature essay, narrative, academic, philosophical, argumentative, analytical, subject-based,
etc. cause and effect, etc.
9. Usually has 5 parts: introduction, the main body (3 9. Has more parts: title page, abstract
paragraphs) and conclusion. (summary). Introduction, literature review,
the main body (several sections as
methodology, discussion, results),
conclusion, acknowledgments, references.
10. A particular methodology should be
10. Doesn’t require a particular methodology
used in order to perform results
An essay is an easier type of university assignment and generally used for a great variety of subjects. A
research paper requires a clear thesis statement and more time to conduct research and analyze data. It is a more
complex type of paper that can also be a form of a term paper in
What Is the Difference between Research Paper and Different Types of Papers?
There are several types of essay that can be an assignment in college. The basic requirement is not only to
provide opinion and strong argument but also follow the expectation of each particular type.
1. The argumentative essay requires investigating the topic and providing an argument. An argumentative
research paper also requires primary and secondary sources and much deeper research. Sometimes research
takes a lot of time and effort, so it is beneficial to use academic paper help.
2. An analytical research paper deals with several different perspectives of other scientists on the subject matter
and presents them equally. An analytical essay can deal with an analysis of one particular subject, such as
narrative structures in the novel, using the writer’s perspective.
3. The informative essay deals with the necessity to clarify and present information on the topic to a reader. On
the contrary to the research paper, it is shorter, the information is more generalized, and it doesn’t require an
innovative conclusion.
4. The persuasive essay has one main goal – to present the writing skills of the student and persuade a reader on
one’s perspective. It deals with rhetorical figures and techniques more than scientific facts. The aim is to present
information so that a reader will agree with you.
Generally, both types of assignment require different skills and complexity of research. Essays are
shorter and aim at presenting the writer’s opinion with supporting arguments. Research papers are more
complex and require a deep study on the matter and presentation of other scientists’ opinions as well as the
writer’s conclusion.
1. Write an informative essay of any topic that interests you.

MODULE 12
Reading and Writing an Explanation Essay
1. Explain the features of an explanation essay

2. Write an expository essay.
Reading and Writing an Explanation Essay

The main function of an explanation essay is to clear up the issue of the research, describe it and reveal
the essence of the matter in a brief and coherent way. To make the work easier, apply the following questions to
your thesis statement: What/Who?
How to Write an Explanation Essay

An explanation, or expository, essay is a paper in which your objective as a writer is to explain
something to your reader. A key to writing successfully is maintaining awareness of the audience, which will
influence your tone and word choice. Expository writing is done for a variety of audiences and purposes,
from grade school to advanced technical writing, so a comprehensive understanding of the process is
important for success.
Start with Research

When writing your essay, it is important to have facts and support for your assertions. Although you
may be well-versed in the topic on which you are writing, research gives you additional credibility because
you can cite multiple authorities. Spend time finding your information, organizing your notes and
determining the reliability of the sources you are examining.
Develop a Thesis
Now that you have researched your topic, you need to determine the angle from which you want to
approach it. Remember that your goal is to explain the topic to your reader. For example, if your topic is
digital technology, you might write a paper that explains ways that digital technology can be used in the
classroom. Your thesis statement can be: “Digital technology enhances the learning experience by engaging
students, reaching multiple learning styles and connecting students across the globe.” The remainder of the
essay will focus on explaining how digital technology serves those three purposes.
Organize Your Writing

Writing an outline is a good way to keep your ideas organized. Even if you choose not to follow a
formal outline structure, you should use some pre-writing strategy to ensure that your ideas are logical and well-
organized. Clustering, looping, free writing and brainstorming are all good pre-writing strategies. If you follow
your organizational plan, the drafting of your essay will be a seamless process.
Draft and Proofread
Now that you have your research and your plan, begin drafting your essay. When you are writing, be
sure that you stick to the facts and avoid adding your own bias or opinions. Be sure to cite the sources of your
references. Finally, proofread and spell check for clarity. There are many Web-based spelling and grammar
checkers available to supplement your proofreading efforts.
How to Write an Explanatory Essay

A common writing assignment is the explanatory, or expository, essay. An explanatory essay describes
your opinion on something, the ideas of another person, a process to follow, or an event that has taken
place. Rather than criticizing the information or debating its validity, you simply explain it and make it easier
for your reader to understand. Once you know the basic building blocks of an explanatory essay, you'll be able
to write a great one.
Step 1 – Choose a Topic That You Understand Well

Although an explanatory essay might sound complicated, it's very basic in fact. You can explain almost
anything as long as it falls within the parameters of your assignment. The following are just a few examples:
 Tell the reader why everybody should speak at least two languages.
 State why the government should not observe religious holidays.
 Discuss the gluten-free diet fad and whether it's necessary for most people.
 Explain how the electoral college system works and show whether it's fair and effective, or not.
 Describe the process you would follow when buying a new car.
 List the events that led up to World War I.
 Make an argument for what you think will be the next world superpower.
Step 2 – Be Careful Not to Veer into the Territory of Other Types of Essays
It's best not to write a persuasive essay or process essay, even though you might be able to argue that
both are technically explanations. Try to stay true to the explanatory style, which will demonstrate to your
instructor that you fully understand the concept. While you should present evidence to back up your topic, your
goal is not necessarily to sway the reader but to make a solid case. Likewise, your description of a process
should be less of a step-by-step instructional guide and more of a discussion.
Step 3 – Gather Evidence to Support Your Essay

The key to a well-written explanatory essay is good reasons to support your main idea. In some cases,
these may be merely opinions, but as long as your reasoning is strong, your essay will be too. To write a solid
essay, you'll want to get your information from reliable sources.
Step 4 - Outline Your Essay

You won't be submitting your outline, so don't worry about using Roman numerals and indenting
perfectly. Just do a little prep work to make the actual writing easier. It's just like an artist making a sketch
before beginning a painting. Simple lists or text boxes will do. You could also try mind-mapping or using the
old-school method of writing your ideas on separate index cards.
Step 5 - Write the Body of Your Paper

An essay should contain a minimum of five paragraphs: an introduction, three body paragraphs, and a
conclusion. However, this doesn't mean all essays should only have five paragraphs. It's simply a starting point.
Your assignment will specify a word count or the number of paragraphs you need to include. Be sure to focus
on one point in each paragraph, which you'll explain clearly in the first sentence. If you begin to branch off to
another idea, transition to a new paragraph.
Step 6 - Finish with Your Conclusion and Introduction

You should end your essay on a strong note. Tie your ideas together with powerful summary statements
in a memorable final paragraph. But you're not finished there. Copywriters know that the first words on a page
are the most important. It's often a good idea to leave your introduction for last. With the rest of your paper
written, you'll better be able to draw the reader in with powerful language. The expository essay isn't as
technical as it sounds. This assignment can cover a wide variety of topics. It's up to you to choose a subject you
feel passionate about so you can do it justice.
What not to include in a conclusion

To make your essay’s conclusion as strong as possible, there are a few things you should avoid
including. The most common mistakes are:
 Including new arguments or evidence
 Undermining your arguments (e.g. “This is just one approach of many”)
 Using concluding phrases like “To sum up…” or “In conclusion…”
The Expository Essay
The Descriptive Essay

As the name suggests, this essay is all about the language - adjectives, similes, and metaphors. These
kinds of essays are about describing as vividly as possible anything you are asked to write about. An example
assignment would be to write an essay about your most recent holiday experience. This would be an ideal time
to use a descriptive essay.
A descriptive essay is more like a creative writing assignment where you describe something in detail.
Description may be a part of the other types of essays, but generally, they need a little bit more - an argument -
while a descriptive essay merely describes something in detail and the thing being described is the central focus,
rather than an argument about something.
The Narrative Essay

A narrative essay is a more personal piece of writing with your point of view being made clear
for your reader. These essays can be stories or sometimes called "creative non-fiction." The use of the first-
person pronoun ‘I’ is not uncommon in these essays.
Narrative essays also require a clear structure introduction, body, and conclusion populated with concise
language. We are working on developing some custom templates for narrative writing, where you can clearly
build up the suspense in your introduction, bring your reader to the crux or climax of the story in your body,
and then bring them back down again in the conclusion.
Narrative essays are often the closest thing to pieces of journalism. If you master the narrative essay,
then you are likely well on your way to being a successful journalist.
The Argumentative Essay

These essays are similar to expository essays but are usually a lot more in-depth with well-researched
qualitative and quantitative data (found via primary or secondary sources) to back up the points you want to
present. In most cases, an essay like this will also require you to address main points which may oppose your
stand on an issue or topic.
1. Write a narrative essay (an autobiography).

