11-2413 Characteristics of Living Organisms ‘entists listed 7 characteristics which all living organisms nawssc” Inorderte identify living organisms, Nubition a Sl eG FL) Tn f fee ene semen ee mee ee nueeuHe eatin Exeretion eae ERECT ED = 4 Sobe rams in Exess ot requ: cemenk B. Respiration: emmmm Lor mekabo sr ANAT TN SION N 4, Sensitivity: | SeReproduction: \ \G- Growth: / Oe AL = “JoMovement: ‘An action by ah ‘organism or part of an organist that changes position or place. ‘The seven characteristios could be memorized by the term “Mrs. Gren|The Binomial System: Each organism has two names writen in Latin, the fst name is the name of the genus it belongs to and the second name isthe name of ils species. This is the binomial system : However, we don't just write namas as we do usually, there are certain rues that must be followed to write the Latin name: The name of the genus must begin with a capital letter. ‘The name of the species must begin with a small letter. Both names must be wiltan in Italies or if you can’t write in italics just Underline the name, LL | epee atens (iene eee rschtsmsuct ‘Wolf: Canis lupus Zebra: Equus burchell Lion: Panthera Leo. ClassiPiecban Sy skem Can acm bo reflect revalo bina relaboaships, Or rwhlaked because alt share te relabively pecan Comman anes hoe and best ways bo classi’ OrKaatis. v's the Sane ad th DVA . \ Meant bhal ages 4} tuts Wich share we Wasa anasler (mee clack reek) have bas Seqvenas in DNA khak aremae— Srmvlae than Lose shane only ad shan ancaster.tele: Osi liinomeal nana. bel s bo cpeient Con Rosion- i 5. Nabbed laste . soreness $ re the eS os 7 om oo Srrvaure - CN “jst sberer Ge ve Te chimgves f. Comper 15 genes o-DNK 2 opdlgsis. Sequence ob bases nDNA | be probes in andl sss sequenab Qa, Neo ~ un ‘proteins ive ‘eaters aenimals Let a Funq? pre Kacy® pre bicdist \\ bes Ovaqanisms whreh clare. a " . tives pecenk anaestor(are more— | yelaled) howe base— Sev eI co Gs u s id b 0D J Eehol, oben Saranac ror AnneeKingdom Animal: : ! : “Ths animal kingdom is divided ino two groups, vertebrate and invertatates. To study ths Kingdom study the following tables. : | g - Vertebrates Phylu rr-=xiia P.0.0/Class Fish “Amphibia Ropillos Birds Mammals Picture eg eae Scales v7 | Moist Skin. ‘Dry Scales, Teathors: Furia Number 2 fins Nome. er “limbs ‘limbs. “4 limbs 4 limbs. Biood Cold ‘Cold Gold ‘Warm ‘Warm ‘ype Blooded Blooded Blooded Bloodod Blooded FRepraducton| Lay E95 Tay £905 Tay Fags Tay Eugs, Give Binh tive in water 5 Have oat ay e908 s Tail helps Lay waler- ; Ping MEMETNG’ | Woves id “| 'NEOREDG | - Proof shell fltinard | - Young teed - Fins change await oags sa On mother direction _| . Mi ! Lot $ coly leq s| Invertebrates Phylum: ArthropodaVUarka i - genyrunked \oedis + All ailhropods have jointed legs = Allarthropods have a hard external skeleton called CUTICLE or EXOSKELETON that + encloses their body. P.0.C/Ciass Thsecta ‘Arachnids Crustaceans | Myrlapods Picture | So | ees, Ty PSemaioterar | Comatnorax [any Door Bivson | “armors. | OMtsemen J abiomen sognents Compound = Simple gyee | Simp ayer seve! | Eyentbar | Smoccves | Gwopareot | Pato! Of antenna antenna antenna } : No wings Wings Nowings’ |More tian 4 Wings’ | presen | Sparco! | Paisotiegs’ | 20 dncaty Pars of egs io Nowings | begeon eect ee | ilocos Meee | Nogreson | Sacer an ‘espio os In all of them mons Through gills, contipades Phylum: Mdlluscs + -Hikey|nave a soft body ‘ind many have @ hard shell "7 ‘Snail Octdplis bypter hylan: Annis: ae +. .Sfme hhve heads/and eptenya” ™— + Thorne gs te sured catod Thad which nlf them shoving : 1 Thektobys evga intdmahy segmenif | ssUnik 4 Hyshave chloroplasts - Coll Wall made. bp ob Callus lose » have roots stemspleaves + trans poe sys kom P reproduce by re IQe 4} Mono coos | Dues bos leoves Long reers 9 [broad peat | branched ve ‘yens/rebor 4 comyledon [2 dak ladone P orp Isrts pape 3 he and 5 peslowere) Orraw ca otra ed in ne ae) “ “S Jers, «leaves called Rendy - nro Plower @& —_ Veins| | ib. Profedaisha - | oni -proletar 2 are Erg leaded led 6 Spe cl larger * han bade ~~ have nu est = \we mai - Seme \ . Coll walls. shds- “chlomplashcand(ont 4) Mebabelicm ares of Chemical teacki ans, Oclori'ng tn bod lle, Keepr te be 5 allave, tts Cee Un the, environrant & Wwe orqatiion s RS Pena ses bs C \assiPrcalyen L means arbopin thrags ae [ sD UY reandm so cn resp s sents ee qr Qccordina elo sitnilac their Pekin abe. Spectes : sents s having the same characters and can breed : Nigethes preducig Peshile. 6S Spring . 4WVolue ob ClassiPcakin TE ap Ag ee hel SUS to understand eVolatroncey (elakionships between oMansim 5 (orqanitin » wotthin a aro p (Class) ow. vswally mere aise lake d Ugh cegansin tne PRerenf-3 acken'a, _yaollecafiislar sextape yeast -— vnveebloler eee 4 ellisndk modes a cesh ok mere nm ’ ~ Cellol ore made op oh have A ‘ erste feve ye nvctass ~pepeboe 7 aan Toei ~nve Vepreduee re aen ure ot Meek Veruses backe ve P poten Cook * cath wall / mura. Coll momboran fe pibemmes Lasmed [ag elon Slee capsole KK HR HEK xe ‘A bacterium isa single-celled organism that Ives everywhere on earth. Itcan only be seen by @ microscope: Structure of bacteri | pr oes (no nvcless) ne nifechondevn crestor DNA (Ce Coll Wall: I's made ofa substance éalled poploalyean, which contains glycogen and sugars. cou Wel ‘poplidog! pane: It protects the bacterium from hurting when too much waters present and gives a 1d > |. cytntosme its ane ne eye ore kept and itstores granuias of varlous materials lis shape. id. cromosores A single ON snd coed one batean’s goes E+ Slime Capsule: This is an extra feature thats not present in all bacteria; itis created by the racterium when the external condilions are not favou ble Bs « rapists nen tne tripe kano oer (plosmide adgi stronel, DNA) ‘Adappation: .