Principles of temperature measurement

Thermometer An instrument that can accurately measure temperature is called a thermometer.

The special property of the substance that changes regularly with the change of
Thermometric
temperature and the change of the property can be observed easily and accurately to
property
determine the temperature.

Thermometric Materials whose thermometric properties are used to make thermometers are called
substance thermometric materials.

The temperature at which pure water can remain in equilibrium with water vapor at
Lower fixed
standard pressure, or the temperature at which pure water begins to condense into water
point/ice point
vapor.

Higher fixed The temperature at which pure ice can remain in equilibrium with water at standard
point/steam point pressure i.e. the temperature at which pure ice begins to melt.
[Ref: Tapan sir]
◉ Characteristics of different thermometers:
Types of thermometer Thermometric property Thermometric substance
(i) Mercury Thermometer Expansion of mercury Mercury
(ii) Resistance thermometer Resistance of conductor Conductor (Platinum)
(iii) Thermocouple Electromotive force due to heat Couple of two metals
# Thermometers are usually named after the thermometric property or thermometric substance
[Ref: Ishaque sir]
Zeroth law of thermodynamics

If two objects are in thermal equilibrium with a third object, then the first two objects will
Statement
be in thermal equilibrium with each other.
Application Thermometers are made based on this law.
Discoverer RH Fawler.
[Ref: Ishaque sir + Tapan sir]
Concept of temperature
➥ Temperature refers to the degree/amount of hotness or coldness of an object. That is, heat is the cause and
temperature is the effect.
➥ Temperature is the thermal state of an object, which controls the flow of heat from that object to another
object and determines the direction of the heat flow.
➥ Radiation pyrometers measure temperatures above 500°C using radiation property from heated objects.
➥ Even the temperature of the sun can be measured by pyrometer.
➥ The temperature difference between the upper fixed point and the lower fixed point on the temperature
scale is called fundamental difference.
➥ Heat is a process that changes the internal energy of matter.
➥ The condition in which there is no exchange of heat between the objects in contact with each other is called
thermal equilibrium.
➥ On the Celsius scale, the freezing point is 0°C and the steam point is 100°C, and the intermediate 100th part is
called 1°C.
➥ In Fahrenheit scale, the freezing point is 32°, steam point is 212° & the fundamental difference is 180.
[Ref: Tapan sir]
 Different scales of temperature
Temperature scale Equations of measurement of temperature
Celsius scale (Universal X − Xice
= 100
scale) Xsteam − Xice
Fahrenheit scale X − Xice
(Clinical or Doctor's =  180 + 32
Xsteam − Xice
thermometer)
Kelvin scale T =  + 273

Human body temperature or fever is measured by Fahrenheit thermometer. This thermometer measures temperatures
from 95°F to 110°F. It is called medical or clinical thermometer. As this thermometer can measure the maximum
temperature of the human body, it is also called an extreme thermometer. [Ref: Ishaque sir + Tapan sir]
◉ Special information
➥ At –40°C and –40°F the same reading will be obtained on the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales.
➥ 574.25 K and 574.25°F will give the same reading on the Kelvin and Fahrenheit scales.
C F − 32 K − 273 Rn − 492
➥ Correlation between scales: = = =
5 9 5 9
◉ List of different scales of temperature
Name of scale Symbol Lower fixed point Higher fixed point Fundamental difference
Celsius C 0 100 100
Fahrenheit F 32 212 180
Kelvin T 273 373 100
Ranking Rn 492 672 180
Romer R 0 80 80

1. A thermometer is made based on which law of thermodynamics? [M: 21-22]

A. The second formula B. Zeroth Formula C. The first formula D. Third
Ans: B
2. Which of the following characteristics is used in pyrometer? [M: 20-21]
A. Length expansion B. Electrical C. Radiation D. Optical
Ans: C
3. What is the value of 98.5°F in centigrade scale? [M: 19-20]
A. 35.944C B. 45.456C C. 36.544C D. 36.944C
Ans: D
4. Which one is room temperature? [M: 14-15]
A. 298K B. 310K C. 313K D. 288K
Ans: A
5. Which is not correct in conversion of temperature scale? [M: 12-13]
9 4 5
A. 1C = F B. 1C = K C. 1F = C D. 1K = 0C
5 5 9
Ans: B, D
6. The thermometer used to measure human body temperature is marked on which scale? [M: 07-08]
A. International scale of temperature B. Celsius scale
C. Fahrenheit scale D. Thermodynamic scale
Ans: C
7. How many parts of the Fahrenheit scale is equal to 100 parts of the Celsius scale? [M: 07-08]
A. 212 B. 100 C. 173 D. 180
Ans: D
 Thermodynamics
Deals with the interconversion of heat & mechanical energy & their relation

First law of thermodynamics

Scientist Joule gave the 1st of law of thermodynamics. He established the relationship
Discoverer
between heat & work.
When work is completely transformed into heat or heat is completely transformed into
Theory of Joule
work, then work & heat are directly proportional to each other. W  Q. W = JQ
W
Unit of mechanical W = JQ  J = Q ; Unit- Jcal-1. 1 calorie = 4.2 Joule = 4.2  107 erg.
equivalent of heat
[Here, J = Joule’s const. Mechanical equivalent of heat]
When heat is supplied to any system or heat is absorbed by the system, then a part of this
Theory of Clausius energy is used to increase the internal energy of the system and the rest energy is used to
perform external work.
Expression of law dQ = dU + dW
➥ Scientist Clausius expressed the 1st law of thermodynamics in general form. [Ref: Ishaque sir]
◉ Explanation of 1st law of thermodynamics-
Positive (+) Negative (–)
dQ If the heat supply to the system increases/ the If system losses heat/heat flows to the surroundings
system receives heat dQ(+) dQ (–)
dU If the internal energy of system increases dU (+) If the internal energy of system decreases dU (–)
dW If work is done on surroundings by the system dW (+) If work is done on system by surroundings dW (–)
[Ref: Ishaque sir]

• Establishment of relationship between heat & work.