MODULE 13
Features and Writing A Blog

Difference between a Diary, Journal and a Blog
Tips for Preventing and/or Addressing Cyberbullying
1. Differentiate between a diary, journal and a blog.
2. Discuss the ill effects of cyberbullying.
What is a Blog?
The word blog is actually a shortened form of its original name, "weblog." These weblogs allowed early
internet users to "log" the details of their day in diary-style entries. Blogs often allow readers to comment, so as
they became more common, communities sprung up around popular blogs. It refers to writing, photography,
and other media that's self-published online. Blogging started as an opportunity for individuals to
write diary-style entries, but it has since been incorporated into websites for many businesses. The
hallmarks of blogging include frequent updates, informal language, and opportunities for readers to engage and
start a conversation.
A blog is a type of website, usually maintained by an individual with regular entries of commentary,
descriptions of events, or other material such as graphics or video. Entries are commonly displayed in reverse-
chronological order.
The content of blogs varies significantly. For example, travel blogs may feature many pictures with few
written passages, while political blogs may weigh in with wordy takes on the news of the day. The popularity of
YouTube and similar sites also gave rise to video blogging, or "vlogging." Like most internet-based
innovations, many entrepreneurs saw marketing potential in having a blog, and the adoption of blogging among
the business community helped further increase the popularity of the medium. Not only can a blog be used for
marketing a business, but it can also become a home business in and of itself.
How Blogging Works

Blogging is as simple as obtaining a website and publishing original content on it. Tech-savvy bloggers
can buy a domain name and build the website themselves. Those with less HTML knowledge can create an
account with sites like WordPress that simplify the web design and publishing process.
Blogs are usually simple websites. Older pieces may be archived in separate sections of the site, and
there may be a separate page with contact info or a bio, but the blog itself is usually just a single page that can
be scrolled through—similar to the news feed on social media sites like Facebook. As with a Facebook news
feed, a blog displays the newest content at the top of the page.
All of the posts on a blog are usually created by a single author. However, when a company or
organization maintains a blog, it may pay for blog content—either by hiring a team of writers or buying content
to post.
Another unique feature of blogging is interlinking. This occurs when a blogger links to another person's
blog within their own blog post. For example, if a music teacher maintains a blog, and they write a blog post
about how to form a chord, they might link to a musician's blog to show an example of the chords in action. A
political blogger may link to another politics blog and then discuss how they agree or disagree with a post on
that blog. Interlinking, along with the comment section, fosters the sense of community that makes blogs
unique.
Blogging vs. Traditional Websites

Blogging vs. Websites
Blogs Websites
Updated frequently Largely evergreen content
Allows for reader engagement One-way communication
Some people are confused over what constitutes a blog over a website. Part of the confusion stems from
the fact that many businesses use both, usually by adding a blog section to the company website. However,
there are two features of a blog that set it apart from a traditional website.
First, blogs are updated frequently. Whether it's a mommy blog in which a woman shares adventures in
parenting, a food blog sharing new recipes, or a business providing updates to its services, blogs have new
content added several times a week. Websites might occasionally have new information, but for the most part,
they offer static information that rarely changes.
Secondly, blogs allow for reader engagement. Blogs and social media accounts often go hand-in-hand
because they serve a similar purpose of connecting an audience with each other and the content creator. Some
websites may incorporate features that allow for conversation, but generally speaking, a blog allows for more
conversation and interaction than a traditional website does.
Pros and Cons of Blogging

Pros
 Good for SEO
 Maintains communication with customers
 Builds rapport with customers
 Generate alternate income
Cons
 Time-consuming
 Constantly requires fresh ideas
 Payoff is delayed
 Blogging in and of itself won't generate income
The Balance
Pros Explained
 Good for SEO: Search engines love new content, and as a result, blogging is a great search engine
optimization (SEO) tool. A defining feature of blogs is the frequency with which they're updated, and
that fresh content helps improve a website's SEO performance.
 Maintains communication with customers: Blog posts can keep your customers and clients up-to-date on
what's going on, let them know about new deals, and provide tips. The more frequently you post useful
content, the more often a customer visits your blog, and the more likely they are to spend money.
 Builds rapport with customers: Not only does a blog allow you to show off what you know—building
your expertise and credibility—but people can also post comments and interact with you. That allows
customers to get to know you, and hopefully, develop relationships that turn into purchases.
 Generate alternate income: Successful blogs can make money themselves. Along with your product or
service, blogs can generate income from alternate sources such as advertising and affiliate products.
Blogging is flexible and portable, making it a great option for people who want to be a lifestyle
entrepreneur.
Cons Explained
 Time-consuming: The success of blogging comes from having people return, and they only return when
there's new stuff to read. That means bloggers need to generate content at least several times a week to
be effective at engaging readers and increasing SEO.
 Constantly requires fresh ideas: Posting several times per week won't be beneficial if the ideas aren't
fresh and engaging. It can be draining to constantly conceptualize and execute fresh content. The good
news is that you don't have to do it all yourself. You can have guest writers or hire freelancers. Another
option is to curate content from others. You can buy private label right (PLR) content and modify it for
your blog.
 Payoff is delayed: One of the biggest frustrations with blogging is that it's time-consuming with little
payoff in the beginning. It takes time to build up a readership and momentum.
 Blogging in and of itself won't generate income: At one time, posting an article was enough to
generate traffic and income. Today, a successful blog needs email marketing, additional perks such
as content upgrades, and an engaged social network, such as a Facebook group.
Requirements for a Blog

The good news is that starting a blog or adding a blog to your existing site is relativity easy and
affordable. All you have to do is follow these four steps.
Set Up the Blog

There are free blog options such as WordPress and Blogger, but to retain control and a professional
image, consider investing in a domain name and a hosting service. You can install WordPress or another
content management system on your host if you don't want to create the whole site from scratch.
Add Content
Once your blog is up and running, you need to keep it active with new content to grow your business.
Develop a set schedule for writing and posting blog articles. Create a content calendar so you always know
what you're going to post.
Market
Like all other business ideas, your success comes from marketing and getting your message in front of
your target market. Great ways to reach your market are through social media apps, email lists, and by reaching
out to other bloggers, podcasters, and media outlets for publicity. Repurpose your blog content to promote your
business across platforms, such as by using quotes on your Twitter or Instagram profiles, or by creating a video
of your article to share on YouTube.
Add Income Streams

While your blog can complement an existing business, it's also a great way to add additional income
streams to your home business. You can promote other companies' products and services in affiliate marketing.
You can advertise or feed ad networks, such as AdSense, on to your blog. If you have a service business you're
promoting with your blog, you can create your own information products to complement it. Or, if you have your
own product, you can offer a service.
Key Takeaways
 Blogging is a shortened version of "weblog," which began as a diary-like outlet for early internet users.
 Modern blogging is an expansive medium that incorporates written words, photography, videos, and all
kinds of subject matters.
 Businesses can use blogs to drive customers to their website, increase SEO performance, or generate
alternate streams of income.
 Blogs are different than traditional websites because they're frequently updated, and they make it easier
for the audience to engage with each other and the content creator.
Difference between diary, journal
Difference between diary and journal

 A diary is a book to record events as they happen.
 A journal is a book used to explore ideas that take shape.
Here are a few topical examples of the difference between what you'd put in a journal versus what
you'd put in a diary
Topic or Theme What You'd Put in a Diary What You'd Put in a Journal
Food, Cooking, and A record of the food you ate today Notes about new recipes you want to
Nutrition and how it made you feel try
Fashion and Style An itemized list of what you wore Magazine clippings and pictures of
today designer handbags you want to own
one
Work and Career Appointments, meetings, and tasks Big picture career goals, dreams, and
completed at work aspirations
Fitness and Exercise A record of the day's physical Notes about how to do certain yoga
activity poses
A diary is something that is more likely to be used every day to record specific things that happened on
a specific day. It can be used to record feelings, moods, and emotions. A diary can also track data to help you
make an important discovery. For instance, writing in a food diary might help you uncover the source of your
migraine headaches. Tracking your exercise habits may help you make a connection between your mood and
whether or not you were physically active that day.
The contents of a journal, on the other hand, aren't necessarily constrained by the dates on a calendar.
Journals can include random thoughts, lists, ideas, pictures, doodles, memories, song lyrics, and anything else
that comes to mind.
Tips in preventing cyberbullying

Here are Sergeant Rich's ten tips for teens to prevent cyberbullying:
1. Educate yourself: To prevent cyberbullying from occurring you must understand exactly what it is.
Research what constitutes cyberbullying, how and where it occurs, and talk with your friends about what they
are seeing and experiencing.
2. Protect your password: Safeguard your password and all private information from inquisitive peers.
You don't want to give bullies the opportunity to post false/private/embarrassing information or pictures on
your social media pages or send them to the whole school through email.
3. Keep photos PG: Before sending a racy photo of yourself to a peer or posting it online, consider if this
is something you would want others to see, especially your family. Bullies can use this picture as ammunition
to make your life miserable.
4. Pause before you post: Don't post anything that can compromise your reputation. People will judge you
based on how you appear to them online, and like point #3, bullies can use it as fuel.
5. Raise awareness: Bring awareness to cyberbullying whether it be through a movement, a club an event
or campaign. Knowledge is power.
6. Set up privacy controls: Restrict who can see your online profiles to only trusted friends.
7. "Google" yourself: Every once in a while, search our name on all major search engines and see if any
personal information or photos come up. If you find something that can be used by cyberbullies to target you,
take action and have it removed.
8. Never open messages from people you don't know: Delete all messages without reading them from
people you don't know, as they could contain viruses and infect your computer. The same goes for messages
from known bullies. It is best to not engage and ignore them.
9. Don't be a cyberbully: remember the phrase your parents instilled in you as a kid "treat other as
you want to be treated". If you are mean to others online, it reinforces the idea that that kind of behavior is
acceptable.
10. Log out of your accounts on public computers: Similar to not sharing your passwords, don't give
anyone the slightest chance to pose as you or to share false information. Also, by staying logged in, you run the
risk of the bully changing your password and locking you out for a period of time.
1. Discuss the pros and cons of blogging.