~ reorittions. They obtein their (hes! jue"bnable to create their own."e _- jeprdua by Spores - eprive Ph S ne tla Chloro phat —to foots =o skems ~no layes, =~No allolose ——eols ore decompeters:Viruses Conan prken Coc \ genie mabervad - ares, x> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK 2.2 Bacterial cells Bacteria (singular: bacterium) are unicellular organisms. Bacterial cells are rather different from the ceils of animals and plants, Figure 2.14 is a diagram of a bacterium. call wall made of peptidoglycan, nat cellulose call membrane eftopiasm ribosomes circular DNA Figure 2.14: A bacterial Bacterial cells always have a cell wall. Unijke plant cells, this cell wall is not made of cellulose. Byé the function is the same as in plant cells ~ the bacterigfcell wall helps to support the cell, and stops it bursting’€ the cell takes up alot of water. A pattially permeable cell membfane is pressed tightly ‘against the inside of the bacteyfal cell wall. As in plant ‘and animal cells, the cell mepfbrane controls what enters and leaves the cel. Bacterial cells have cytopfasm and ribosomes, which have the same funetions as in/animal and plant cells. They do rnot have mitochondriy/or chloroplasts. The most importan ydifference between a bacterial cell and animal or plant cells is that bacteria do not have a nucleus. Bdcterial cells are also known as prokaryotic ect. Pro’ means ‘before’, and “karyotic’ means ‘nucleus’, Prokaryotic cells appeared on Earth millions of ygars before cells with nuclei appesred. Instead of ghromosomes inside « nucleus, bacteria have a citgle of DNA. This is sometimes called a bacterial/chromosome. The DNA has exactly the same functiog as in other cells it provides instruetions for making proteins. ‘Bactyfial cells often have one or more smaller circles of DNA. called plasmids. Scientists can use plasmids in the gengiic modification of cells and organisms, which you can fread about in Chapter 20 position of cell membrane cytoplasm ragion where the DNA\s found Figure 2.15: This pltre wes akon wth an leevon microscope, afterwhich the colours were added to it. I shone» barge called Entorococeus locale ding ito two. Tf ttho way that bacteria rprode. ‘whose cells do not bacteria: unicellular organist contain a nucleus prokaryotic calls: cells with no nucleus; bacteria have prokaryotic cells plasmids: small, ciré&lar molecules of DNA, found in many prokaryotic cells in addition to the main, facterial cell with animal and plant cells, Remember to include similarities as well as differences. | How will you try to learn jKenames of the parts | of animal, plant and bacterial cells, and their | functions? Think about which of these ideas might work foryou:—/ + looking at djdgrams and reading about the struct practising drawing your own diagrams and labellifg them | getting a friend to test you by asking questions rrlaking some revision cards for yourself, with Aho name ofa structure on one side and its function on the other side What other ideas might you try?MeaBr 2. us the Smallest < skructora and Ronebvarc! bale ap on organo: 2. Debne a bissve: Q& QAroop oP i rolentical ells ts (same. stnache and Ponebron) Working boaethae be. 4 perfosen Same. Ponakron ox musche Pbssvfmase Mtl 3. Define an on ohga a arose f SV PRremk bessve s Wor ktig seo ge ther Por mary Fen ity Ef Lue ex \e ue ‘De Pine a System orcen Syskew)t ou Qroxp BY guffennk organs, Work be Si ecfror en: Re rents Pocbow. J Y ae Syshers : - 24% bos cert 4s mn, - Store _ lake he. he Ponekrons fa Call " Eliwaniaen., Car plasm, nocleos, Vacvela, oho oplasts. akkowd hoof 4 E. Cal valig7 Di Fferenas bettonon oninat Qa ani plank D * ¥.C A.C Colt woah X las 2. \ace oka x C “ors plast % ‘ shale ahore aS rons wart lees « Col! wk : abies — noel — mthechendeve. — ribosomes ~ Endoplasmic rebtolom Q\O bes par boeh end tla Qarelor'c 5p irakion,) neleo st hy mE no Fens: J: This i a phtilh flip ally lke substance, cell bel ings of DN [ . maikachend * Features found jn on! (Corns ribosomes on Tovah endoplasmr reli tolom ond Nee) ig (oni? e © Cell Walk: This is a rai layer surrounding the cell made of celulose, it gives the plant its CF. KR, shape and prevents it fom bursting. / Pyliy permects le oS Chloroplasts: They are sacs which contair’cHlorophyl which is @ green pigment that traps ‘ sunlight for photosynthesis. ° : ‘ @ \Vacuole: This is a large room in the center of the cell, it stores sugars and salts and controls movernent of water in and out of the cell ‘Animal cells store sugars in glycogen form but plant calls store it as sterch, Animal cells have an irregular shape but plant calls have a regular shape. Both types of cells contain Mitochondria these are structures thal_convert chamical anergy in foods to enorgy that could be.usecrirmoing, dividing, ele, it's evidence thatthe cell is an Active Cell, Specialised Cells: Rod Blood Cells: Red blood cells are foundin the blood of Janimals, its Function is to transport oxygen [ror tho lungs to all the body cells, and Icartvon dioxide from the body calls to the lungs. They are adapted by four ways: They have a biconcave disc shape that gives ita large surface area to carry more oxygen! “They contain a chemical called hemoglobin that combines with oxygen and carbon dioxide, =~ They have no nuclet&f to carry more oxygen and COZ =~ They are tiny enough lo squeeze through capillaries. ye wees Muscle Cells: together to move the organisms. Iiheiefunction is to contract to lsupport and move the body. : oi They are adapted by two ways, First, Is that they are made of contracile filament to help in contraction. Second is it contains lots of mitochondria to supply the cell with eneray:ontlh2 Ciliated Cells: Ciliated celis are present in the trachea and brone f out respiratory system. ‘Their function is to use their cilia to move the mucus up the trachea to the throat. The mucus traps bacteria and dust particles. When it reaches the throat, mucus is swallowed to the stomach where the acid kills the bacteria, Piney are adapted by the tiny hair | |All a i ike projections caliod cilia which lsweeps the contaminated mucus Ait ue lupwards. va ‘The mucus is secreted by goblet cells which are next to cilated cells, Root Hair Cells: FTheseare calls situated in the roots of plants. IThiey contain no chloroplasts. Their function is to absorb water and minerals. lrorn the soll, And to anchor the plantin the sol, lrhey are adapted by 3 ways. One, they have an extension that increases the surface area for Imord water intake. Two, they have a large Jaumber of mitochondtis for respiration to lbocome more ectve. Three @ conesntrated fracuole to help absorbing water by osmasis. Xylem Vessels: ‘These are-dead figniied cals that exist inghe stem of @ plat. Thaie function is to transport water and minerals from the roots to the leaves and the rest of the plant through the stem, And fo support the plant sha tare by Yor rst ney arene ow wt Yo poSSINOUNT They are dente by ays: Fs eyo song are aged to sugar ine plan) NO gH W* ensure Cankinoss Ros ef Ward me rdinesoh ‘The Division Of Labour: the specialization of cell to carry out particular functions in an organism.onel2 FT golved substances can be transported around organtsns cytoplasm also has 2 high co taany metabolic reactions (0 t ake place in the eytoplasm. [ine lem and phloem of plans (see Topic 8), Dissolved food molecu ihe pe alimentary canal easly dilfse into the body ‘blood for transport 8 yund the body (see Topics 7 and 9). The cell tation of water, making it possible f as many substances dissolve in it. les ‘and dissolve in the ior THE STRUCTURE OF DNA Inside virtually every cell in the body is a nucleus, which contains Jong, thread-like structures called chromosomes. The chromosomes, Ste made ofa chemical called” deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) DNA