• A certain amount of heat is required to obtain a certain amount of work and a certain amount
of work is required to obtain a certain amount of heat.
• It is impossible to get work/energy without spending anything. (Work is impossible without
Significance
supply of energy)
• Work and heat are equivalent to each other.
• This is a special form of the conservation of energy
• No machine can work without energy. That is, it is not possible to invent a machine with infinite speed.
• In isothermal process, the work done by the system is equal to the heat energy supplied to or
absorbed by the system.
• In case of adiabatic expansion process internal energy decreases + temperature decreases (dU = –dW)
Uses • In case of adiabatic compression process, internal energy of gas increases + temperature
increases (dU = dW).
• In case of isochoric process the change of internal energy is equal to the heat energy
supplied. (dQ = dU)
• Heat flows from a hot object to a cold object, but heat can never flow from a cold object to a
hot object. Although the flow of heat from object to heated object obeys the 1st law, it does
Limitations not actually occur.
• Part of the heat applied to a system is converted into work. But it is not known from the 1st
source whether the whole will turn into work or not.
[Ref: Ishaque sir]
◉ Some necessary definitions & information
Thermodynamic An object bounded by a surface or enclosure, in which thermodynamic variables (pressure,
System temperature, and volume) can be measured.
The final steady state of an isolated system. At equilibrium the thermodynamic coordinates
Equilibrium
are the same at all points.
Thermodynamic
Pressure, temperature, volume, internal energy, entropy
variables
Thermodynamic
Pressure, Absolute Temperature, Volume
coordinates
Internal Energy The inherent or latent energy of the system
Isothermal process Where the temperature of the system is constant but the pressure and volume change.
Adiabatic process Heat is not exchanged and is constant. But temperature, pressure and volume change.
The temperature at which pure ice, water and water vapor are in thermal equilibrium at a
Triple point of pressure of 4.58 mm Hg is called the triple point of water. Triple point of water Ttr =
water 273.16K. That is, the vapor pressure of water at the triple point is equal to the height of the
mercury column of 4.58 mm. Kelvin is the SI unit of temperature.

➥ Heat is a type of energy that increases the temperature, volume and kinetic energy of molecules when applied.
➥ Normal human body temperature is 98.4°F and Celsius is 36.9°C / 37°C
➥ Absolute Zero Temperature –273.16°C = 0K = –459.67°F
➥ Thermodynamic Scale: The temperature that is used taking temperature of the triple point of water as 273.16
1
K and taking 273.16 part of that temperature as 1K is called thermodynamic scale of temperature.

◉ Application of 1st law of thermodynamics

Thermodynamic process Mathematical expression P-V graph
Isothermal process dU = 0 ∵ dQ = dW Rectangular hyperbola (Isothermal line)
Adiabatic expansion dU = − dW  dQ = 0
Similar to isothermal line but steeper (y times)
Adiabatic compression dU = dW  dQ = 0
dQ = dU  dW = 0 Parallel to Y-axis (P-axis), volume(V) is considered
Isochoric process
along X-axis.
dQ = dU + PdV Straight line parallel to X-axis(V-axis), pressure (P)
Isobaric process
is considered along Y-axis.
[Ref: Ishaque sir + Tapan sir]

In thermal system, thermodynamic changes are of 4 types

1. Isothermal change (dU = 0) → [Work=heat supplied to the system] Work is greater than other changes.
2. Adiabatic change (dQ = 0) → [Work=change in internal energy]
3. Isochoric change (dV = 0) → [Work=0]
4. Isobaric change → [Work = pressure  volume change]

◉ Types of thermal system

Types Characteristics Example
Open system Exchanges both mass & energy Conductor
Closed system Exchanges only energy
Isolated system Does not exchange mass or energy Bad conductor
[Ref: Ishaque sir]
1. When a car is moving, a thermodynamic process takes place inside its tires. This process is- (M 16-17]
A. Isochoric process B. Isothermal process C. Adiabatic process D. Isobaric process
Ans: A
2. The first law of thermodynamics establishes a relationship between which two? [M 22-23; D 16-17]
A. Force and energy B. Work and energy C. Heat and force D. Heat and work
Ans: D
3. If 15 kcal of heat is completely converted into mechanical energy, how much wrong mechanical energy
will be produced? [M 01-02]
A. 62.70 J B. 62.80 J C. 60 J D. 62 J
Ans: A
Explanation: W = JH = 4.18  15J = 62.70 J
Isothermal change
Definition Change in which the pressure and volume of a gas change but the temperature remains constant.
• Gas will be in a good conductive container.
• The heat capacity or heat capacity of the surrounding medium should be high.
Conditions • Temperature will be constant by necessary heat absorption or rejection.
• Changes in pressure should occur gradually.
• Compression and expansion of gases will occur very slowly.
• Temperature is constant but pressure and volume will change.
• Slow process.
• The heat capacity of the surrounding medium is high.
• The vessel is a good conductor of heat.
Characteristics
• Isothermal process obeys Boyle's law, i.e. PV = constant.
• Isothermal graph is relatively less steep.
• The work done in a isothermal process on gas expansion is greater than the work done in a isobaric process.
• The isothermal graph is a rectangular hyperbola.
[Ref: Ishaque sir]
Adiabatic change
A process in which the system does not accept or release heat is called adiabatic process.
Definition
It is also called isentropic process
Example • The conduction of sound through air is an adiabatic change
• Pressure and volume relationship of ideal gas, PV = constant.
• The temperature-volume relationship of an ideal gas, TV-1 = constant.
Equations 1− γ γ
γ
• Pressure and temperature relationship of ideal gas, TP / T P = constant.1-γ

• The gas is to be kept in a bad-conducting container.

Conditions • Heat capacity of the surroundings should be low.
• Change of pressure of the gas must be made very rapidly
• Total amount of heat quantity is constant but temperature, pressure and volume will vary.
• Very fast process.
• Adiabatic curve is steeper than isothermal curve.
Characteristics • Boyle's law does not apply to adiabatic process.
• Compressing a gas in adiabatic process increases the temperature.
• Adiabatic compression warms the system (increase in internal energy) and adiabatic
expansion cools the system (decrease in internal energy).
[Ref: Ishaque sir]
◉ Difference between isothermal & adiabatic changes
Differentiating points Isothermal process Adiabatic process
Process in which a gas is A process in which neither heat is
Definition compressed or expanded keeping supplied from outside nor any heat is
the temperature constant. removed to compress or expand the gas.
Temperature, not heat (Isothermal
Remains constant Heat (dQ = 0)
= Iso (same) + thermal); dT = 0
Heat rejection or absorption Occurs Does not occur
Nature of used container Good conductor Bad conductor
Speed of process Slow Rapid
Relation of pressure & volume PV = constant (Boyle’s law) PV = constant
Nature of curve Comparatively less steep Steeper
Change of pressure Pressure change occurs slowly Rapidly
Thermal capacity of
High Low
surrounding medium
[Ref: Ishaque sir]
◉ Remember
Adiabatic expansion: Sudden tire burst
Isochoric expansion: In the tires of a moving vehicle