2. How will you not fall prey to cyberbullying?
MODULE 14
Types of Debate
Skills Needed in a Debate
Ethical Considerations
Review of Arguments Raised
1. Differentiate the different kinds of debate
2. Explain the different skills in a debate.
What is Debating?
A debate is a structured argument. Two sides speak alternately for and against a particular contention
usually based on a topical issue. Unlike the arguments you might have with your family or friends however,
each person is allocated a time they are allowed to speak for and any interjections are carefully controlled. The
subject of the dispute is often prearranged so you may find yourself having to support opinions with which you
do not normally agree. You also have to argue as part of a team, being careful not to contradict what others on
your side have said.
Why debate?
It is an excellent way of improving speaking skills and is particularly helpful in providing experience in
developing a convincing argument. Those of you who are forced to argue against your natural point of view
realize that arguments, like coins, always have at least two sides.
Types of Debate
A formal debate usually involves three groups: one supporting a resolution (affirmative team), one
opposing the resolution (opposing team), and those who are judging the quality of the evidence and arguments
and the performance in the debate.
Five Elements to Every Debate Round

 The Judge. An academic debate is set up to persuade either a person or a group of people, not your
opponent.
 The Resolution. This is a claim or proposition that both sides of the game agree to argue. It usually starts
out with the word “resolved,” meaning “be it resolved that we do or believe such-and-such.”
 The Sides. Resolutions are typically written to show two distinct sides: an affirmative side that agrees
and a negative side that doesn’t.
 The Speeches. The format of the debate round follows very clear rules of timed speeches, allowing the
debaters to be as strategic as possible with their word economy. Most debate formats allow for a cross-
examination or discussion period of exchange.
 The Decision. After the debate “round,” the judge casts a decision. There is a winner and a loser.
.
Here are some common confusions as well as some solutions to mastering debate:
 The Judge. Sometimes debaters think it is their job to convince their opponent. No one expects you to do
so, and this does not determine who wins. You are to convince the judge, not your opponent. This is one
reason debaters face the judge during debate rounds.
 The Resolution. This is like boundaries in a sport, and you need to stick within the boundaries. Going off
topic or talking about things unrelated to the resolution is frowned upon by judges. Debaters learn to stick
to the point.
 The Sides. Debate is more than just taking sides and running; there is strategy involved. Understanding
the burdens of each side helps craft specific strategies that will help debaters win rounds.
 The Speeches. There is a most fundamental strategy called “flowing” that debaters sometimes think they
can do without. However, the debater who masters the flow of arguments from speech to speech are
debaters who win debates. And those who don’t, lose.
 The Decision. Debate is a subjective game, meaning rounds will be lost when you really do feel you
should have won. Judges vary greatly: sometimes they are expert logicians and sometimes they are biased
to one side of the debate. No matter. Treat each round as a learning experience and you will become
better and better at debate.
The Debate Format

The debate format is relatively simple; each team member of each side speaks for five minutes,
alternating sides. A ten-minute discussion period, similar to other formats' "open cross-examination" time
follows, and then a five-minute break (comparable to other formats' preparation time).
Each debate involves two debating teams who take opposing sides of the topic, either affirmative (for)
or negative (against). The teams alternate speakers The negative team speaks against the topic. Their goal is
to persuade others that the topic is not true.
What is a debate for students?

A debate is a discussion or structured contest about an issue or a resolution. A formal debate involves
two sides: one supporting a resolution and one opposing it. ... In the context of a classroom, the topic
for debate will be guided by the knowledge, skill, and value outcomes in the curriculum.
Opening the debate:

1. [a nice opening is using a quote]
2. Ladies and Gentlemen, welcome to this debate.
3. Welcome from this side of the house…
4. The motion for debate today is: … defining the motion:
5. Now we as today’s proposition/opposition strongly believe that this is true/not true.
6. let us first define some important terms in this debate.
7. We believe that what is meant by … is… / that … are …
8. When we say … should … we mean that …
9. Presenting the team-line

10. We as today’s proposition/opposition have structured our case as follows:
11. I, as the first speaker, will be talking about …
12. Our second speaker, …, will elaborate on the fact that …
13. And our third speaker, …, will do the rebuttal.
14. Rebutting arguments, rebuilding your case

15. But before I come to my own arguments, let us first have a look at what … has said.
16. I will continue our case in a minute, but before that…
17. There are some things about the… speech that need to be addressed.
18. The first prop/opposition speaker has told us …; on the contrary …
19. He/She also said that …; but in fact..
20. He/She was claiming that …; but as my first speaker already told you,
…
21. Introducing arguments
22. Let me come to my first/second/…/next argument: [concise label of argument]
23. My first/… argument is:
24. The first/… reason why we’re prop/opposing this motion is: explaining arguments:
25. [rather abstract explanation on how the argument should work] giving examples:
26. There are many examples for this/for …, for instance.
27. In fact, you can find many examples for this in real life. Just think of…
28. And there are similar cases, such as…, …
29. So in this simple example we can clearly see the effect of …
30. So as we have seen [argument label], and therefore [motion].
31. Now because of this …, we have to support this motion.
32. Summarizing & ending your speech

33. So Ladies and Gentlemen, what have I told you today? Firstly …, Secondly..
34. [some nice closing words]
35. And for all of these reasons, the motion must stand/fall.
36. Making / rejecting / accepting / answering points of information

37. Point of information, Sir/Madam.
38. On that point.
39. Wouldn’t you have to agree …?
40. Doesn’t what you’re saying contradict with …?
41. What about the …?
42. How would you explain, that … ?
43. Declined.
44. Yes, please. / Go ahead.
45. I’m going to come to this very point in my second argument in a minute.
46. Giving summarizing speeches

47. Ladies and Gentlemen, welcome for the last time from today’s prop/opposition.
48. It is now my pleasure to summarize this debate,
49. Take a look at what both sides have said and see what the outcome of this debate actually is.
50. A first/second/… major clash was: …
51. Today’s prop/opposition told us …; we had to find …
52. And for all these reasons, I beg you to prop/oppose
The Basic Debating Skills

Style
Style is the manner in which you communicate your arguments. This is the most basic part of debating
to master. Content and strategy are worth little unless you deliver your material in a confident and persuasive
way.
Speed
It is vital to talk at a pace which is fast enough to sound intelligent and allow you time to say what you
want, but slow enough to be easily understood.
Tone
Varying tone is what makes you sound interesting. Listening to one tone for an entire presentation is
boring.
Volume
Speaking quite loudly is sometimes a necessity, but it is by no means necessary to shout through every
debate regardless of context. There is absolutely no need speak any more loudly than the volume at which
everyone in the room can comfortably hear you. Shouting does not win debates. Speaking too quietly is clearly
disastrous since no one will be able to hear you.
Clarity
The ability to concisely and clearly express complex issues is what debating is all about. The
main reason people begin to sound unclear is usually because they lose the “stream of thought” which is
keeping them going. It is also important to keep it simple. While long words may make you sound clever, they
may also make you incomprehensible.
Use of notes and eye contact

Notes are essential, but they must be brief and well organized to be effective. There is absolutely no
point in trying to speak without notes. Of course, notes should never become obtrusive and damage your contact
with the audience, nor should they ever be read from verbatim. Most people sketch out the main headings of
their speech, with brief notes under each.
When writing notes for rebuttal during the debate, it is usually better to use a separate sheet of paper so
you can take down the details of what the other speakers have said and then transfer a rough outline onto the
notes you will actually be using. Eye contact with the audience is very important, but keep shifting your gaze.
No one likes to be stared at.
Content
Content is what you actually say in the debate. The arguments used to develop your own side’s case and
rebut the opposite side’s. The information on content provided below is a general overview of what will be
expected when you debate. The final logistics of how long you will be debating, how many people will be in
your group, and how the debate will unfold (ie: which team speaks first etc.), will all be decided by your tutorial
leader.
Case (argument)- the whole

Introduction - The case your group is making must be outlined in the introduction. This involves
stating your main arguments and explaining the general thrust of your case. This must be done briefly since the
most important thing is to get on and actually argue it. It is also a good idea to indicate the aspects of the subject
to be discussed by each of the team members.
Conclusion - At the end, once everyone has spoken, it is useful to briefly summarize what your group has said
and why.
Case (argument)- the parts - Having outlined the whole of your argument, you must then begin to
build a case (the parts). The best way to do this is to divide your case into between two and four arguments (or
divide your case based on the number of people in your group). You must justify your arguments with basic
logic, worked examples, statistics, and quotes. Debating is all about the strategy of “proof”. Proof, or evidence,
supporting your assertion is what makes it an argument. There are a number of ways of dividing up cases
according to groups of arguments (eg political/economic/social or moral/practical or international/regional etc.)
or just according to individual arguments if you can’t group any together. Under each of these basic headings
you should then explain the reasoning behind the argument and justify it using the methods outlined above. It is
usually best to put the most important arguments first.
Rebuttal – the parts

Arguments can be factually, morally or logically flawed. They may be misinterpretations or they may
also be unimportant or irrelevant. A team may also contradict one another or fail to complete the tasks they set
themselves. These are the basics of rebuttal and almost every argument can be found wanting in at least one of
these respects.
It is very important to have a good perspective of the debate and to identify what the key arguments
are. It isn’t enough to rebut a few random arguments here and there. Of course, the techniques used above are
invaluable but they must be used appropriately.
There are a number of things you should do to systematically break down a team’s case:
1. Ask yourself how the other side have approached the case. Is their methodology flawed?
2. Consider what tasks the other side set themselves (if any) and whether they have in fact addressed these.
3. Consider what the general emphasis of the case is and what assumptions it makes. Try to refute these.
4. Take the main arguments and do the same thing.
It is not worth repeating a point of rebuttal that has been used by someone else already, but you can
refer to it to show that the argument has not stood up. It is not necessary to correct every example used. You
won’t have time and your aim is to show the other side’s case to be flawed in the key areas.
1. Why are debates important?