isa very long molecule that is formed from two parallel strands Cackbones) joined together at regular spaces by pairs of bases, like the rungs-of.a,ladder. The whole -structure is twisted, forminga ~ double helix. “The DNA strands contain four different bases, which are called A, TC and G. (The letters stand for the name of each base, but you do not need to remember these.) The bases on-each'strand-cress-link with. the bases on the other strand to form pairs. i srs wh es ne DNA ‘steed om eo stands cola together ts douse rx Fig 44 The strvetuie of a DNA mole catways pake win Roways pale wihUnik) 3S |3.2-33 1. Deine difhoscon : Cs the nak movement of particles Ream a ceqon of Ehaie haghee Cantorteakron te Saauien ef thee loWercs nearbrakion doidn o C= neankrakran ajrasien as a resolt ef thee randem movement. R. Eonarsy and diPfucren chee Por be PRuscen Coahmes Pram Khe KE of random metement of molecules and cons. 3. Factors offeckir¢ SiPhasviae * keen erakure ER at rrembeata. _ Srze aL Melecoles. « drshance. molecces have be brovel, ‘ Concertrakren pote: ° reSS Oo He Sve tt soctaes:unk 3 4 gos exchenge occurs thsrde. the | eeaVer ua che mesophyi{ Cells Whare Speras ro mesoph,l| provide Lacy S.A Be exchange re - qt San Spaces bebireon CMs we * op ant (leaves) can helprn exchange of qases WrEh Che anos .di Posand aries mate ts mon Ehan Wabar 5 ae rhe suchaces es Pocmed ak Do Veol tm Lungs, Blood Lranspart She OSes belween lungs and all Cole wn Low te blood 7 Where OG, Bes acrass very then layeraf Calle rmbe Lhe blood and COr db Poses rn bhe Opposite diteckis, G- Osmosrs ! VS Khe nek mrovennrest: - ol Web, melecsles Yrom O Seayon of wah a Aobentoll te a Tegion lower wala potential thei ans EWE Ob Mramlnone « parkinl » iG\uate3 | lant- colds 1a Oey wat. _ Coll gains Hadso Vatuoles erlorge. and Gall aerores hg and bees res SuretS 7 Creobed Supporti lank Scand A a avast duets coli veal 13. animal Cdk in. higher walbpr pans won and I os (no al wall Rs Ww plont Colles vn... a Conontvaled | Solu bien Ce th lesea water 7 oo ypacoler S roland GU he comet Placed bot He. Col. memb, remary atta te al wally and ip He, Q\\ gains Wwodee , Mo reaosns its Shoe roby bo Le} F+ N ages ywvote. welen, lt Weer delocked Brom Cot Walk f and Col besomes plasimalyse nm Cob yn bo Cao _— wee beplasm shrinkcs and CO shevels uP oS SW wo a rt 14. Blaine ish US the shrinkage of _ eat plasm Le plant CoM , so hat Ce hh Memloran e beans f tee, wor Reem CoH veal ( Crrevers tole. 7 (etis. Lucaor pressure: tg th pressure 4 Waker re tle a teplasn en aw hoqrd Co} agarns £ thelash’e Coll Wall. | hypebei ce —shoek yale. poten | Sobobie | hoo \ \ | tSafont'¢ sy Same vine and out [ sete . | haypectoat lows Wath rotebal Solobinpaki traespotl: Te. Movement of Cons or mohecsles Ehrough pe nally ‘Pectreable rromb rane Prone ao fey’ ol (owee Csncarkrebdn bk Oo degre ut hee Canc Controken , USIng Ent Deena neve resptokin in ev ¢ TespitaLien Un be macnn an gE Car rec prskes ns re Meese onl ny web es Je “poral “ Kone ot, oe v5 otal rpvele Net acta. - i oe pasosute oa how mnoch Woker vs vny and ow ent Woter Can moe oon e eytichn Molec les> campripsE IGcse™™ BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK ‘Questions 4 Imagine you are able to use dialysis tubing Explain why the liquid moved up the glass tube. peo sabe tiie Ae heiaaas Use your graph for the first set of results to work —_/_ Explain your prediction, cut the mean rate at which the liquid moved u/s cuagest how you could molly this experiment 10 find out how temperature affects the rate of you were able to repeat the experiment wi ‘osmosis. Predict the results you would expect. a different sugar solution, compare the tw sets of results, Can you explain any diflerénces between them? the tube, in mm per second /. ji it Ie you compare this situation with Bigure3.5, you will Osmosis and animal gells see that they are similar. The dilyi¢solution in Figure 3.5 fvhen two solutions and the pure water in Figure 3¥are each separated ‘separated from from a concentrated solulion/by a partially permeable ‘each other by « partially permgable membrane. The ‘membrane. Tn Figure 3,8, sXe concentrated solution is the ‘membrane lets water molecylés through, but not the cytoplasm and the partigfly permeable membrane is the other molecules that are diésolved inthe water cell membrane, Thereféte, osmosis will occu ‘You have seen that osmosis happ (or a solution and pure water) at {ally permeable, They let water Water molecules wif diffuse from the dilute solution fet molecules and ions often cannot into the concentgdted solution. As more and more water jeans that osmosis happens across enters the cell, swells, The cell membrane has to stretch as the cell go® bigger, until eventually the strain is too much, andAhe cell bursts Cell membranes are pi through easly, but get through. This, ilonlnm lenge the oul is fully concentrated olution. Figure 4 shows an animal clin a concentrated solution. Phe payeaund many other substances daslved init. Ifthigdoltion s more concentrated than the eytoplsm, are tpgfarge to gel through the cell membrane However, —dhe/ater molecules wil diffuse out ofthe call. Look molecule en get through the membrane, ayfigure 3.3 tose wy. As the water moleciss go out _ Prantl mene eos kth cel gets muller pure water more concentrated call concentrated solution more dilute solution cell butside the call solution inside the cell membrane —_outeide the call inside the call membrane \ J ON / Osmosis takes place. (Osmosis takes place. Water diffuses out of the Water diffuses into the cell through the partially coll through the partially permeable cell membrane. permeable cell membrane. @ et Figure 3.8: f an animal cells placed in pure water, water Figure 3.9: if an animal cell is placed in a concentrated solution, water leaves the cell by osmosis. The cell shrines tenters the cell by osmosis. The cell swells and burs,Osmosis and plant cells plant eels do not burst in pure water. Figure 3.10 shows ‘a plant cell in pure water. Plant cells are surrounded by a cell wall. This is fully permeable, which means that it will Jet any molecules go through it. pure water more concentrated butside solution inside call thecell the cell cellwall membrane ‘Osmosis takes place. Water difuses into the cytoplasm and vacuole through the partially permeable cell membrane. Figure 3.10: Ifa plant cells placed in pure water, water ‘enters the call by osmosis, The cell swells but does not ‘burst, because ofits strong cell wal, Although itis not easy to see, a plapt cell also bas a cell membrane just like an animal cell/The cell membran partially permeable. A plant cel}in pure water will take in water by osmosis through if partially permeable ell membrane in the same way yéan animal cell. As the ‘water goes in, the eytoplasyf and vacuole will swell. Hovever, che plant cell hea very strong cell wall around it, The cell wel is much Stronger than the cell membrane and it stops the plant gfll rom bursting. The cytoplasm presses out against thécell wall, but the wall resists and presses back on the éontents. Ina plant leaf, cof that have plenty of water are all in this state. In ene} one, the cytoplasm presses out om the the cells’ wall keeps the whole group of cells strong and firm, This A plant of in this state is rather like a blown-up tyre tight angf firm, ICs said to be targid. The pressure of the ‘water foshing outwards on the cell wall is called turgor prespfre, Turgor pressure helps « plant that has no wood in j(to stay upright, and keeps the leaves firm. Plant cells aye usually turgid. ips to support plant leaves. 