1. Which of the following is not correct in the case adiabatic process? [M.11-12]
A. Temperature is not constant but heat does not change i.e. dQ = 0
B. It is a slow process
C. Heat is neither rejected nor absorbed in this process
D. The pressure and volume relationship of the gas in this process is PVy = constant
Ans: B
2. Which of the following is a characteristic of adiabatic process? [M.10-11]
A. Obeys Boyle’s formula
B. Adiabatic curve is steeper
C. The system must be thermally insulated from the environment
D. The temperature in the system remains constant in this process
Ans: B, C
3. Which of the following process involves changing the pressure and volume of a substance while keeping
the temperature of a system constant? [M.22-23; M.07-08]
A. Thermal B. Isobaric C. Isothermal D. Adiabatic
Ans: C
Specific heat
Definition The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of an object of unit mass by one degree.
Unit J (kg)−1K−1
dQ
Expression S = mdT
1. Specific heat of gas at constant pressure (Sp): The heat required to raise the temperature of a
unit mass of gas by 1° at constant pressure.
Types
2. Specific heat of gas at constant volume (Sv) is the heat required to raise the temperature of a
unit mass of gas by 1°at constant volume.
➥ Specific heat of water in CGS unit 1 cal (gm)−1 (C)−1 SI Unit 4200 Jkg−1 K−1
➥ Thermal capacity = mass of object  specific heat.
 Molar specific heat
The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 mole of a gas by 1 is called it’s
Definition
molar specific heat.
dQ dQ dQ
C = ndT = m = M mdT = M  Specific heat of gas.
Expression
M dT
Unit J (mol)−1 K-1
1. Molar specific heat at constant pressure (Cp)
Types
2. Molar specific heat at constant volume (Cv)
➥ Molar specific heat at constant pressure: The heat required to raise the temperature by 1K of I mole of gas
(dQ)P
keeping the pressure constant, Cp = (M=number of mole)
MdT
➥ Molar specific heat at constant volume: Heat required to raise the temperature by 1K of 1 mole of gas
(dQ)V
keeping the volume constant, Cv = (M= number of moles) (Atomic / molecular mass of a substance
MdT
expressed in grams is called mole)
➥ Relation of Cp & Cv for ideal gas: Cp−Cv = R (difference between two specific heats of gas is equal to gas
constant R)
Cp
R = 8.314 Jmol−1 K−1= 0.082 L atm mol−1 K−1 Here, Cp>Cv and =
Cv
• For any gas  > 1.
◉ Value of  for different gases

Number of atoms in gas Example Value of Cp Value of Cv Value of 

5 3
Monoatomic He, Ne, Ar 1.67
2R 2R
7 5
Diatomic H2, O2, N2, Cl2 R R 1.40
2 2
Polyatomic/Triatomic CO2, C2H6, NH3 4R 3R 1.33
[Ref: Ishaque sir]
◉ Properties of :
1. Value of y is fixed for the same molecular composition and the value of  is different for gases of
different composition.
2. At any point, the slope of the adiabatic curve is  times greater than the slope of the isothermal
curve at that point.

◉ Uses of :
1. The value of  indicates the molecular arrangement of the gas, i.e. whether the gas is monoatomic,
diatomic or polyatomic.
p
2. The value of the speed of sound in a gas depends on . v =

3. The pressure-volume relationship of a gas depends on y during adiabatic change. ie, PV = constant.
[Ref: Ishaque + Tapan sir]
 Internal energy
Every system contains certain energy, which can be converted into other energy by doing
Definition work. The kinetic energy of the molecular atoms in matter and the energy caused by the
intermolecular forces between them called internal energy.
Mathematical Total internal energy, E = K.E+P.E = thermal energy (kinetic energy) + molecular static
expression energy.
Mayer's The internal energy of a given volume of gas depends only on its temperature, not on
hypothesis pressure or volume
➥ Internal energy depends only on its temperature.
➥ Change in internal energy in isothermal process is zero.
Characteristics
➥ The change in internal energy of an object acting in a reversible process is zero.
➥ The increase in internal energy of a gas at constant volume is equal to the heat supplied.

➥ Heat, internal energy and work

• External work, dW = P.dV = pressure  volume change.
• Work done on expansion of gas is positive and work done on compression is negative.
• In isobaric process, dQ=dU+P(V2−V1)

2nd Law of Thermodynamics

➥ Basis of 2nd law (Sadi Carnot's conclusion): Heat energy can never be completely converted into work.
➥ Heat engines and refrigerators are built using the second law of thermodynamics.
➥ Which energy will be converted in which direction or how much or in what state is the subject matter of the
second law.

◉ Description of the second law of thermodynamics:

Clausius’ It is not possible to transfer heat by an automatic machine from a body at lower temperature to
Statement a body at higher temperature without the help of external energy. (Perfect and more accurate)
Kelvin’s Continuous flow of energy cannot be obtained from an object cooling it from its
statement surroundings.
Planck’s It is not possible to construct an engine that will extract heat continuously from a heat
statement source and will completely transform into work.
Carnot’s No engine can be built which can extract a fixed amount of heat and will convert it totally
statement into work.
[Ref: Ishaque sir]

◉ Key word to remember the definitions

➥ Clausius' statement: Automatic machine
➥ Kelvin's statement: Continuous flow of energy
➥ Planks's statement: Extract heat
➥ Carnot's statement: No engine
◉ Salient features of laws of thermodynamics

Name of the laws Salient features Application

Zeroth law • An essential thermodynamic variable- temperature To make thermometer
• An essential thermodynamic variable- internal Determines relationship between
First law
energy work & heat
Second law • An essential thermodynamic variable- entropy To make heat engine & refrigerator

Reversible process

The process which reverses in opposite direction and in each stage of forward and
Definition reverse process the result of heat and work becomes equal and opposite, then that
process is called reversible process.
• Slow and two-way process.
• Maintains thermodynamic equilibrium.
• No dissipative effects (inelasticity, viscosity, friction, electrical resistance and
magnetic hysteresis).
• Basically quasi-static and non-dissipative.
Characteristics
• At the end of the process both the system and the environment can return to the initial
state without any change.
• In reversible process, in each stage of forward & reverse process the result of
heat & work becomes equal & opposite.
• Not spontaneous.
• If isothermal & adiabatic processes are executed very slowly the they will be
reversible.
• Ice turns into water at 0°C at normal pressure by absorbing 80 Cal or 336 J of heat
Example (In fact,
per gram. Again, removing 80 Cal or 336 J of heat energy per gram from water at
there is no perfect
0°C at normal pressure returns ice. So the process is reversible.
example of
• If an elastic ball is dropped on an elastic steel sheet from some height (no loss of
reversible process
energy), the ball will rise again to its initial height.
but there are some
• Length compression or expansion of a spring within its elastic limit.
apparent examples)
• (At normal pressure and temperature of 273 K) some amount of ice absorbs a
certain amount of heat to become water, and the same amount of water gives off
the same heat to become ice.
• The difference in pressure and temperature of the working material with the
surrounding pressure and temperature will be small.
Conditions • All parts of the machine should be friction free.
• Loss of energy due to conduction or radiation must be prevented.
• The whole process will take place slowly.
[Ref: Ishaque + Tapan sir]
 Irreversible/Unidirectional/Indelible process
• The process which cannot be retracted in opposite direction by reversing is called
Definition
irreversible process.
• Sudden and spontaneous.
• Natural processes are irreversible.
• It never tends to return to its original state.
• Cannot be reversed i.e. does not return to the initial state.
Characteristics
• Fast process.
• Does not maintain thermodynamic equilibrium.
• The random motion of the sub-atoms of the system increases
• All spontaneous changes in nature are one-way and irreversible.
• When current flows through an electrical resistance, heat is generated (thermal action
of current flow).
• Heat is generated when electricity flows through the heater.
• Heat is generated due to friction between two objects.
Examples • When two objects of different temperatures are placed in contact with each other, heat
will flow from the object of higher temperature to the object of lower temperature.
• A rapid explosion of ammunition when fired from a gun.
• Death of a man is a good example.
• Mixing sugar in a cup of tea.
[Ref: Ishaque + Tapan sir]