2. Why should emotions not dominate debates?
3. Explain the different debating skills.
MODULE 15
Communication Materials Across

Professions Persuasive Speaking
1. Discuss the communication materials across professions.
2. Explain the elements of persuasive speaking.
What are Communications Materials?

Communications Materials include, but are not limited to, literature, newsletters, publications, signage,
websites, advertisements, brochures, video, radio and public service announcements, press releases, press
events advisories and all other related materials
Types of Professional
Communication Verbal
Communication
Effective professional verbal communication includes the ability to speak fluently, to be succinct yet
thorough, to exude confidence and to communicate in a manner appropriate for the occasion. The style of verbal
communication used at a board meeting is different than the style of verbal communication appropriate for a
working lunch, working as a customer service representative or running into a colleague at an out of office
event. An essential component of effective verbal communication is the ability to listen to comments from those
you are communicating and to observe their reactions. Verbal communicating is categorized into interpersonal
communication and public speaking.
2. Public Speaking
Another form of verbal professional communication is public speaking or making a formal presentation
to a group of people. To be an effective public speaker, a professional must be prepared to communicate with a
particular group of persons, thus preparing the speech to fit the audience. Communicating to a group of high
school students is different than communicating to a group of senior citizens. A professionally delivered speech
is well organized and thought out, convinces the listener you know what you are talking about and is delivered
as if it was off-the-cuff and not read from a script.
3. Written Communication
Professionals who excel at written communication understand how to use language to get their message
across. They are efficient at utilizing all forms of grammar and punctuation to add in-depth meaning to their
writing. There are a variety of types of written communication including writing: letters, memos, project plans,
policies and procedures, articles for general audiences, technical scientific reports, studies and articles,
marketing flyers, posters, magazines and many more. Each of these types of professional written
communications require different technical and literary skills.
4.Digital Communication
Digital communication is evolving so rapidly, it requires serious effort by professionals to keep up with
the opportunities and how to use them effectively in their professions. Social networking, emailing, bloging,
texting, internet conferencing and research and teleconferencing are all forms of communication that effective
professionals must understand and master, to whatever degree is appropriate to communicate in their
professional careers. Using email to communicate, rather than making a phone call, may be time efficient, but
there are some things that are better not written down for posterity. Electronic mail is quick and efficient and
documents a string of communications that can be referred back for historical documentation. Digital
communication is the way of the future. Every professional must learn which types of digital communication is
the most effective for him.
What is Persuasive speaking?

Persuasive speaking is the type of speaking that most people engage in the most. This type
of speech can involve everything from arguing about politics to talking about what to eat for dinner. Persuasive
speaking is very connected to the audience, as the speaker must, in a sense, meet the audience halfway.
Writing is an essential skill in many professions. Your ability to write persuasively can enhance your
resume, email communications, written proposals and other important documents throughout your career. For
this reason, it’s crucial to develop your persuasive writing skills and become the most effective and versatile
employee you can be. In this article, we’ll help you with your written business communications by offering a
list of persuasive techniques.
Why is it important to be persuasive in business communication?

Whether you’re looking to gain website traffic or just the esteem of your coworkers and managers,
persuasion is an important skill to possess. Being persuasive makes it easier for you to get things done because
you can guide others to your way of thinking.
Written communications play a significant role in business. Something as simple as sending an email to
a manager or writing a memo can be an opportunity for persuasive writing. If you’re in a sales role, it’s even
more essential that you demonstrate these effective techniques for writing a compelling proposal because your
performance may be tied to how convincing you can be.
Five persuasive techniques

Here are five persuasive techniques for business writing:
1. Establish trust and develop credibility
2. Understand the reader’s purpose and align your own
3. Pay attention to language
4. Consider tone
5. Use rhetoric and repetition
1. Establish trust and develop credibility

Persuasive writing involves connecting with your audience in an authentic way. Using techniques that
build trust is one crucial way of connecting. An audience is more likely to see you as an authority on a subject if
they trust you, and that’s essential for establishing credibility.
For example, if someone you have never met before introduces themselves and in the same sentence offers a
sales pitch, it may make you feel uncomfortable. This person hasn’t taken any time to explain who they are,
why they are talking to you or what it is they want you to invest in.
A good starting point in developing trust and authority is to ask yourself some questions before you start
writing:
 Who?: A question like, “Who is my target audience?” or “Who am I to my audience?” can help you
establish a credible tone.
 What?: “What is it I want my readers to believe in?” or “What are the best ways to appeal to this
audience?” are important questions to ask yourself ahead of writing.
 Where?: The question, “Where will this document be used?” can help you gauge your persuasive
writing style. For example, a technical document that will be used to train call center workers will
require you to write differently than if you are writing copy for a travel brochure, but both should be
persuasive.
 When?: Persuasive writing is often about the “when.” Considering your sales cycle, for instance, can
help you write an influential proposal document. “When do I want to secure buy-in?”
 Why?: Before you start writing, ensure you fully understand why you are writing a persuasive
document at all.
 How?: What you write is important, but so is how you deliver it. Establishing how in advance helps you
avoid writing a letter in a scenario that would be better handled by a face-to-face discussion or phone
call.
Consider the entire scope of your persuasive writing project before you launch. It is not only a good pre-
writing practice, but it also establishes trust between you and your audience by answering all of their questions
before they ask them.
Once you’ve outlined the answers to some basic questions, consider these techniques for
connecting with your audience and establishing credibility:
1. Appealing to emotion: Connecting with people emotionally is one way to write persuasively. You see
this often in commercials for nonprofits that ask you to donate to save an animal or feed a family a
holiday meal. Making an emotional appeal gets attention and connects with people at a visceral level.
2. Appealing to authority: When you can point to an expert opinion on a subject, people are more likely
to find it credible. For instance, if you’re writing a blog on budgeting and personal finance, people are
likely to believe you if you cite the experiences of other well-known finance bloggers that support your
premise, rather than speaking entirely from personal experience.
3. Understand the reader’s purpose and align your own

Understanding the intent of your audience is a big theme in today’s thriving content marketing industry.
Consider your favorite search engine’s primary imperative is to know what you mean when you search a term.
If you type in “Jasmine,” for instance, your search engine is programmed to decide if you are seeking
information on the flower, the name or looking for a specific literary character.
Content writers should think like a search engine. Consider why people are accessing your content and
what they are seeking when they do. It provides context as to what you should write to be informative and
persuasive.
For instance, if you know your readers are looking for ways to backpack across Europe on a budget, you might
recommend low-cost hostels over resort-style accommodations. This builds trust and credibility.
4. Pay attention to language

The language you use can make your writing more persuasive, as it impacts your ability to connect with
your audience in a meaningful way. Here are some basic literary techniques and examples to consider for a
more persuasive outcome:
 Flattery: “You’re smart, so I probably don’t have to tell you that it’s important to maintain a personal
budget.”
 Hyperbole: “You simply won’t find a better budgeting template.”
 Speak to the reader: “If you’ve come across my blog, you’re probably looking for some budgeting
help.”
 Active language: “Join me for this webinar on smart budgeting tips.”
 Use actual statistics: “More than 80% of middle-class people live paycheck to paycheck.”
4. Consider tone
Your tone determines how your writing comes across to the reader. Your tone may be authoritative,
logical, passionate, humorous, intelligent or neutral. There are several ways your writing can convey tone, but
when you’re writing to be persuasive, you should carefully select techniques and language that reflect a tone
favorable to your reader.
For example, if you want to present a tone that says you are an authority on the subject, some words you might
use to discern your tone might be formal, knowledgeable, intellectual and written for clarity. You can also list
tonal qualities you want to avoid. For example, you may want to avoid coming across as abrasive, terse or
overly casual, unless your readers are expecting that tone from you. These defining qualities should help you
determine which literary devices to use and what language is most appropriate for your audience.
5. Rhetoric and repetition