3 Movement into and out of cells turgid: a description of a plant cell that, and firm turgor pressure: the pressure of thé water pushing outwards on a plant ce| Now imagine that a plant cell j is more concentrated than ityytoplasm., Water leaves the cell by osmosis. The eytgplasm and vacuole shrink, But the cell wall is strong nd stays in position, The cytoplasm therefore pul away from the cell wall. This pulls the membrane ayy from the cell wall, too. The cell now looks like th¢ diagram in Figure 3.11 and the photographed cell(4n Figure 3.12. {placed in a solution that concentrated less concentrated solution outside solution inside call the call the cell cell wall membrane Osmosis takes place. v Ginter ary ofthe yteplaun and vacuole rough thopartalyplmesbie cl mumbrone Figure 3.114 «plant cells placed in a concentrated for moves out of it by osmosis. The cytoplasm turgoy presque. The contents of the eeil do not push outwyhrds of the cell wall, so the cell becomes soft and floppy. IL is said to be Mlaceid, If the cells in w plant begome flaccid, the plant loses its firmness and begins topwilt. flaccid: a description of a plant cell that is soft> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK In plants, for example, root hair cells take in from the soil. ‘The concentration of nitrate protein nitrate ion a hitrate ions is (i the root hair (using active in the soil, The diffusion gradient for thy out of the root nr, and into the sol. cells are still able to take nitrate ions outside the cell 1. The nitrate ion aaa oa shows how ty dots al ne Sean ‘There are special carrier proteins ig the cell membrane inside Protein. atte root harcellsTheve proteles pickup hitatefons tho cell Tom outside tho ell and then gle shape so tha hey 1 push te nitrate fon trough fecell mbrane and chonget shape, The Into the cytoplasm ofthe cel/ Energy - provide by the one needed fi initochondl, which cary fat aorobi espiration ty seston ns it needed to produc Ine spapechange nthe fecal. cama pots + te canned Tepes carrier protein pushes the nitrate carrier proteing/(or protein carriers): protein Ton into the ce molecules in céll membranes that can use energy | and move ions or molecules into Figure 3.14: How active transport happens, or out of a Cell ‘Diffusion is the net movement of molecules or ions from high concentration to a lower concentration, as a result of their random movement and kinetic energy. / | _ [Oxygen and carbon dioxide enter and leave cells by ditfusion through the cell membranes, down @ concentration gradient. “An Increse in temperature, concentration gradient or surface area speeds up diffusion info cll This can be investigated using pieces of agar jelly. Tite's inortant in ogaions wa slp, brea indigeon, rtm and wnepor : ‘Water diffuses through partially permeable membranes, including cell membranes, by osmos Pe ‘| Dialysis tubing is partially permeable and can be used to investigate osmosis. “Animal cells purst in pure water dnd shrink when placed in a concentrated solution. Plant cells do not burst in pure water because their celMwall stops this happening. ‘A solution containing a lot of water has a high water potential; in osmosis, water diffuses down a water | potential gradient._5.\ Md al aygutdel «fp. Cerbch cloaks |G ch a. Chemeal elements ¢ are composed of - elements Carbon, hydrogen, “tr ‘Rakte of hydrogen bo oxigen Us _b. Enere Value ech | a eons 16tQ. IF | 45 a reg arnbakian (vespiralcoa . Sirnple unt uniks: “ ate lproken down Fineally- este, (Subon: its enzymes iwto siewple e (perl ding Box din feck) 2 Sugars. Grane ° d. Classess : (enoiter + Polywes} Swag ida Senet iN chew Shy 1. monosaccharides made up of one J molecule fof simple. swiar examples: “ge italia, To ase eortibas ey 1 highs soluble wwater. 2. Di soccarides + made, UG of two. molecules of simple. S¥ gars sees ase, naga base. colwbleme vn Water.Page -2- ore S. potyseccuides: ade up of eos wmolcculesel simple. Sugars (more .than, 2 mobiles), eXoumpless elasch » Cellulose, gtycagen a perenne Yin 7 nee payacchevides plato, plate Sree artnet AQ [ate dl vss lies 3 types sslorgye, e/ nom Coanal) bm soa) 2... Proper ies ab Phlysoccharides: papa. Daoist jo beste, . ¢ J soluble will not.change.. Waker potenhal of of peas cand,.well rok affect cell ncabolism | omplex:.cannat difhise oukok. the. cell. | et ie thea, will nokuaffeck. Khe cell 4 Ons Kan ines conversion... coan.beeasily converted inka sirople. vaiks. “according. Lo. the. needs 00 2 Te, be. Slow io. —- Buell. Spt Fe tunekvans:”..a.s.0..s6iece of. eiiecgy . 7 von amd. $Opage, ob. 0+ bik xn plks ee abc so-easroal... 1 Stoseuect > lose Pars cell-wall.s.| “S sass makenal.s Oevqan af. other angantc products _ afar fer hg food. = aol2 4 Sources potatoes, bread, oe, Prats, vegelables kable sugar, beets. nok eyiess pugars can be converted into Rats and stored unded skin and around © Ngans 7. Proteins rae a Chemcal clementid’ ace earapesdd alt “chenttal ened ro oy Fe Cog bon, hyd to en, Of4q ei and nitrogen. and Sorne: additional elements 3 phesphiorss magnest ony etlphur. _ on tyeng ® b. Energy Naluey eack \ provedes BET os MS ~ aresull™ of ox dalton, (respiration), Cc. Sim eunrkse thes ore broken down by 7 Subs CS ‘ \Suilbing Blocks sweats sabe, cating ce vds'p go at + garded ‘ Oe tby pep inde bonds. —ht-# A! Classes: there are Luienky, arnind aced's, ~ ClassiPred vate Lise groups , 1. esserbial amito acrds: Gre armio ocd $. soteetn pew 4 Lhek con be cbkatned Peon dies and — ARM one acquuied Prom Pood SOMCCES. Xo ’ . | MS Tot-essenteal: arnvao acids’ ore amine acrds nak : se os 4 “That Can Ber synthesised 1 the body." Navd Aap eed (Polen Sypthss) a?4 no a by e- Syste pF cass Used. mettibolisn2. Lor. * conditahon 4. Fer Umno act Per co Me feel’ ee Sy. ED al parle ichcane i peg soak she Se: tna Sol amino acds foods ep. of. mats anand hale pred. mea Pish., eggs.» ‘beans, milk cheese whe, ob Por he. -geaath. and. separ of uy he.. ia the. Porinatconof.. NBME enn the Pormokionf...hatmane.s the focmatcon.oh antibodies the of. ha ermog lobia NAIL... 6 Ne Sacmak Coa. ins Por.che. engl of Cellumembrane.... aay in. Bones, Shan . EA S..0..c0arce..o SCR, onl ae bor teh spectal alge 7 q.bur lend. < spectal.Kepalita, on. hexity skin : lo. bility a. muscles, ben O.D.S.y ane for. Movemen t... ras maf (ot 08 a helDM 8. Li Lal FL pads) {esters woke ‘bol o.Chenical dane they ate ae of chemvial element cairloon, hy deagen ox qen. Crery White sea, Lie of \ Wro cs very hai k) more bors . | be Erecg yolues each \g pre es BIC} as - ——" veut oF oxidation (e es pital sia) a Gc & ingle yarks. ; het ave a a wikis building bas: Re ins are etn pul a ~ontid ghee | ame AA ove. molecule of Rats. DI 3. Sources. mt cheese, butter, oe ast, = ao = weak, ae ae a. Salustated okt mi increase ia blood choleitetil which wr'th Paks Block Er Minas blood vessag Comst heart athack, ee be “Uasabirabed fol! acids: do ack COs tists Merease. nr blood helen and dé nk cause | . heart actoeks: = é. Classes sLos B S$... SOMNE..