◉ Difference between reversible & irreversible process

Differentiating points
1. Ability to reverse
2. Equilibrium
3. Ratio of absorbed & rejected heat Always equal
4. Wastage of energy
5. Speed of process
6. Spontaneity & direction
7. Dissipative result
Reversible process
It has the ability to reverse
Is maintained (Absorbed heat/
energy ⇔ Rejected heat/energy)
Does not occur(Absorbed
heat/energy⇔Rejected heat/energy)
Slow
Not spontaneous & it is
bidirectional
Absent
Irreversible process
It doesn’t have the ability to reverse
Is not maintained (Absorbed
heat/energy=/=Rejected heat/energy)
Not equal
Occurs (Absorbed
heat/energy=/=Rejected heat/energy)
Rapid
Spontaneous & unidirectional
Present

[Ref: Ishaque + Tapan sir]

1. Which of the following is not a characteristic of reversible process? [M.18-19]
A. It is a slow process
B. No wasted energy is generated during this process
C. The working substance returns to the initial state
D. It is a spontaneous process
Ans: D
2. Which of the following is a characteristic of irreversible process? [D.10-11]
A. Spontaneous and unidirectional
B. The working substance returns to the initial state
C. Very slow process
D. The thermodynamic equilibrium of the system is maintained
Ans: A

Carnot’s cycle

• The cycle in which an ideal gas, used as a working substance, starts at constant volume,
pressure and temperature passes through an isothermal and adiabatic expansion and then through
Definition an isothermal and adiabatic compression returns to the initial state is called a Carnot's cycle.
• If an ideal heat engine operating in a particular process can return to the original state by
continuously supplying energy, it is called a Carnot cycle.
Carnot's cycle takes heat from a working substance by reversible process. Starting from a fixed
pressure, volume and temperature, some heat is transformed into work by an isothermal and an
Principle
adiabatic expansion and an isothermal and an adiabatic contraction. Rest amount of heat is rejected
into a heat sink and the system goes back to its initial state.
Carnot engine consists of following parts-
Parts
1. Cylinder 2. Heat source 3. Heat sink 4. Heat insulator or platform
Carnot engine works in four steps
Working
• 2 steps of isothermal processes (1st & 3rd step)
method
• 2 steps of adiabatic processes (2nd & 4th step)
• Isothermal expansion → adiabatic expansion → isothermal compression → adiabatic
Steps
compression.

➥ Carnot’s engine is called ideal engine because the efficiency of this engine is 100%.
[Ref: Ishaque sir]

◉ Carnot cycle is a reversible cycle, because –

1. There is no friction between piston and cylinder.
2. Processes applied to working substances occur very slowly.
3. Ideal heat insulators and ideal heat conductors are used in the construction of pistons and cylinders.
4. The heat source and heat sink components are made of very high heat capacity (so that the isothermal
processes take place at a constant temperature).
◉ Heat engine
Definition A device that converts thermal energy into mechanical energy is called a heat engine.
Example Steam engine, petrol engine and diesel engine.
Types 1) External engine 2) Internal engine. (***)
1. Heat energy → mechanical energy.
2. There are heat sources and heat sinks.
3. Contains working substance. Like steam in a steam engine.
Some 4. In a heat engine, work is done by the system.
information 5. Principle: In the constant intake and rejection of heat by a working substance, some heat is
converted into work each time.
6. The more the engine can convert the absorbed heat into work, the more efficient the engine is.
7. Petrol engine is more efficient than steam engine.
[Ref: Ishaque sir]

Efficiency
The ratio of the amount of heat energy converted into work by the heat engine to the amount of
Definition
heat energy absorbed by the engine is called efficiency of engine.

• Heat efficiency,  = 1−   100%

Q2
 Q1
Equation
• Efficiency of Carnot's engine,  = 1−T   100%
T2
 1

• The efficiency of engine can never be 100%.

Values • Normally, the efficiency of a heat engine is within (20-50)%(Ishaque sir), (20-25)% (Tapan
sir) or 30% (maximum 50%)
[Ref: Ishaque sir]

• As the temperature of the heat source increases, the efficiency of the Carnot engine increases.
• As the temperature of heat sink decreases, Carnot's engine efficiency increases.
• All functioning engines operating between any two specified temperatures have the same efficiency.
• The greater the temperature difference between the heat source and the heat sink → the greater the efficiency.
The efficiency of a Carnot engine depends on the temperatures T1 and T2 of the heat source and heat sink- not on the
nature of the working substance. If no heat is removed from the engine, the efficiency of engine will be 100%.

1. Internal energy of gas depends on which? [D. 22-23]

A. Temperature B. Pressure C. Volume D. Entropy
Ans: A
2. In the fourth step of the Carnot cycle which occurs- [D. 22-23]
A. Isothermal Expansion B. Isothermal Contraction
C. Adiabatic Contraction D. Adiabatic Expansion
Ans: C
3. In which stage of Carnot engine heat is rejected? [D. 21-22]
A. First B. Third C. Fourth D. Second
Ans: B
4. If no heat is released from a heat engine, what is the efficiency of the engine? [M. 16-17]
A. 0% B. 30% C. 100% D. 10%
Ans: C
5. An engine accepts 3400J heat & rejects 2400J heat. What is the efficiency of the engine? [M. 14-15]
A. 10% B. 29.41% C. 41.67% D. 40%
Ans: B
◉ Refrigerator
• The machine by which lower temperature than the environment can be created and that
Definition
temperature can always be maintained stable is called refrigerator.
• Application of high pressure to low pressure refrigerant with the help of compressor.
Principle of
• Conversion to liquid by cooling high pressure gas in condenser (liquefaction/condensation).
function of
• High pressure liquid chemicals are released through expansion valve to reduce the pressure.
refrigerator
• In the evaporator the low pressure and low temperature liquid evaporates into the refrigerant.
➥ Second tube coil of refrigerator → Condensing coil.
➥ Refrigeration is a process that removes heat from an enclosed space or object or system to keep its temperature
below the surrounding temperature.
➥ The device with which refrigeration is done is called a refrigerator.