Two techniques that are important for connecting with audiences in a persuasive way are repetition and
rhetorical questions. When writing for repetition, you should carefully frame your work so that it’s engaging
rather than redundant. After all, repetition is an important resource that can be emphatic and help illustrate a
point.
We see this in the following passage: “Your money is important. Your budget helps you safeguard your
money. Therefore, your budget is important.” Several keywords are repeated in this sentence to emphasize the
importance of budgeting when it comes to optimizing your spending.
Here’s another example: “A budget template is a template used for budgeting.” In this example, the
sentence is redundant and the use of repeat phrasing doesn’t add any important meaning. To avoid writing
redundantly, be intentional with how you use repetition.
One technique for incorporating persuasive repetition is to use a rhetorical question. A rhetorical
question is an obvious question that is meant to be emphatic. It’s a writing device that allows you to move your
writing along toward a certain theme or conclusion.
Here’s an example of a rhetorical question: “What’s better than having money in the bank?”When a
writer uses a question like this, they are emphasizing a key theme that will likely be repeated throughout the
work.
Types of Persuasive Speeches

There are three kinds of persuasive speeches most often used in the area of beliefs and attitudes. These
are speeches of fact, value, and policy. You can argue about what is, what should be, or how it should be. In
making any of these kinds of speeches, you make specific claims that you seek to prove to your audience. You
make these claims by the propositions you set forth. Propositions serve as the thesis statement for your speech.
You “prove ” your case with facts, logic, appeals to emotion, and your credibility. If the audience accepts your
arguments and agrees with the facts, you will be successful. We divide the propositions into the three categories
because each type requires a different approach as you plan your speech.
Proposition of Fact
A proposition of fact is one that claims something is true or false. Some propositions of fact include:
 America has fifty states.
 Water is composed of two parts hydrogen and one-part oxygen.
 The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.
Each statement is a proposition that can be proven true or false by checking with authorities, a map, a
chemistry textbook, and your experience and senses. Some propositions are quantifiable, like the number of
states in the United States. Others are simply true or false, like the correct composition of water.
The propositions of fact that will be the subject of most persuasive speeches are less straightforward.
They might include the following:
 Violence on television causes child violence.
 More Americans are going to college than ever before.
 The athletic program at our college raises more money than it spends.
Each of these propositions can be supported by conducting research in books, on the Internet, or in your
college’s financial statements. As you establish the truth of your propositions, you are impacting the beliefs of
the audience.
Questions of Policy
One focus of persuasive speaking is questions of policy, which advocates a change from the status quo,
or the way things are today. There is a “should”, or at least an implied “should”, in the thesis statement. The
speaker wants the plan proposed by the speech to become policy. Questions of policy contrast with questions of
fact, which state than something is, exists or does not exist, and questions of value, which state that something
is good, bad, beautiful, or perhaps worthwhile.
Problem-Solution
One way to organize a persuasive speech on a question of policy focuses on defining a problem and a
solution by covering three basic points:
 The Need: Convince the audience that there is a problem that must be addressed or a need for change. It
is essential to get the audience to believe that a problem exists so they will implement a plan for a
solution.
 The Plan: Convince the audience that it is not good enough to just sit around and complain. Tell them
what actions they must take. Be sure to address any aspects of the solution that might make the audience
less willing to act.
 The Practicality: Show the audience that the plan can succeed. Address the implications, cite expert
testimony, and reference the successful implementation of similar plans in other places.
Problem-Solution with Cause

A common variation on the problem-solution organization includes consideration of the causes.
Discussing the causes of the problem directs attention to specific points that the solution must address. The
basic points of this organization are:
 The Problem: Describe the nature and extent of the problem. Specifically, describe that the problem
exists and how important or big the problem is.
 The Causes: Consider the direct relationship between the problem and its causes. Think about the
problem as an “effect,” and consider the causes that produced the effect. Show a direct relationship
between the problem and causes, not just a correlation where one thing occurred before, after, or at the
same time as another.
 The Solution: Use the causes as criteria to evaluate the solutions. If the speech says that the problem was
caused by x, y and z, then the solution or new policy needs to address x, y, and z in order to solve the
problem.
Comparative Advantages of Solutions

When the audience is already aware of and accepts that there is a problem, the speech can focus
primarily on comparing the advantages of one solution over another, as follows:
 Summarize the Problem Briefly: Do not focus on convincing the audience to believe that there is a
problem that needs to be solved.
 Compare Different Solutions: Discuss different solutions, and find the one that solves the most aspects
of the problem. Compare one solution with others to select and propose the best to the audience.
 Final Appeal: Ask the audience to accept and implement that solution as the policy.
Monroe’s Motivated Sequence

Another powerful method of structuring a persuasive message is by using a motivated sequence. The
organizational plan developed by Alan Monroe focuses on developing a psychological need in the audience and
then illustrating how to satisfy that need by supporting the plan or policy advocated in the speech, as follows:
 Attention: Get the audience’s attention using a detailed story, shocking example, dramatic statistic, or
quotations.
 Need: Show how the topic applies to the psychological need of the audience members. The premise is
that action is motivated by audience needs. Go beyond establishing that there is a significant problem;
show that the need will not go away by itself. Convince the audience members that they each have a
personal need to take action.
 Satisfaction: Solve the issue. Provide specific and viable solutions that the government or community
can implement.
 Visualization: Tell the audience what will happen if the solution is or is not implemented. Be visual and
detailed. Paint a picture for the audience of what they will experience and what the world will look like
when the need is satisfied through the speech’s plan.
 Action: Tell the audience members what specific action they can take to solve the problem and change
existing policy.
The advantage of Monroe’s motivated sequence is that it emphasizes what the audience can do. Too
often, the audience feels like a situation is hopeless; Monroe’s motivated sequence emphasizes the actions the
audience can take.
1. Why is it important to be persuasive in business communication? Explain your answer.

MODULE 16
Pitching a Project
Launching Campaign
1. Explain how to pitch a project.
2. Discuss how to launch a campaign.
Pitching the perfect project to a client is about more than making money—it’s about solving problems.
By: Brad Pray
To stay in business, you’ve got to earn business. That’s a given. You have to train your ears to listen to
your clients and your eyes to identify gaps or shortcomings in their processes, content, or other areas—
problems they may or may not recognize themselves. And, then, you have to pitch your solution. And not just a
single solution: show them options.
Pitching requires a delicate balance: You have to be thorough but not long-winded, convincing but not
pushy, well-rehearsed but not rigid, confident but not cocky. A word to the wise right off the bat: You’ll be way
more effective if you truly believe in the product or service you’re selling. As idealistic as it may sound,
pitching a client on a project is about more than making money—it’s about solving problems for businesses and
organizations striving to do meaningful work.
7 Steps to Pitching the Perfect Project
1. Know your client.

This is easier if you’re pitching a new project to an existing client, but, even if you’re not, learn all you
can. Research. Ask questions. Listen more than you talk. Research some more. Spend time with them in the
field. The better you understand your client inside and out—their goals, audience, obstacles, successes,
frustrations, personalities, approaches to problem-solving—the better your odds are of finding the right project.
As obvious as it sounds, agencies often skip this all-important step because building (and maintaining) this type
of relationship demands proactive thinking and LOTS of time. But if you skip it, there’s little chance you’ll be
able to …
2. Tie your pitch directly to your client’s business goals.

They have a need you can satisfy or a problem you can solve. Maybe they know it; maybe they don’t.
Make the connection clear, and make it often.
3. Inject a “wow” factor.

And, that doesn’t necessarily mean the scale of the project you’re pitching. After all, not every solution
is a monumental, life-altering one. In fact, pitching the perfect project can be as simple as proposing a new
button on a website. Or creating a week’s worth of targeted Instagram posts that moves the right dials for your
client.
4. Keep it simple.
In business, as in baseball, the faster the pitch, the better. Few people have the time or patience for a
long dog-and-pony show. Edit yourself. Aim to be comprehensive yet concise. Addressing these questions is
usually all it takes:
1. What’s the need/problem?
2. What’s the solution?
3. How will you implement it?
4. Why is your team better equipped to solve the problem than your competitor(s)?
5. How will the client benefit?
6. How much will it cost?
5. Consider providing options.

As the old saying goes, there’s more than one way to skin a cat. (Sure, it’s a terrible saying, but its
meaning rings true.) For nonprofit or startup clients, pitching the perfect project means having two or three
levels of service to choose from with corresponding price tags. While you may have huge ideas in mind that
showcase your team’s creativity and agility, it also reinforces to the client that you understand the importance of
their bottom line and that you’re willing to partner with them to achieve it.
6. Play devil’s advocate.