- nal, E energy, 2.Tt...insulales..Fre.Bs Sy. jagant heat. 1.085... CDdspa Seo dsSSi8) coca a a Ande ~ Warping os Memon ge egret ed ond ai “fat. Soluble glnerbidney phead- Seta . “Se elechic 7 ks eonkatn mote. ene nay coh (Pas. contars. putt (ie (lands) a s..cure. used. Apis hecause ct (Sn ~bndken Semon, easil I tihy ian Poadut's.. oe . 4 hen: insoluble. floss oprosace. \eunce..s..orschs \ 2nergy)...c.s Chas. \v-surround: i to. provide sstectuin ae ‘, (rn give example © ie fa CibrascRrwcl Ucmons., ¢ “4 : Oe onan es) Tomakees and 4 P4 areas vege bables, Cabbage . AMP | Tenet on] Bor the forme Pea Rr. mi fibres bo Keep khe skin and Utalls, of blood “Skt veel: hea tty (proper rapid healing “oP wounds) - (hres , “[Beheangy Sewery Ableecding 9 qums, aPlammned mouth; internal Yoleeds ‘nealrng uk and: wounds) Oveb- |(Caleferat) fe) "4 and delay mn ae Seurces “ah \iver cheese, mil (of bu bud M Rae debie ach nee ot vuiPeo M4: eget Ree haus den UP of bon and keeth, muscles : a ool Bent aad 4 eformed botes__» leas) ORO! Cn. FE panes pbivttle)GW @. Sources... a er, hese buble. cacrabs ms Praise 7 banclasnin ae . e-auight—b\ "Salads, whose chen oo a variety, .of. Pyackeons. vin. bie. bed Dies: ore .essentral..os Be, Skyy _— J “huis wp ke NS. ouses...ck.eledirical. impalses. Q. Tron|..0 a. ounces... Liver,ced wea, idiocy. . . spinach 7g feen Negetsbie tb Ranckvan, needed Vor Lhe Gowcnalon po oF heemelaba fora ota |fee | bios pak. . . : | €. Drechiciency Ancona: (pale Face. quick bi ~~ shortness of breath , of hear thea) @ 4 b|Calcium| | a. Sources # mille products: meal iva ., Dhetease. . ns Rash) Wien 3 By. be Ponekcing —Mecessary fer Ro emabeen. - ben ceth muscles, not head. fs oq : wn childten, - OSkeomalacua en adults . lc _ DeRiak Sh L proper well develo ped ~ TX bedkhy(5 = “(wae eaatote: See be En mes... ai ~ Uniivedcal Solyent..... fe ‘Needed. \ TM. Coohiag, odcby [S__burldtda ned. 6. foe: APR cion Sources: jas oZ . Tela . Lk es “dlesived. & From, @lanks. (cell luloss). . aod k. ASBBEL.0.. SUE TSE.enes 1 L Connels, | Funckvans: . becouse se Carte. koa: ones eed ahd & consti pabians AS chal sk Teale owrey : a. Prever- bomen fa ol oh) “vecuces’ the mick AP Cancer Eheauk <. Teh Al of Cancer t Ehe gut. Whrch “shmulal i atge cate stn, bigge- movem eat, Candie 2. dbsork bexe unastes Rimi bacte rie wLn hot days ca case of “J Caresng lout “ckrenuars evarcise )f-lowers becasys respinakion cube. cholester ~ [hither (eodite. ss an fis yt bleed Ste oJ Matesteltselbtin. Mt ; > Ta cases of dvrarchea due bo M terd loss of mineral salbs, HACSS tacks SS « a ee LD Atoad rot Hoe bbe eng Hoy choca Sed' under s tan va BD Pitre “of.worle a 2 Pood Suppltes. ... a There. .a.te.. -mans..e0-80Ms Poor: this. “E taclude. anne wo 1h “polescal. ‘Assaskets WA eran. $-. Ucbanisakton 4s se aaatheann reget 2 aTToverky cto. of. Sarl. 22t— ode _"Rasks = oganisny Ca a tell gr problems i Rd 2 Ae Cont ines oenoyg ite . eee eng : ul a Oe Ailey ond minccal’s Le Wal (- Pires(> ot 7 ~ A3. 2. 3.Eney oN us enneats rags seperanerts es in hurnas deperd eg Ode, ender age - _ 3 (Ac gets sChildcen need more protein to build XS Up New Lessues, mote calcium, Nik 5 Lo burtd uP bones ; = ol \d Reople need Mote Ni ts, Iebres “4 and tess fats. ins Gender( Sex) 4 @ Males need more eites NL _ ) ? Poo thon Pemales beast they are Morte muscular we females need wore iron bo teelace blood lost during mens kruatcen . © prgrant wottien need exce SS wal nutrients as thes ‘baby bo supply, bo the, ee) ce.covert he. need mote. spel, vits SoS in their diet bo cenlace ‘he dam ed Calls, “ond A tO Cpr Taranuw inser paseo DH £ Job 5 @Mannal..warkens neeel.mor.of..cll.. Se cnubetents.s than. Lhose doing passive. cjobs, lrecatse...thef Reed. more..prakens for..che. rePout.o-.. their. body, y Male wo@acbohydeales.ond.. Paks, for energy. Loc on hOl. Cheve...musce...cantiacton,.salbs.. ee and. wiborains..for.their..healkh ond... Wwhobber..t6..ceplace.. lost:uiate = balanced : eb.nok.caka De naug hy food. oler.o..lang...pery bin s,.50... Eh bods will. use. ‘stored. Pokal. then.protein.busswes./As. =the... Ders.oA...becmie's:.chig/é i Accun. (obesity). A u 4 A rauch ove ©.0. n9.-Pesfod..oP. dime. “Se Ehe...inpuk enemy us / Law er: | Ehan.. outpa £g) ERS. .CaU Ses ats. Eo be... stored a.nd the... penson..s overweight. fools: Debed cent. fond A condikianawth’ch ~ pesults..eb nakZeaking..enovah.of..ore. | altulon Kind af Veenyo ( ets ie Maro-5 mus) \n> : proterns peas ° Ne t erough — Senet woo a <— | atl ~ on S Lupa (x a _ ~& avon ‘on ly Fgh ‘Sloed pressure 7 Clark drseases (abyss fats aise deps't i paneer Walls of ar chs ukea ue ef Deaeed skeayt on 1 bones and _jomts . J . cer . | Hoss to deccepe Weaight }. J} queaking/tess Pods : Vaaa less Carbdhydrates iaput Deane ysis “ e os impet t Kenia Net4,2 The structure of DNA DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid. You do not need to remember this long name. | iit bods wish dwar nee ces) body UNA isan amazing molecule, 1 carries a *eade", whieh instewets the cell which amino acids to link togetbes, in which seuuenes, 2 make proteins, Phe sequence of bases inthe DNA molecule determines tle sequence of the unin acids that are used (0 build & prevein. You will Tins ov more about this in Chapter 16. ecinase proteins have so, nuany different functions in organisms, DNA determines almost everything about iu organism's body structure, and how its metaboic rwetions tak DNA is made of smaller mofeeules called Phere ave fone bases, Eaelt niteleatide contains a ae A.C, Gand T A DNA molecule contains two ehitins of nucleotides, ‘viled around one another (Figore 4.11}. This sl is called a double helix. The wo chains or strands ate held together by bonds that form between the bases of opposite strands, A always forms bonds with t. and © with G. This is called