◉ Coefficient Of Performance:
Heat removed from refrigerator Q1 Q1
➥ K = Work supplied by compressor = =
Q2−Q1 W
➥ What is the efficiency of a heat engine, so is the coefficient of performance of a refrigerator.
➥ The value of efficiency  is always less than 1, the value of efficiency K is always greater than 1.
➥ The value of K is usually between 2−6.
[Ref: Ishaque + Tapan sir]

➥ A thermostat controls the temperature of the refrigerator by turning the switch on/off.
➥ When the refrigerator is turned on, the pure ammonia gas vaporizes at –27°F (–32.7°C) and the entire
process is endothermic.
➥ Conversion from liquid to vapor → Evaporation
➥ Conversion from vapor to liquid → Liquefaction (Condensation)

◉ Main difference between heat engine and refrigerator: In heat engine work is done by the system but in
refrigerator work is done on the system.
➥ A refrigerator accepts heat from a lower temperature source and rejects heat to a higher temperature source.
➥ Carnot engine will act as a refrigerator/freezer when driven in reverse.
[Ref: Ishaque + Tapan sir]
 Entropy
Discoverer Clausius
• The thermal properties of matter that remain constant in adiabatic processes.
Definition
• Inability / impossibility /unavailability of energy for conversion of a system
dQ
Expression dS= T (rate of change of accepted or rejected heat with respect to temperature)
S.I. unit joule/kelvin(J/K)
1. The value of entropy is equal to the ratio of heat to absolute temperature.
2. Indicates the direction of heat conduction. The direction of heat flow will be such that
entropy increases.
3. Helps determine thermodynamic conditions.
4. As entropy increases, matter changes from a ordered state to a disordered state.
5. It cannot be felt like temperature and pressure.
6. In irreversible processes → entropy increases.
7. Entropy is constant in a reversible process.
8. Change in entropy is always positive and entropy is maximum at equilibrium. As
entropy increases, the stability of matter decreases. Entropy is a measure of the disorder of a
Significance system. (Entropy is a measure of disorderliness)
9. Entropy does not obey the law of conservation.
10. Entropy is highest in the plasma state. Plasma > Gas > Liquid > Solid
11. Entropy of gaseous state is higher than that of solid and liquid.
12. The total entropy change in a Carnot's cycle is zero.
13. Since there is no change in entropy in an adiabatic process, an adiabatic process is also
called an isentropic process.
14. The absolute value of entropy cannot be determined, but the change in entropy of a
system can be determined.
15. Entropy can measure disorder.
16. Entropy is called thermal inertia.
[Ref: Ishaque + Tapan sir]
◉ Thermal or heat death of the earth
First law of thermodynamics of Clausius/Law of increasing entropy: Entropy of the earth is increasing and
moving towards infinity. When the increase of entropy will reach to the maximum value, then temperature of
everything will become same, consequently heat energy will not be transformed into mechanical energy. This
state is called thermal or heat death of the earth.

1. The source of energy in the adiabatic expansion of gas is- [D. 22-23]
A. External work B. Internal energy C. Heat absorption D. Heat rejection
Ans: B
2. Which statement is true? [M. 06-07]
A. The dimension of linear velocity is ms-1
B. The acceleration of an object is inversely proportional to the net force exerted on the object
C. The inability of a system to convert energy is called entropy
D. All vectors whose value is not zero are called null vectors
Ans: C
3. Which of the following is the change in entropy in an irreversible process? [D. 09-10]
A. increases B. decreases C. is zero D. remains unchanged
Ans: A
 Important mathematical equations
Sl. Equation Identification Unit
Rice = Resistance at freezing point 
R−Rice Rsteam = Resistance at steam point 
1 Temperature, =  100
Rsteam−Rice R = Resistance at critical temperature 
 = Critical temperature C
Volume at triangle point = Vtr m3
V
2 Temperature, T = V  273.16K Volume at critical temperature = V m3
tr
Temperature = T K
Q = Absorbed heat J
3 Absorbed heat, Q = U + W U = Change in internal energy J
W = Work done J
P = Pressure Pa
R = Molar gas constant J.mol−1K−1
4 Ideal gas equation, PV = nRT V = Volume m3
n = Mole number mol
T = Temperature K
W = Work done J
Work done in isothermal process, n = Mole number mol
5 V2 T = Temperature K
W= nRTln V
1 V1 = Initial volume m3
V2 = Final volume m3
W = Work J
P = Pressure Pa
6 Work, W = P(V2−V1)
V1 = Initial volume m3
V2 = Final volume m3
Relation between Kelvin and Celsius, T (K) T = Temperature K
7
= 273 +  C  = Temperature in Celsius C
Relation between different scale of C = Temperature in Celsius C
8 C F−32 K−273 F = Temperature in Fahrenheit F
temperature, = =
5 9 5 K = Temperature in kelvin scale K
Relation between pressure and temperature P = Pressure Pa/Nm−2
9
in isothermal process, PV = Constant V = Volume m3
Relation between pressure and volume in P = Pressure Pa/Nm−2
10
adiabatic process, PV = Constant V = Volume m3
Cp = Molar specific heat at constant pressure J mole−1K−1
11 Relation between Cp and Cv, Cp−Cv = R Cv = Molar specific heat at constant volume. J mole−1K−1
R = Molar gas constant J mole−1K−1
T1 and T2 Initial and final temperature K
V1 and V2 Initial and final volume m3
12 T1V1−1 = T2V2−1
Cp
=C
v
U = Increase in internal energy J
Cv = Molar specific heat at constant volume. J mole−1K−1
13 Incase of molar gas n, U = nCv T
n = Mole number mol
T = Change in temperature K
 Sl. Equation Identification Unit
W = Work J
14 Work, W = Q1−Q2 Q1 = Absorbed heat J
Q2 = Rejected heat J
 = Efficiency No unit
T1−T2
15 Efficiency,  = 100% T1 = Temperature of heat source K
T1
T2 = Temperature of heat sink K
W = Work J
m = Mass Kg
16 W =mS T
T = Change in temperature K
S = Specific heat J kg−1K−1
W1 Q1−Q2  = Efficiency No unit
Mechanical Efficiency,  = = ,
Q1 Q1 W = Work J
17
Q1−Q2 Q1 = Absorbed heat J
in percentage,  = Q 100%
1 Q2 = Rejected heat J
dS = Change in entropy J K−1
dQ
18 Change in entropy, dS = dQ = Change in heat J
T
T = Temperature K
[Ref: Ishaque Sir + Tapan Sir + Tofajjol Sir]
Mathematical problems
01. What is the value of 95° Fahrenheit temperature on Centigrade scale?
C F-32 C 95-32 C
Solve: 5 = 9 , 5 = 9 , 5 = 7 C = 35C Ans : 35C
02. If there is change in 36 in Fahrenheit scale, what is the change in Celsius scale?
0
5
Solve: 1F change =   C change
9
5
 36F change =  36 = 20C change Ans : 20C
9
03. At constant temperature and pressure if temperature, 1K is increased of 1 mole ideal gas, what is the
work done?
Solve: W = PV = nRT = 18.3161=8.316J Ans : 8.316J
04. A system absorbs 800 j heat from the environment and its internal energy increases by 500 J. What is
work done by system on the environment?
Solve: dQ = dU + dW Ans : 300J
05. A system releases 300 J of heat at constant volume, what is the change in internal energy?
Solve: dQ = dU+ dW GLv‡b dW = PdV = 0 Ans : 300J
06. The heat energy received by an object of a heated engine from source, after the work is done, 70% of the
heat is released, what is the efficiency of that engine?
Solve: efficiency = 100% − rejected heat (%) Ans : 30%
07. Efficiency of a Carnot is 40%; if the temperature of heat sink is 7C, what is the temperature of the
source?
T1−T2
Solve:  = T  100% Ans : 466.7K
1
08. Coefficient of performance of a refrigerator is K = 4.6, if 250J of heat energy is remove from cold chamber
in every cycle, how much work needs to be done in every cycle to run the refrigerator?
Q1 250
Solve: K = W= = 54 J Ans : 54 J
W 4.6
➥ Sound transmission through air is an adiabatic process.
➥ Entropy provides a measure of the physical state called disorder. Entropy is zero in a reversible process.
Entropy (the random motion of the system's molecules) increases in an irreversible process.
➥ Entropy does not obey the law of conservation. Entropy is highest in the plasma state. Entropy of gaseous
state is higher than that of solid and liquid. The total entropy change in a Carnot’s cycle is zero.
➥ The 1st law of thermodynamics states the law of constancy of energy. It indicates the relationship between
work and heat.
➥ Heat engines and refrigerators are built using the 2nd law of thermodynamics. The mathematical form of the
2nd law of thermodynamics is dQ=Tds
➥ Heat is a type of energy that when applied to an object 1. The temperature of the object increases, 2. The volume
of the object increases, 3. The kinetic energy of the molecules increases.
➥ Refrigerator accepts heat from a lower temperature source and rejects heat to a higher temperature source. If no
heat is removed from the engine, the efficiency of engine will be 100%.
➥ Change in internal energy = relative heat of gas at constant volume  absolute temperature.