Sure, you’re hoping for “Everything sounds awesome. Let’s do it!” But no matter whom you’re pitching
to, they’re bound to have doubts or questions at first. Be prepared to address them and to do so confidently.
Before your pitch, assemble your team and anticipate any objections the client might throw your way. Then,
practice how you’d respond to each one. Not only will being prepared inspire confidence and trust in your
work, it could very well result in new business.
7. Be passionate.
How you deliver your pitch is often just as important as the pitch itself. If you don’t believe in what
you’re selling, then you can’t expect the client to. At iostudio, we’ve found that the best way to stay excited
about our work is to chase meaningful projects and clients committed to making positive impacts on our world.
How to successfully pitch your ideas
Know your project lead

First, figure out who you’re pitching to. Creative workers — think those whose work involves creativity
or innovative problem-solving in most any setting — generally identify in one of two ways, Elsbach said.
Idealists view themselves as artistic, independent and unique in their creative approach; pragmatists see
themselves as practical, collaborative and rational.
Affirm his or her identity

Your strategy should be to present your idea in a way that affirms the identity of your project lead.
“They have a lot of their identity invested in the ideas,” Elsbach said. “They’re threatened with ideas that will
change it,” she added. This means using different approaches for pitching ideas to pragmatists and idealists.
Work it out for the pragmatist

You’re much more likely to encounter pragmatists as project leaders. Elsbach said about 80 percent of
those in the role are pragmatists because organizations value their problem-solving approach and drive to keep
project timelines. From earlier research, she found pragmatists are more willing to consider ideas from others,
especially if those ideas seemed to improve the feasibility of their projects.
Three things are key for them:

 Present ideas with a practical approach to improving a pre-existing idea.
 Make detailed suggestions that can be implemented quickly.
 Invest passion in how you support your ideas.
Soft sell the idealist
Idealists see the projects they are leading as a direct reflection of themselves. So for them, the approach
should be opposite. Here you want to show appreciation for the idealist’s pre-existing vision and artistic
approach and preserve his or her sense of ownership. In a dispassionate manner, offer general and vague
suggestions with an open-ended timeline. Elsbach identifies this as a “low-conviction approach.”
Learn how to pitch a project idea in most impactful ways

Do the necessary research of your project idea
While of course you have created the good idea of desirability, the presentation of it before the decision
makers need to be equally good! Hence do enough of research on the topic and how it relates to the business
value in the social economy. Thorough research on the concept serves two important dimensions. The first is
that your confidence is boosted and thus you deliver in a potent manner. Secondly, you would be in a much
better position when any of the audiences (the top managers and investors) put up a query and seek explanation
from you. Unless you offer them a meaningful and logical clarification, your project idea would fail to leave the
impact.
Be objective while making your presentation

Your presentation of the project idea needs to be objective and rational and not ambiguous! It is again
important to mention that merely offering the core worth of any business idea does not serves the value. It
should be accompanied with dimensions of practical relevance. These include the ROI (return on investment),
the market demand equations, the projections and such other dimensions. These facts and figures in the
presentation positively influence the investors and business managers.
Explain how your idea is unique and put forth the innovation you wish to accomplish
We discussed at the inception that business companies are looking for new ideas. Considering this fact,
you need to explain the uniqueness of your idea and how the project would be accomplished through an
innovative strategy. If you prove your worth, then you are bound to create a forceful impact on the audiences.
State the timeline – the basis of your business idea
Never forget to include the timeline as the basis of your project idea. The timeline in itself is a mark of
authenticity of the project. It offers to the potential investors, the probable results that will be ensured at specific
intervals of project execution. It is a great factor to influence. Never miss on it!
Demonstrate the scalability potential

Scalability is yet another dimension that evokes curiosity in the mind of decision makers and investors
of course. They all want to know as what potential does the project carries. Can it be scaled to heights so that it
turns out to be a great success story? You need to demonstrate the same.
Investor research and feedback (during presentation) is also important; and take care to make your
presentation of the project idea crisp and concise while also stating the exit strategy (for the investors). Prepare
yourself while keeping these points and tips in mind and your project idea will definitely rock.
Launching a campaign
How to Launch a Powerful Marketing Campaign
Every online business needs to know how to run a marketing campaign. A marketing campaign is a
fundamental part of capturing traffic and leads on the web, and then turning them into sales. If you can’t
organize and implement a campaign, your company will never grow.
What’s a marketing campaign?

It’s a series of marketing-related activities that work to support a pre-defined goal. Campaigns can vary
widely, depending on your business, product, and customer.
Marketing Campaign Launch Checklist
1. Create a plan for your marketing campaign
Like every good endeavor, you need to start with a plan for your marketing campaign. Without a plan, you’ll
just be doing things that may not serve your overall goal.
Your plan requires three components: Goals, tactics, and metrics. Your goals are what you hope to achieve.
Your tactics are how you will reach for your goals. Your metrics are ways you’ll measure the effectiveness of
your tactics and determine if you met your goals.
Your campaign plan is also where you’ll store your research and ideas. You should include relevant information
about your target customer that may influence the campaign, such as where they can be found online and what
types of messaging they prefer.
A plan requires the use of some sort of project management tool to organize your thoughts, goals, tactics, ideas,
and team.
2. Build your own marketing funnel

A marketing funnel is a concept that describes how people find your company and respond to your
marketing materials. Many people will become aware of your company (the top, wider part of the funnel), but
fewer will become customers (the bottom, smaller part of the funnel).
In order to increase your number of customers, you need to increase the number and quality of people
who enter your funnel and increase the number of prospects that convert. Every company has a marketing
funnel, but they aren’t all very good. If you have never considered your marketing funnel, it’s probably quite
poor.
You will use marketing campaigns to push more people into your funnel. If you did your research
properly and planned your campaign well, a large number of campaign respondents will become customers.
Before you put your marketing campaign in place, you need to setup a basic funnel that will manage the new
traffic you will be sending to your website. If you launch your campaign without a funnel in place, you will fail
to turn that new traffic into customers, which could be a huge waste of time and money.
3. Create a thoughtfully designed landing page

Landing pages are the central hub for most marketing campaigns. They are the places on the web where
users learn about and respond to offers. They are useful tools to encourage users to submit their email addresses
and other contact information.
A landing page requires careful design. It needs to include some essential elements, like a compelling
headline, easy to understand information, a quick and simple form, and clever copy that conveys the benefits of
the offer to the user immediately.
Fortunately, creating a landing page is simple. You can follow some best practices to design your own
or use one of several landing page tools. These tools allow you to create high-converting pages in seconds
without writing any code.
Once you’ve built your landing page, it should be the location you direct your promotional traffic. For
example, anytime you email your subscribers, post on social media, post a guest blog on another website,
publish a press release, or promote your campaign in any way, you should include a link to your landing page.
(For careful tracking, it’s smart to use UTM URLs for each channel so you can track the effectiveness of your
promotions and the landing page.)
4. Set up tracking before you launch

Evaluating the effectiveness of your campaigns is a critical component of marketing. You need to know
what worked, what didn’t, and how much it all cost. The only way to properly track a campaign is to think
ahead and set up the right measures.
Most importantly, tracking will make the ROI (return on investment) of your campaign clear.
5. Promote your marketing campaign
Part of your marketing campaign should include strategies for promotion. This is the part of your
campaign where you spread your message and links to your audience on the web.
Where you promote your campaign will depend entirely on your audience. If they are frequent social media
users, find them there. If they prefer to absorb blog content, you’ll have to create your own. Do they like
contests and giveaways? Do they chat on forums?
It’s important at this point to keep your promotions organized, which is another reason your links should
include UTM parameters. For example, if you post on a niche forum, you would want to know how much
traffic came from that link. If the link was effective, you would want to do it again. If it wasn’t, you would try
something different. But you can only make these determinations if you have information.
7. Take advantage of lead nurturing

Most marketing campaigns call for the collection of email addresses. Once you have a person’s email
address, you can send your marketing messages directly to their inbox. Email marketing has the best ROI of any
online marketing tactic, so you should take this seriously.
Every time you email a subscriber, you have the opportunity to build trust and strengthen your relationship.
This is called lead nurturing. Subscribers who are engaged with your content are more likely to become
customers.
7. Make the most out of your campaign

If you have launched your campaign and followed your plan, but aren’t happy with the results, you
should tweak your marketing campaign to get the most out of it.
If you set up your measuring tools, you should be able to see which elements are underperforming. Your next
step is to make changes to those elements to optimize their effectiveness.
For example, you might feel that your landing page is receiving sufficient traffic, but it’s not converting
enough people into email subscribers. Using A/B or multivariate testing, you could test different versions of the
landing page until you find one that works best. Similarly, you could test and optimize other elements of your
campaign, such as your email content, social media posts, Facebook group comments, Quora answers, etc.
The knowledge you gain might even cause you to adjust your plan (changing the plan because of new
knowledge is quite alright). If, for instance, you learned that participating in LinkedIn groups had no value, you
could scrap that tactic and try something new.
Remember: Sitting back and waiting for customers to flow in is a mistake. You need to actively monitor
your campaign, spot weak spots, and improve.
8. Review your results and learn

The final step in any marketing campaign is learning. Did the campaign meet your goals? Why or why
not? You need to evaluate the success or failure of your campaign, determine your ROI, and gather any
intelligence you can for the next one.
First, return to your web analytics and your URL tracking tool. Look for weak spots. What worked?
What didn’t? Where did users behave unexpectedly? Did they follow your funnel’s path or did they consume
your marketing materials in their own way?
Next, calculate your ROI. Add up all the costs associated with running the campaign, including any paid
tools, paid assets (like social media ads or retargeting ads), and your time. Subtract that from the revenue you
obtained. Did you make any money? Was it enough to make the whole process worth it?
Some campaigns are only designed to collect leads, so calculating ROI is tough until you’ve made
attempts to sell to those customers. In this case, you could compare your cost per lead to your industry.
Take note: This is the step that is most often neglected by marketers. They fail to evaluate their
campaigns objectively. Do not be satisfied if your campaign felt like it worked. You have to know.
That was a lot to take in, but don’t be overwhelmed. As you begin to put your thoughts on paper it will all make
sense.
The most important thing you need to get right in your marketing campaign is learning. At the end of
the campaign, you must be able to look back and critique your plan and tactics. This is why it’s critical that you
set up clear goals and put measuring and tracking tools in place.
Yes, your first campaign might perform poorly. But if you learn from it properly, your next one should do well.
Before you know it, you’ll be creating effective campaigns in just a few hours and implementing them swiftly.
1. Explain how to pitch a project.