ay be 4. Biological molecules bases ‘wo strands, leach made up of a chain of nucleotides the two strands wind round each other to form a double helix Figure 4.11: Part of a DNA molecule. nunlestales. molecules that are linked together into long chains, to make up a DNA molecule ‘nasa: one of the components of DNA; there are four bases, A, C, G and, and their sequence determines the proteins that are made in 8 cell on) 180 pairing: the way in which the bases of the two strands of DNA pair up; ‘Aaalways pairs with T, and C with G SUVS ea ‘Carbohydrates are made ofthe elements C, H and O, Sugars, such as glucose, have relatively small molecules. Iycogen und cellulose are made of many glucose molecule linked in a long chain la ‘Starch can be detested using the iodine test, Benedict's solution is used to test for reducing sugars. | | Fats and oils are also made ofthe elements C, Hand 0. Another name for fats and ols pis, A lipid || molecule is made of three fatty acid molecules combined with one glycerol molecule, _] The etizanol emulsion test is used to detect the presence of fats and oils. Proteins contain the clements C, H, O and N, A protein molecule is made of many amino acid molecules ‘combined in a long chain, There arc 20 different amino aci determines the specific protein that is formed, s, and their specific sequence in the molecule> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK 5.1 Biological catalysts Many chemical reactions can be speeded up by substances called catalysts, A eatalyst alters the rate of ‘a chemical reaction, without being changed itself, Within any living organism, chemical reactions are taking place all the time, These reactions are called metabolic reactions, Almost every metabolic reaction is controlled by catalysts called enzymes. Without enzymes, he reaetions would take place very slowly or not at all Enzymes ensure that the rates of metabolic reactions are sreat enough to sustain life. For example, inside the intestines, large molecules are broken down to smaller ones in the process of digestion. ‘These reactions are speeded up by enzymes. A different enzyme is needed for each kind of nutrient. For example, starch is digested to a sugar called maltose by an enzyme called amylase, Proteins are digested to amino acids by protease These enzymes are also found in plants ~for example, in germinating soeds they digest the food stores for the growing seedling. Many seeds contain stores of starch, As the seed soaks up water, the enzyme amylase becomes active. Amylase catalyses the reaction in which starch breaks down to maltose, Starch is insoluble, but maltose is soluble, $o, maltose can easily be transported to the embryo in the seed, The embryo uses it to provide energy for growth. “Maltose can be broken down to provide glucose molecules that can be linked together to make cellulose ‘molecules. Cellulose is necessary for the cell walls of the new cells produced as the embryo grows. Another enzyme which speeds up the breakdown of @ substance is catalase, Catalase works inside all the cells of living organisms, It breaks down hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen. This is necessary bocause hydrogen peroxide is produced by many of the chemical reuetions ‘which take place inside cells. Hydrogen peroxide is a very dangerous substance and must be broken down immediately catalase hydrogen peroxide ——+ water + oxygen Not all enzymes help to break things down. Many enzymes help to make large molecules from small ones, For example, enzymes help to link amino wcids together lo make proteins inside cells, Many industries now use enzymes, and the production Of enzymes on a large scale is becoming a very profitable ‘major industry (Figure 5.2). You ean find out about some of these industrial uses of enzymes in Chapter 20, Figure 5.2: If you see ‘zyme’ on the end of a word, itis almost certainly an enzyme. This factory produces huge: ‘quantities of enzymes for athar industries to use alimentary canal: the part of the digestive system ‘through which food passos as it moves from the mouth to the anus catalyst: a substance that increases the rate of ‘chemical reaction and is not changed by the reaction enzymes: proteins that are involved in all metabolic reactions, where they function as. biological catalysts amylase: an enzyme that catalyses the breakdown of starch to maltose protease: an enzyme that catalyses the breakdown of protein to amino acids catalase: an enzyme that catalyses the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygenNaming enzymes Enzymes a7e named according to the reaction that they ‘Rtalse. Their numes often end in -ase. For example, fnzymos that catalyse the breakdown of carbohydrates She called carbohylrases, If they break down proteins, they are proteases. If they break down fats and oils (lipids) they are lipases, ‘Sometimes, enzymes are given more specific names than this. For example, we have seen that the carbohydrase that breaks down starch is called amylase. ‘A carbohydrase that breaks down maltose is called {mltase. A carbobydrase that breaks down sucrose is called suerase “The substance that an enzyme changes is called its sulsteate, The substrate of amylase is starch, The substrate of lipase is lipids. Notice how careful you have to be to spell the name of the enzyme und its substrate correctly, and to write clearly, Maltose and maltase can look almost the same if you do not write carefully, carbohydrases: enzymes that break down carbohydrates lipases: enaymes that break clown lipids (fats and oils) | | maltase: an enayme that catalyses the breakdown | of maltose to glucose | sucrase: an enzyme that breaks down sucrose substrate: the substance that an enzyme causes to react, Questions 11 Explain why enzymes are called biological catalysts. 2 You read about the enzyme lactase at the start of this chapter. a What type of enzyme is lactase? bb Name the substrate of lactase. 