01. Which quantity will be the same if the three systems are in thermal equilibrium?
A. Mass B. Entropy C. Temperature D. Internal energy
02. When a gas is expanded in an adiabatic process, the temperature
A. increases B. remains unchanged
C. decreases. D. sometimes decreases and sometimes increases
03. What happens in the 4th step of Carnot's cycle?
A. Isothermal expansion B. Isothermal compression
C. Adiabatic compression D. Adiabatic expansion
04. The vapor pressure of water at the triple point is equal to the which height of the mercury column?
A. 273.16 mm B. 4.58 mm C. 1.013 atm D. 1.293 atm
05. At what temperature are Celsius and Fahrenheit readings the same?
A. 160°C and 160°F B. 40°C and 40°F C. –40°F and –40°C D. –160°F and –160°C
06. Which of the following is used as an working substance in a Carnot's engine?
A. Inert gas B. Materials that conduct heat well
C. ideal gas D. Materials that conduct heat bad
07. Value of PV coefficient for a adiabatic compression-
A. increases B. decreases C. remains constant D. Depends on y
08. Which if the following is correct for adiabatic change?
A. Entropy is the measurement of orderliness B. ds =dQ/Q
C. Entropy increases in reversible process D. Entropy increases in irreversible processes
09. A Carnot's engine is operating at 327°C and 27°C. How much the efficiency?
A. 50% B. 30% C. 25% D. 20%
10. Which of the following is the mathematical form of the 2nd law of thermodynamics?
dS T W
A. dQ = T B. dQ = TdS C. dS = dQ D. h = Q
1
11. If water is heated from 0°C to 10°C, its volume-
A. Increases B. Decreases
C. Remains unchanged D. First decrease then increase
12. If the volume V is doubled, in which of the following thermodynamic processes will the work be the
least?
A. Isobaric process B. process C. Adiabatic process D. Isothermal process
13. What is the thermometric property of a thermistor?
A. Electrical resistance B. Thermal electromotive force
C. Temperature D. Length of liquid column
14. Which of the following is not applicable to adiabatic process?
A. Heat is constant B. Temperature is not constant
C. Container is a good conductor D. Faster process
15. The direction of heat flow is such so that entropy
A. increases B. decreases C. remains constant D. None.
16. Which is correct in case of isothermal change?
A. dQ = 0 B. dU=0 C. dP=0 D. dV=0
17. Which of the following is false about entropy?
A. Fixed in the reversible process B. Entropy is the inability to convert energy
C. Increases in an irreversible process. D. The unit of entropy is Jkg–1
18. Which of the following occurs in open system-
A. Mass and energy exchange B. Mass exchange
C. Energy exchange D. An exchange of either energy or mass
19. Not applicable to isothermal change-
A. The change in internal energy is zero B.  times steeper than the adiabatic curve
C. Slow process D. Obeys Boyle’s law
20. The internal energy in any system in the process of isothermal process-
A. decreases. B. remains constant C. increases D. increases too much

Answer
01. C 02. C 03. C 04. B 05. C 06. C 07. A 08. D 09. A 10. B
11. D 12. C 13. A 14. C 15. A 16. B 17. D 18. A 19. B 20. B

Explanation of question-7: Temperature increases in an adiabatic compression. So, PV increases; as TPV

Explanation of question-12:
1→ Isobaric process; 2→ Isothermal process; 3→Adiabatic process
The area of curve-3 is minimum; so, in adiabatic process, work is minimum.
 Theories of light
Different theories about light

Corpuscular theory Wave theory Electromagnetic theory Quantum theory

◉ Corpuscular Theory of Light:

Theory: According to this theory, very small particles are continuously emitted from a luminous object. These
particles have no weight and spread out from the source. The particles travel around in a straight line at the
speed of light and when they enter the eye, the sensation of vision is produced.
Inventor: Newton [Ref: Tofajjol sir]
◉ Wave Theory of Light:
Theory: Light travels from one place to another in the form of waves through an hypothetical medium called
ether and creates sensation of vision when it reaches the eye.
Inventor: Dutch scientist Huygens.
Year: 1678 [Ref: Ishaque sir]
◉ Electromagnetic Theory of Light:
Theory: Light is a type of electromagnetic radiation
Inventor: Maxwell.
Year: 1864
◉ Quantum Theory of Light:
Theory: Light i.e., any radiation is a collection of numerous quanta. These quanta are called photons. Radiation
is emitted or absorbed in an isolated and fragmented way.
Inventor: Max Planck
Year: 1900
◉ Faraday action:
A strong magnetic field causes the polarized plane to rotate. This phenomenon is known as Faraday action.
That is, an electric field is produced by a changing magnetic field.