2. Discuss how to launch a campaign.
MODULE 17
The Job Interview

Process and Conduct
Dress and Appearance
1. Master the basics of job interview, the process and how it is conducted.
2. Discuss the importance of dress and appearance in a job interview
What is a job interview?

A job interview is an interview consisting of a conversation between a job applicant and a representative
of an employer which is conducted to assess whether the applicant should be hired. … An interview also allows
the candidate to assess the corporate culture and demands of the job.
Here are eight things you should always say (and mean) in an interview:
 You know the company really well. …
 You have the experience to do the job. …
 You work well with others. …
 You are constantly seeking to learn. …
 You are motivated. …
 You are excited about this job. …
 You have a plan. …
 You want to build a career in the company.
Tips for before the interview

In the days before your job interview, set aside time to do the following:
1. Start by researching the company and your interviewers.
Understanding key information about the company you’re interviewing with can help you go into your
interview with confidence. Using the company’s website, social media posts and recent press releases will
provide a solid understanding of the company’s goals and how your background makes you a great fit.
2. Practice your answers to common interview questions.

Prepare your answer to the common question: “Tell me about yourself, and why are you interested in
this role with our company?” The idea is to quickly communicate who you are and what value you will bring to
the company and the role—it’s your personal elevator pitch. Review our guide to answering Top Interview
Questions.
Tip: You should come prepared to discuss your salary expectations.
3. Reread the job description.

You may want to print it out and begin underlining specific skills the employer is looking for. Think
about examples from your past and current work that align with these requirements.
4. Use the STAR method in answering questions.
Prepare to be asked about times in the past when you used a specific skill and use the STAR method to
tell stories with a clear Situation, Task, Action and Result.
5. Recruit a friend to practice answering questions.

Actually, practicing your answers out loud is an incredibly effective way to prepare. Say them to
yourself or ask a friend to help run through questions and answers. You’ll find you gain confidence as you get
used to saying the words.
6. Prepare a list of references.

Your interviewers might require you to submit a list of references before or after your interview. Having
a reference list prepared ahead of time can help you quickly complete this step to move forward in the hiring
process.
7. Be prepared with examples of your work.

During the interview, you will likely be asked about specific work you’ve completed in relation to the
position. After reviewing the job description, think of work you’ve done in past jobs, clubs or volunteer
positions that show you have experience and success doing the work they require.
8. Prepare smart questions for your interviewers. Interviews are a two-way street. Employers expect you to ask
questions: they want to know that you’re thinking seriously about what it would be like to work there.
Here are some questions you may want to consider asking your interviewers:
 Can you explain some of the day-to-day responsibilities this job entails?
 How would you describe the characteristics of someone who would succeed in this role?
 If I were in this position, how would my performance be measured? How often?
 What departments does this teamwork with regularly?
 How do these departments typically collaborate?
 What does that process look like?
 What are the challenges you’re currently facing in your role?
Job Interview Questions and Answers

Here's a list of common job interview questions, with examples of the best answers about you, your
work history and experience, the job, your goals, the new job, salary, and what you have to offer the employer.
Questions About You
Interviewers will ask questions about you to gain insight into your personality and to determine whether
you're a fit for both the job and the company. These are open-ended questions which will give you the
opportunity to show the employer that you're well-qualified for the position.
1. Tell me about yourself.
2. What is your greatest strength?
3. What is your greatest weakness?
4. What makes you unique?
5. Tell me about something that's not on your resume.
6. How will your greatest strength help you perform?
7. How do you handle failure?
8. How do you handle success?
9. Do you consider yourself successful? Why?
10. How do you handle stress and pressure?
11. How would you describe yourself?
12. Describe a typical work week.
13. Are you nice?
14. Are you willing to fail?
15. Are you willing to relocate?
16. Describe your work ethic.
17. Describe your work style.
18. Do you work well with other people?
19. Do you take work home with you?
20. How are you different from the competition?
21. How do you view yourself? Whom do you compare yourself to?
22. How does this job fit in with your career aspirations?
23. How many hours a week do you normally work?
24. How well do you assimilate into a new environment?
25. How would you adjust to working for a new company?
26. How would you describe the pace at which you work?
27. How would your co-workers describe your personality?
28. How would a professor describe you?
29. Is there anything else we should know about you?
30. What motivates you?
31. Are you a self-motivator?
32. What do you find are the most difficult decisions to make?
33. What has been the greatest disappointment in your life?
34. What are you passionate about?
35. What are your hobbies?
36. What are your pet peeves?
37. What is your dream job?
38. What is the worst thing you've gotten away with?
39. What won’t you miss about your last job?
40. Would you rather be liked or respected?
41. Why should I take a risk on you?
42. If you could relive the last ten years of your life, what would you do differently?
Questions About Leaving Your Job

Employers almost always ask about why you left, or are leaving, your job. Be prepared with an
explanation for why you're moving on. Do make sure the reasons you give match what past employers will say
about you if they are contacted for a reference.
1. Why are you leaving your job?
2. Why do you want to change jobs?
3. Why were you fired?
4. Why were you laid-off?
5. Why did you quit your job?
6. Why did you resign?
7. What have you been doing since your last job?
8. Why have you been out of work so long?
Why You Should Be Hired

Why should you be hired over the other applicants? What makes you the best candidate for the job?
Here's when you'll have the opportunity to make a case for getting a job offer, and the chance to sell yourself to
the interviewer.
1. Why should we hire you?
2. Why shouldn't we hire you?
3. What can you contribute to this company?
Questions About Salary
Some of the hardest questions to answer during a job interview are about compensation. Here's what you
will be asked and examples of the best answers. Questions about salary can be tricky to answer, and, in some
locations, employers aren't allowed to ask about your salary history.
1. What were your starting and final levels of compensation?
2. What are your salary expectations?
3. What are your salary requirements?
4. Why would you take a job for less money?
Qualifications Questions
The most important thing for interviewers to determine is whether you're qualified for the job. Here's
what they will ask to find out. When responding, be specific.
1. What applicable experience do you have?
2. Are you overqualified for this job?
3. How did you impact the bottom line?
4. Interview questions about your abilities.
5. Sell me this pen.
6. Tell me about your educational background.
7. What can you do better for us than the other candidates for the job?
8. What part of the job will be the least challenging for you?
9. Which parts of this job are the most challenging for you?
10. What philosophy guides your work?
11. What strength will help you the most to succeed?
12. Why are you interested in taking a lower level job?
Questions About Your Work History

Is your work history stable, has it prepared you for the job you're interviewing for, and do you have any
gaps in your employment history that the company should be concerned about? If not, prepare to answer
questions about what you were doing when you weren't in the workforce.
1. Questions about your work history.
2. Questions about your resume.
3. What were your expectations for the job and to what extent were they met?
4. What were your responsibilities?
5. What major challenges and problems did you face? How did you handle them?
6. What have you learned from your mistakes?
7. What did you like or dislike about your previous job?
8. Which was most / least rewarding?
9. What was the biggest accomplishment/failure in this position?
10. Questions about job demotions.
11. How have you impacted worker safety?
12. Describe the gap in your employment history.
Job Performance Questions

How you performed in previous roles can indicate how you will perform in the job for which you're
applying. Be prepared to answer questions about what you did well - and what you didn't.
Be careful about how you to respond to negative questions. You can frame your responses in a positive manner,
even when discussing a challenging situation.
As with questions about qualifications, be sure to relate your performance to the employer's requirements.
1. What do people most often criticize about you?
2. What is the biggest criticism you received from your boss?
3. What is the worst thing that you have ever gotten away with?
4. What makes you angry?
5. What problems have you encountered at work?
6. What strategies would you use to motivate your team?
7. What would you be looking for in an applicant?
8. When was the last time you were angry? What happened?
9. Why weren't you promoted at your last job?
10. Tell me about something you would have done differently at work.
11. If the people who know you were asked why you should be hired, what would they say?
12. What type of work environment do you prefer?
13. How do you evaluate success?
14. Describe a difficult work situation or project and how you overcame it.
15. Describe a time when your workload was heavy and how you handled it.
Management and Teamwork Questions