5 Enzymes How enzymes work Each type of enzyme has molecules with a very specific shape, The enzyme molecule has a ‘dent’ init, called the active site (Figure 5.3). ‘The substrate enzyme molecule has a a= active complementary ate shape to the Sy 4 active site of the enzyme. The substrate must be a perfect ft fs ye ee new molecules called products. Figure 5.3: How an enzyme catalyses a reaction. ‘An enzyme works by allowing a molecule of its substrate to fit into the active site, where the substrate and the enzyme bind together. For this to happen, the fit has to bbe perfect. We suy that the shape of the enzyme and the shape of the substrate are complementary to one another. ‘When the sfbante is in the active site and bound to the enzyme, the enzyme makes the substrate change into a new substance called the product, Then the product breaks away from the enzyme, Now the enzyme is free, and ready to bind with another substrate molecule. In Figure 5.3, the substrate is a single molecule, and it is broken into two produet molecules. Enzymes can also catalyse reactions where two substrate molecules bind ‘with its active site and are joined together to form & single product molecule, he part of an enzyme molecule to Which the substrate temporarily binds complementary: with a perfect mirror-image shape product: the new substance formed by chemical reaction |> CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK You have probably taken a few minutes to read about how enzymes work, and to look at the diagram in Figure 5.3. In that time, a single enzyme molecule could have catalysed millions of reactions. The euzyme catalase ig the fastest enzyme known. One catalase molecule can break down an almost unbelievable 44 million hydrogen peroxide molecules in one second, ‘eptimum: best: for example, the optimum ‘temperature of an enzyme is the temperature at which its activity is greatest ry ‘The short-lived structure that forms as the substrate slots into the enzyme’s sotive site has its own name. It is called, he enya: substvate comple ACTIVITY 5.1 : § S Each enzyme can only catalyse reactions with $ one type of substrate. This is described as 2 enzyme specificity, é Take a minute or two to think about why enzymes are specific. Then turn to a partner and discuss your ideas together. Be ready to share your ideas with the rest of the class. 0 50 cptimure 5.4: The effact of tompar ra on eneyme activity. ‘enzyme-substrate complex: the short-lived structure formed as the substrate binds A aiprotease’ temporariy:to the active site of an enzyme inthe stomach most | enzymes specificity: of enzymes, only able to act on a particular (specific) substrate 5.2 Factors that affect enzymes We have seen that enzymes act very quickly. Bach enzyme moleeale can change many substrate molecules to products every second, Rate of reaction ‘But there are some factors that can affect this speed of action, Enzymes are very sensitive to temperature and o 2 4 6 B8 0 1 pH. Each kind of enzyme has a particular temperature i pH at which it works fastest (Figures 5.4 and 5.5). “These are called the optimum temperature, and the optimum pH, for that enzyme. ne eflect of pH on enzyme activity5 Enzymes Denaturation ‘We have seen that enzymes have an optimum Temperature, at which they work fastest. Enzymes trom the human body generally have an optimum temperature bf about 37°C. Enzymes from plants may have optimum femperat ues much lower than this. Some bacteria, fxpeviaily those that live in hot springs, may have really high optimum temperatures —up to 80°C in some cases ‘For many enzymes, a temperature above about 60°C completely stops them working, This is because the high temperature damages the enzyme, The enzyine is said to be denatured, It cannot catalyse its reaction anymore, enzymes also have an optimum pH. For most enzymes, this is around pH 7. However, there are some enzymes that work best in a much higher or lower pH than this, For example, in Chapter 7, you will find out about an enzyme that works best in the acidic conditions in the human stomach ~at a pH of about 2 ‘When an enzyme is placed in a liquid with « pH that is not its optimum pH, itis damaged. The enzyme is denatured and cannot catalyse its reaction. Explaining how temperature and pH affect enzyme activity ‘ook at the graph in Figure 5.4. You can see that at 0°C, the enzyine has no activity. At this temperature, molecules have very little kinetic energy ~ they are moving only slowly, As they are moving only slowly, the substrate molecules rarely collide with the enzyme. So, they rarely enter its active site, and very few subst: molecules are converted to product. As the temperature increases, the kinetic energy of the enzyme and substrate molecules increases. They move faster and collide with each other more frequently and with ‘mote energy, Effective collisions are more frequent, Each second, more substrate molecules collide with an active site ‘and are converted to product. This is why the graph shows ‘enzyme activity inereasing as temperature increases However, as temperature inereases above the optimum, the kinetic energy of the enzyme begins to shake it apart, [ts molecules begin to lose their shape, so that the active site is no longer a true complementary shape to the substrate, When a substrate molecule collides with aan active site, it may not fit. It cannot form an enzyme: substrate complex and is not converted (o product. The activity of the enzyme therefore decreases. When the temperature reuches 60°C, the active site is s0 out of shape that the enzyme has completely stopped working, Teis completely denatured. Something similar happens when pH changes. Exch. nzyme molecule has a very specific shape, with the active site being the best fit for the substrate nt its optimum pH. A pH well above or below this value causes the enzyme molecule to lose its shape (denature), s0 it ean uo longer bind with the substrate. Questions 5 Look at the graph that you drew from your results in Experimenta skills §.2 Investigating the effect of temperature on the activity of lipase. In your own words, explain the shape of the graph. Explain’ means using yous biological knowledge and understanding lo give easons for the shape of the graphs) 6 Use your own words to explain the shapes of the curve for most enzymes, in Figure 5.5 Enzymes are proteins that function as biological catalysts and inerease the rate of metabolic reactions, Without enzymes, these reactions would not take place fast enough to sustain life ‘The enzyme is unchanged. Each enzyme has an active site that has a complementary shape to its substrate “When the substrate binds with the active site of the enzyme, the substrate is converted to product. “The binding of substrate to the active site of the enzyme forms an enzyme-substrate complex.Broth byng. “System . - ARTS RT La CRESPO LTO INI made. YP sk.khe Mio BAO Gic Alicakion.. a t. NOSE! Ong acks for -aar filberabe: tne. sal. Covi Conties) dusts. gets and..ather. ' partecle<. iN CUlia...amd., the By. Mmacus material (secrete Cells cn the (ere of... the oe ne aes AS..0N.. air cond WwW armaing £ inhaled—air, = wact.. OS... OW sry say having cerkain recephors lofty acpi) / for. smelling}. 2. L aca ‘Voie bar. certatn., epithel, fa. on eels (ini June 017 —s:ye ec . Certes 0 a 7 “ealloge s “ko ely che reo F Looe Open Ziv the brme. by co \o. and -ccus ko sweep aad kb Leap yerms . Th eS \ined ust alway es ee . ©. pratcht each one leads ko. ane- — Lung. 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COMSIRG eapicakvon, Yb garkally pameable. _ astsaya es»e " b_< Poe cause. nikragea Qos WSS. sed, by cells Cee, Ake Composibvon SEE RRS OOD Mery vacable| amound v. cells, oS, wack. product... is J raoist... . Some evaporates and .