◉ Ether:
• Ether is a continuous medium with high elasticity but low density.
• Michelson - Morley's experiment established that there is no such thing as ether in nature.
• Maxwell proved by experiment that the speed of wave is 3×108 ms–1
[Ref: Tapan sir]

Theory Inventor Can explain Can not explain

Corpuscular Newton Reflection, refraction, linear motion Interference, diffraction,
theory polarization, dispersion,
Photoelectric effect
Wave theory Huygens Reflection, refraction, interference, Linear motion of light, polarization,
diffraction photoelectric effect
Electromagnetic Maxwell Reflection, refraction, interference, Photoelectric effect, black body
theory diffraction, polarization radiation
Quantum theory Max Black body radiation, Photoelectric effect Interference, diffraction,
Planck polarization
◉ Pointing vector
Definition The energy transmitted per unit time through a unit area perpendicular to the path of an
electromagnetic wave, is called pointing vector.
Representation It is denoted as → → →
S = E H
Unit of Poynting vector is Wm–2.
Unit J/s/m2 It is a vector quantity.
Direction The direction in which energy is transferred
[Ref: Ishaque sir]
◉ Electromagnetic waves:
Definition: Electric and magnetic waves moving at the speed of light through vacuum, in which the
electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to each other and both are perpendicular to the direction
of wave propagation, are called electromagnetic waves.

◉ Characteristics of electromagnetic waves

➥ Electromagnetic waves are produced by the periodic variation of the electric field Ê and the magnetic field B.
➥ This radiation is a collection of particles called 'photons'
➥ The ratio of the electric and magnetic field values at any instant is a constant. This constant is the speed of light (c).
➥ Electric and magnetic fields are always at right angles.
➥ Both electric and magnetic fields are at right angles to the direction of wave propagation.
➥ Electromagnetic waves are a type of transverse waves.
➥ Electromagnetic waves do not require any medium to travel.
➥ Intensity of radiation obeys inverse square law. That is, the intensity of radiation decreases inversely with the
1
square of the distance. That is, E  2.
r
➥ Velocity of the wave in vacuum is 3  108 ms-1.
➥ The direction of wave propagation is perpendicular to each other in both E and B fields. So electromagnetic
waves are transverse waves.
➥ For all electromagnetic radiation, relation between velocity c, wavelength λ and frequency  is : c = λ.
➥ Waves can carry energy from one place to another.
➥ Electromagnetic waves are basically collections of photon particles; whose rest mass is zero. But they have
momentum.
➥ It is not deflected by electric or magnetic field
➥ Polarization occurs in electromagnetic waves. It obeys the laws of reflection and refraction of light. And it also
shows interference and diffraction.
➥ Energy decreases as the wavelength of electromagnetic waves increases. It can be expressed by the following equation
hc
E = where, E = energy, h = Planck's constant, λ = wavelength and c = speed of light.

➥ Electromagnetic waves have both particle and wave properties.
1
• This electromagnetic wave travels through vacuum with velocity, C =
00
Here, 0 is the permittivity of vacuum and its value,
1
0 = C2 N–1m–2 = 8.85  10–12 C2N–1m–2
4  9  109
And 0 is the permeability of vacuum whose value, 0 = 4  10–7 NA–2.
E
• Velocity of light, C = B = 3  108 ms–1
(E = amplitude of electric field)
(B = amplitude of magnetic field)
[Ref: Ishaque + Tapan sir]
1. Velocity of light in vacuum is? [M. 14-15]
A. 3106 ms-1 B. 3102 ms-1
C. 3107 ms-1 D. 3108 ms-1
Ans: D
2. Which is one light year? [D. 09-10]
A. 2.6281012 B. 3108
C. 9.461015 D. 9.461012
Ans: C
3. Speed of light per second in vacuum- [D. 07-08]
A. 3108 m B. 500 Js-1
C. 500 w D. 50 k
Ans: A
4. Which equation shows the relation between speed of light and dielectric constant of a medium? [M. 09-10]
Va b Va a
A. = B. =
Vb a Vb b
Va a Va b
C. V = D. V =
b b b a
Ans: D

◉ Range of various Electromagnetic spectrums

Electromagnetic wave Range
Radio wave 10 m − 5  10 m
-4 4

Microwave 10-1m − 10-3m

Infrared rays 1  10-3m − 4  10-7m [Ref: Ishaque sir] or, 10-6m − 10-8m [Ref: Tapan sir]
Violet 3.8  10-7m − 4.25  10-7m
Blue 4.2510-7m − 4.4510-7m
Indigo 4.45  10-7m − 5  10-7m
Visible light Green 5  10-7m − 5.75  10-7m
Yellow 5.75  10-7m − 5.85  10-7m
Orange 5.85  10-7m − 6.20  10-7m
Red 6.20  10-7m − 7.8  10-7m
UV-Ray 5  10-7m − 5  10-9m
X-Ray 5  10-8m − 5  10-15m
Gamma-Ray 5  10-11m − 5  10-15m or less
[Ref: Ishaque + Tofajjol sir]
◉ Characteristics of Electromagnetic spectrum:
Principal source of all types of spectrum are atoms and molecules of materials.
Wave bands Sources of emission Causes of emission Identified by
i. Oscillating charges in an i. Oscillating current of high
antenna frequency
Radio wave
ii. Oscillating electric circuit ii. Small change of energy in the
electron of an atom.
i. Special type of bulbs called Due to the rotation of diatom of
Klystron and Magnetron. permanent electric dipole
Microwave ii. MASER (Microwave moments, microwave spectrum
Amplification by Stimulated is generated.
Emission of Radiation)
i. From heated objects i. Due to small change of energies Can be detected by
infrared rays are emitted from electrons of atoms. • Thermopile
Infrared
more or less. From sun rays. ii. Due to oscillation from • Phototransistor
rays
ii. special type of lamp traitors having permanent
called IR lamp. electric dipole moments.
Different types of lamp, arc, Visible light is available from the • Human eye,
laser, any illuminated object, emitted radiation when electron of Photographic film,
Visible light
sun rays etc. atoms return to the permanent Photoelectric cell.
states from excited states.
From extremely hot bodies • Due to changes of high • Photographic plates and
like electric arc, due to energies between different fluorescence
Ultraviolet
discharge through mercury states of electrons in atoms.
rays
gases in quartz tube and • By photographic plate and
from sun rays. fluorescence.
X-ray tubes • By retarding high speed • Photographic plate or film
electrons in X-ray tube. • Impacting
• These rays are produced due to electromagnetism in metals
X-ray
the excitation of inner electron • Formation of ionization in gases
of atoms of heavy elements • By photographic plate or film.
when electrons bombard them.
• From radioactive objects • These rays are emitted due to • Photographic plate,
• For nuclear fission and the transfer of nucleus of atom Geiger Muller counters.
fusion from higher state to lower
Gamma rays • In the interaction of state by excitation.
fundamental particles • During disintegration of
• Co60 radioactive atom.
• Due to fusion in the sun.