Are you a team player? Do you work well with others? Do you prefer to work in a solitary environment
or as part of a team? Your work style, and how you get along with others, including co-workers, managers, and
customers or clients is important to all employers. Here are some of the questions employers ask about getting
along at work.
1. Who was your best boss and who was the worst?
2. Describe your ideal boss.
3. If you know your boss is 100% wrong about something how would you handle it?
4. What do you expect from a supervisor?
5. Have you ever had difficulty working with a manager?
6. How did you fit in with the company culture?
7. Describe how you managed a problem employee.
8. Do you like working in a fast-paced team environment?
9. Give some examples of teamwork.
10. More teamwork interview questions.
The New Job and the Company

What do you know about the company, why do you want the job, and what would you do if you were to
be hired, are just some of the questions you'll be asked about the position and employer. Take the time
to research the employer prior to the interview, so that you can ask informed questions about the job and
company.
1. How is our company better than your current employer?
2. What interests you about this job?
3. What do you know about this company?
4. What do you know about this company? (for sales jobs)
5. Why do you want this job?
6. Why do you want to work here?
7. What challenges are you looking for in a position?
8. What do you see yourself doing within the first 30 days on the job?
9. What can we expect from you in the first 60 days on the job?
10. Are you willing to travel?
11. What is good customer service?
12. What would be your ideal company culture?
13. When could you start work?
14. Is there anything I haven't told you about the job or company that you would like to know?
Questions About the Future

Are you going to stick around if you're hired is something most employers want to know. All these
questions will gauge your interest in making a commitment.
1. Tell me about the trends in your profession and industry.
2. What are you looking for in your next job? What is important to you?
3. What is your professional development plan?
4. Where do you see yourself five years from now?
5. How do you plan to achieve your goals?
6. What will you do if you don't get this position?
Dress and Appearance

You can't go wrong with traditional business attire for a job interview. ... For a woman, a blouse and
slacks, business suit or tailored skirt or dress is appropriate. Men should wear dress shoes; women might wear
conservative heels. Avoid excessively high heels and revealing or tight clothing.
How you appear is essentially the first impression you will make on the person who will interview you.
If your appearance is appropriate and well put together, you instantly gain credibility as someone who cares
about making a good impression, and who has respect for the company and the interview process.
If you're thinking that looks don't matter in the world of work, look again. Physical appearance can
affect one's job prospects, promotion opportunities, and relative income. ... Instead, they opt for those who've
applied with a portfolio of relevant work, infographic or traditionally-formatted resume.
Here are the Top Interview Attire Do’s and Don’ts:

 Wardrobe outdated? First interview in some years? Do invest in some fashion forward business attire.
 Do Have a dress rehearsal. Do test wear your outfit – make sure you are comfortable sitting, walking
and standing in it.
 Do get your outfit ironed and dry cleaned – have your clothing looking as polished and professional as
you are.
 Don’t overdo the cologne and perfume. Many people are sensitive or even allergic to scents and it will
be the first thing that greets the interviewer – when it should be a good handshake and eye contact.
 Do accessorize – jewelry and accessories offer a way to express your self – but keep the bling to a
minimum. Pay attention to the details, wear a smart belt – nothing too bedazzling. Think smart, no tacky
ties from auntie Flo from Christmas.
 Do splurge on a power suit. It will pay for itself.
 Grooming – the aim here is to look tidy and refreshed. Do wear make-up that makes you feel your best,
but is not overpowering – best keep to natural shades.
 Do polish your shoes. Take a tip from British royals on this one, don’t show off your toes.
Your interview outfit should be tailored to the job you are applying for – the old adage dress to impress
is still relevant. Carefully plan your outfit to fit your prospective company’s dress code. The black suit might
not work for the startup style – which is typically casual (think smart jeans and shirt). A poor choice of suit
would signal you don’t fit in or you don’t understand the company culture. No matter the organization you
should look neat, tidy and well-dressed.
Finding out the company’s dress code before the interview is a good idea. If in doubt, check the social
media pages of the company to find out their style. Politicians notoriously spend good money on advice for
what to wear to win over the voters, there is no doubt what we wear has persuasive power. As Matt Damon’s
character (a politician) in the film The Adjustment Bureau explains; “This tie was selected for me by a group of
specialists, in Tenafly New Jersey, who chose it over fifty six other ties we tested. In fact, our data suggests that
I have to stick to either a tie that is red or a tie that is blue. A yellow tie made it look as if I was taking my
situation lightly and I may in fact pull my pants down at any moment.” It is worth your time doing a little
research on what to wear for your upcoming interview.
Professionalism and Appearance in an Interview

 First impressions are important – You are selling yourself to a potential employer. Dressing for success
will not necessarily land you the job, but it will give you a competitive edge and positive first impression.
 You represent the company – Every time I interview someone I think to myself, would they represent our
company well to the client, the media, or the public. Dressing conservatively is a safe route to ensure you
stand out in a good way. You should research online and with professionals you respect for professional
dress and appearance tips for interviews.
 Professionalism is the key – Employers hire the whole person: their professionalism, personality, resume,
knowledge, skills, abilities, and creativity. The impression you make on the job interview will always be a
determining factor. In addition, you may want to dress for the job you want in the future. Many times I am
not just looking at the applicant for the job I am interviewing for right now, I am also looking to see how
they could potentially grow in our organization.
Professionalism and appearance is important in any interview. You want to be taken seriously and be
considered a true professional in your field. To do that, dress and look the part for the job you want now and for
the job you want in the future.

1. What is meant by power dressing? Why is it important?
2. Why does it matter to understand job interview and processes?
Executed by:
Regina G. Lozano, MaED
Professor
Prepared by:
Dr. Nenita D. Tandingan

Professor
2/6/21
References
https://www.skillsyouneed.com/ips/what-is-communication.html
https://www.skillsyouneed.com/ips/what-is-communication.html
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https://www.managementstudyguide.com/aristotle-model-of-communication.htm
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https://www.pbs.org/ampu/crosscult.html
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sources/General-guidelines.pdf
https://www.essayjack.com/blog/4-common-types-of-essays-you-need-to-know
https://www.essaytigers.com/how-write-explanatory-essay
https://www.scribbr.com/category/academic-essay/
https://www.thebalancesmb.com/blogging-what-is-it- 1794405#:~:text=Blogging%20refers%20to%20writing%2C
%20photography,into%20websites%20for%20man y%20businesses.
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Journal#:~:text=A%20diary%20is%20a%20book,explore%20ideas%20that%20take%20shape.
https://www.momsteam.com/health-safety/10-tips-teens-prevent-cyberbullying
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qs=chrome..69i57j0l9.10172j0j15&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-communications/chapter/types-of-persuasive-
speeches/#:~:text=One%20focus%20of%20persuasive%20speaking%20is%20questions%20of%20policy%2C
%20which,the%20speech%20to%20become%20policy
https://www.terminusapp.com/blog/launch-powerful-marketing-campaign/
https://www.ripleypr.com/blog/professionalism-and-appearance-in-an-interview/
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https://www.thebalancecareers.com/job-interview-questions-and-answers-2061204

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MODULE IN PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION

Characteristics of Effective Communication

Effective Communication Skills

The Communication Process

Types of Communication According to Mode

Example: Radio, audio messages, music, recordings, songs, audiobooks

Examples: Pictures, Videos, Charts, Graphs, Symbols

Modes of Communication: Key Differences

Component Interpersonal Interpretive Presentational

Breathe, Ponder then Answer!

What is the communication process?

Parts of the communication process

1. The sender develops an idea to be sent

2. The sender encodes the message

4. The message travels over the channel of communication

5. The message is received by the receiver

6. The receiver decodes the message

7. The receiver provides feedback, if applicable

Tips for improving the communication process

Noise is anything that interferes with communication.

4 Types of noise that can disrupt communication

2. Physiological noise interferes with communication

3. Psychological noise interferes with communication

2. “Preconceived ideas” can be a kind of psychological noise

3. “Sarcasm” can be a kind of psychological noise

Jargon can be semantic noise

Abstract ideas can be semantic noise

Here are three ways to reduce the noise.

Breathe, Ponder then Answer!

2. Berlo’s Model of Communication

Any message further comprises of the following elements:

Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication

Helical Model of Communication

Westley and MacLean’s Model of Communication

Effective Communication: Five Principles to Perfect

2. Understand your audience. As important as it is to understand yourself, it is also important to

Principle for effective oral communication

The content of talking

 Adjust your choice of words to audience

 Be aware of distracting habits

 Voice (pacing and high volume)

 In presentation, a dynamic format is better rather than a static one

 Use language best suited to ear, not the eye

 Thus, be careful in your introduction

 The closing of your introduction

 Understand your nervousness

Here are some tips to help you to manage your nervousness.

Breathe, Ponder then Answer!

Value of Message in Communication

Why Messaging Is Important

Three Variables of Message

Strategies for persuasive messages

Seven Steps to Clear and Effective Communication by Joel Garfinkle

2. Make It a Two-Way Conversation.

3. Making Sense of It All.

4. You’re Responsible for Any Failure to Communicate.

5. Can You Hear Them Now?