€8 cs... breathed uk, Ox! gen: ABS Corboa desnde. os made. — he. fespirakery High | 1 j consumed ok es pxtabr, aoke a! pt fosé Leos eeDifferences between: ~ a cs mene 4a Ds = (exchare + Senank ks. i\ . \ eon Range t ts tne exchange oa | p Pr ‘t across oa respiratory surtace , Lor eample, HAGoN cs Laken unto Me bees and cohen Ieonhe US yemoved Fron chi Gas exchange also bakes lace abe pekagysthes ae apoai ue _ plan rings cS muscular, Movements Winch > Keep the? respifa my aurkace. Supplied urich OXYQEN. Mechanism of Breathing en ee i. (Duceng, ens@tratvon Ceahalak von) ¢ f 3. Pe. muscles.oF aa diaphragm leontract | ond cl bo Plabben Prom -$ domed position, a pull ‘down extemal J inferndl (esha moses Fe lax ky 2. i inkercostol ‘ol _truscles Cc Quydeaphrege, eCard. COUSE — oe “back to. stape.ond pall Shag creel Benen encostel... sulles , ie tno ‘ < moves, denne ane cat SWocax. Nolume. (aie vo Aisle) akc, pressure cnereases tnside. alveoli” aréndaPle \ ob Ene respiratory <= Ga Baten a Acs we. Koow...chat. %che...qaseass exchange! curs. untdhe. .alvedks. ok. he. Aung eno ~ reason che walls. Pp 7203..05 the .Rspimat Ode. oF the iia . \ The... macn Peg Lines. of alvestar:| \ | | ' |- _ tN a UPC OES Lia DAE SEN NDR sen gIO RRR A Us Ver) short 4 OE surrounded by & meant 3 Capillanies iahieh S help process of Saseows acta le ee The Lomas lohaod. aed “t - tk Eran, a sabuek a co hny «2, celaskre 4 a fo iretch stesee be wachedte Fhe. oF Pe eo : my Vgebilakad (Shere th ditty a vngs grey | 2. wo hf (0 Puce reThe | birving 2 ‘Lhe Leach chen and those lead ke the abwsl, Canheuns hime Kind Out » 4 Go ablel- celle: Loew alle wince, a ck mf age yee , Maer oP EMO sin he ote! : a rtccles and j ws we ped in va he mucus, - Nahi b- Crkiak >-cilabcia bese cle age pr |is SPREE OS I AR SIE EES (vas exchy 2.oll-Unealbveahss. eS 5% ot oO. (eho WS SP vee ante peaches ieee “| giver ye dre solves UR the wali, é “cach alweslus , lthend ay Phys tka Ce Walle eke elvealgs (om Eh Ehregi ERI ‘ n etl an \or wat Lene. call chil), ir Le be ‘corned loos pla smc , Be re < oo ol o COx (Nice Versa) —tee ung \———— tet bronchus heart ipnags me | The diaphragm Islowered. muse 2 The ribcage is rsiced 3 The volume of che thorax Increases, So air |seawn ino the lungs Expiration . j . | The diaphragm sings up. 2 The rib cage Is lowered. 3 The volume of the thorax decreases, Soir forced ove ofthe lungs,MORE cane Gann ont se The composition of inspited and expired air changes because * oxygen is removed from blood by respiring cells and used for cellubat spiration (see Topic 12), so blood returning to the lungs has a lawer concentration of oxygen than blood leaving the lungs <2) f+ carbon dionide is produced by espitation (se Tite 12) und elilfines ¥ Auto the blood fron respiring cells; the blood transports the carbon dioxide to the lungs, ve" the moist linings where it diffuses into the alveoli ntration increases because water evaporates from the alveoli into the expived air as a result of the a warmth of the body. ¥ Other gases remain unallected because they are not used or produced by the body. 2s) SEER aE eS aR Fo the hughest marks, be careful how you describe the process af exchanné herweven the air ia the lungs andthe blood. Remerstes dittusion isa passive process, so that it only occurs while theve ia ~ foncentration gradient. Avoid answering in simple tens, which ply that the movement of oxygen is anly from the atr to the Bool and ioe the movement of earbon dioxide is only from the blood to the'an Ee oruleaes | Bands of cattilape surround the trachea and bronchi, 1 hese support the | Giegand keep thes pete a breathing, g aheewise they ly only Gollapse' whenaie pressure inside them ig reduce | _ foliose whenaic pressure inside tein is reduced Cells called gablet cells in the lining of the trachea, bronchi and bronchioles secrete mucus, which is a slimy liquid, Ths rape ipicroorganisins ant cust particles that are breathed in, The lining of the trachea and bronchi are covered in tiny hairs called e lia, which are found on the surface of ciliated cells. The cilia sweep ina combined motion to move the mucus up tom the buys up the trachea to the back of the mouth, where it ean be swallowed! Ehe combine action of mucus and cilia helps to prevent dirt and nuicroorganisins entering the lungs and causing damage and infectionOxygen debls ut noo Condition, sccurs in skelehl moscles during vigorous exerere.. Whore. , Oxtqen vs orld fh, Rast : Zieh cas nopaln ety e Less en Us Mred vad’ ; » Lecomaldaan a Nader acd Casing actde Py. T abures a OS exchrorge— Urpates oo gerd) | \o 2 yp ste Aden NitEXTENDED . _— ‘The rate and depth of breathing increase with evel of wctivity because as the muscles contract faster they respite faster and so make carbon & . Aioxide more quiieldy. Carhon dioxide isn acidic gas that dissolves im ‘easily in water-based solutions, suel as the cytoplasm af u cell and blood plasma. The moze carbon dioxide there is in solution the more acidic the solution, A change in ptt can affect the activity of many cell enaymes (see Topic 5), 50 it is important that carbon dioxide is removed from the cells and the body as quickly as possible ‘The increase in carbon dioxide concentation as a result of increased physical activity is detected as the blood flows past receptors in part of the brain. ‘The receptors send impulses to the lungs, causing an inerease in the rate and depth of breathing, which helps to remove the ie extra carbon dioxide as.quickly as possible, « at oy No re- 3as exchange in humans C ants ike ther mammals, humans are active and tvaintain a constant body temperature. This neans they use up a great deal of energy. dammals must have a very efficient gas exchange ystem. ‘he gas exchange systeny in hurnans is shown ppposite and is made up of: 2.xespiratory surface.~membranes lining the the lungs. aset of tubes to allow fir from the outside to Teach the respiratory surface. This set of tubes hias many branches, and is sometimes called the ‘bronchial tree’ “ a blood supply (carried by the pulmonary . artery and pulmonary vein) to carry dissolved gases to and from the respiratory surface a ventilation system (the intercostal muscles ind the diaphragm) to keep a good flow of air over the respiratory-surface. alveoli (air sae: Be prepared to answer questions on br. jerms of comparing the pressure inside the lungs and extemal ar pressure. Air moves From ‘an area of higher pressure to an area of lower pressure « During inhalation ai enters because the air pressure inside the lungs is lower than the air pressure outside the body. « During exhalation air leaves the lungs because che air pressure inside ie higher than the aie pressure outside the body ~ S