[Ref: Ishaque + Tapon + Tofajjol sir]

 Wave Bands Use/Application
• Different types of wireless communication systems
Radio wave • For transmitting oscillating images to remote locations
• For sound transmission of Radio and television
• Radar
• In the operation of Naval vessels and aero planes,
Microwave • In radio communication,
• In cooking and to heat foods
• In analysis of Molecular and atomic structure of matter.
● In the treatment of various diseases
● In astronomy
● Goggles for seeing in the dark and taking photos in the dark
● In the treatment of muscle pain and tension
Infrared Ray
● To predict the weather
● Used in solar reactors and solar heaters.
● Take photos in fog
● To dry fruits
• In the process of photosynthesis in plants
Visible light • Affects photographic film
• In the act of seeing anything
● In ionization
● In creating fluorescence
● To cause chemical reactions
● In photoelectric action
● To affect photographic film
Ultraviolet Ray ● To increase the analytical capacity of the microscope
● In the production of vitamin D
● Anti-theft alarm, automatic door opener and counter
● In identifying genuine diamonds and duplicate banknotes
● To sterilize surgical instruments
● UV-rays emitted from mercury lamps. Can kill bacteria
● Treatment of skin diseases
● In medical field
● In research work
● In security work
X-ray ● Prevention of smuggling
● In crack detection of metallurgy
● To take pictures of broken bones
● To destroy malignant cell tumors in the body
• In diagnosis of various diseases in medical field
• In laboratory research
Gamma Ray
• Defect detection of metallic materials
• To destroy cancerous cells in the human body
[Ref: Ishaque + Tapan + Tofajjol sir]
◉ Electromagnetic Spectrum
➥ The spectrum of different types of radiation that spans between the lower and upper range of wavelengths
is called the electromagnetic spectrum.
➥ If Frequency is  and wavelength of any circular wave is λ, then the relation of frequency and wavelength
of the circular wave with the speed of the wave is, v = λ.
➥ The speed of electromagnetic waves traveling through vacuum or air is equal to the speed of light. ie v = c;
so c = λ.
➥ The frequency range of electromagnetic waves is very high. Its amplitude ranges from a low value of 104
Hz or cycles/second to over 1023 Hz or cycles/second. This range is called the electromagnetic spectrum.
➥ Our eyes are only sensitive to visible light
➥ The electromagnetic spectrum has no definite upper or lower limits
➥ The order of wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum-
• Radio and TV waves → Infrared rays → Visible light rays → Ultraviolet rays → X rays →
Gamma rays
➥ So the longest wavelengths are of radio waves, the shortest wavelengths are of gamma rays.
➥ Order of Penetrating Power of Radioactive Rays : γ > β > α
➥ Order of Ionizing Power of Radioactive Rays : α > β > γ

◉ Radio wave:
Definition: The electrical energy radiated by antenna stays in vacuum as an electromagnetic wave is called radio
wave. The energy of this wave is equally distributed among both electric and magnetic fields.
➥ Radio waves can we divided into some subdivisions.
Radio waves

Microwave Radar wave Television wave

➥ Some special information about radio wave

• If there are obstacles (such as hills) the medium and long waves overcome them by diffraction. Thus the
transistor and radio signal from the transmitter antenna reaches the receiver.
• The medium and shortwave is reflected by the charged layer of the upper atmosphere. Though the earth
surface is curved, this type of wave can propagate to far places.
• The wavelengths of television waves (VHF and UHF) are smaller. They are not reflected by per
atmosphere and slightly change by high obstacles (such as hills).
• To get a good signal in the receiver, for these waves the traveling path from the transmitter antenna to
receiver must be a straight line. That is why television waves are relayed by the artificial satellites to far
places.
[Ref: Tapan sir]
◉ Infrared Radiation:
➥ This radiation obeys the laws of reflection and refraction.
➥ Interference and polarization occur in it.
➥ When it is incident on a body, its temperature rises.
➥ Its velocity is equal to the velocity of light.
[Ref: Tapan sir]
◉ Ultraviolet radiation:
➥ This radiation obeys laws of reflection and refraction.
➥ Interference and polarization of this radiation occur.
[Ref: Tapan sir]
01. Which of the following electromagnetic radiation has the lowest frequency? [D: 22-23]
A. Infrared B. Gamma-ray C. Ultraviolet D. X-ray
Ans: A
02. Which one has the lowest wavelength? [M: 21-22]
A. Blue B. Red C. Yellow D. Violet
Ans: D
03. Where microwave is used? [D: 21-22]
A. Telephone B. Telescope C. Radio D. Radar
Ans: D
04. Which radiation is used to click picture in darkness? [D: 21-22]
A. Gamma-ray B. Ultraviolet C. Infrared ray D. X-ray
Ans: C
05. Which radiation has the highest penetrating power? [M: 20-21]
A. Gamma B. X-Ray C. Alpha D. Beta
Ans: A
06. Which light ray has highest wavelength? [M: 19-20]
A. X-ray B. Gamma ray C. Visible ray D. Microwave
Ans: D
07. Which of the following is not similar to the wave length of visible light? [M: 16-17]
A. UV ray B. X-ray C. Infrared ray D. Gamma ray
Ans: C
08. Which radiation is emitted from cobalt-60? [M: 14-15]
A. X-ray B. Ultraviolet C. Gamma-ray D. Infrared
Ans: C
09. In electromagnetic radiation, which one has the highest wavelength? [M: 14-15]
A. Television wave B. UV ray C. X-ray D. Infrared ray
Ans: A
10. Which one is true? [M: 10-11]
A. Wavelength of infrared ray- 10–11m and 10–15m
B. Electromagnetic radiation contains only the visible light
C. Wavelength of radio wave, 1  10–4 − 5  104 m
D. X-ray is used to give weather forecasting
Ans: C
Wave front
Definition The locus of the particles of same phase on a wave
➢ If the locus of the particles in a wave is spherical then the wave front is called the
Spherical
spherical wave front.
wave front
➢ The wave having a spherical wave front is called a spherical wave.
Plane wave ➢ If the locus of the particles in a wave is plane, then the wave front is called plane wave front.
front ➢ Waves having plane wave fronts are called plane waves.
➢ The wave fronts near the source of light are spherical.
➢ Wave fronts coming from a source at long distance will be plane.
Special
➢ If the light source is linear rather than point, the resulting wavefront is concave near the
information
source and will be flat in the distant region.
➢ The wave front of converging or diverging rays of light is spherical and of parallel rays are plane.
[Ref: Ishaque + Tapan sir]
◉ Characteristics of wavefront:
➥ All the particles of the wavefront always remain in the same phase.
➥ The phase of two wavefronts next to each other is different.
➥ For a specific distance (wavelength), wavefronts are in the same phase.
➥ With time, the wavefronts proceed parallelly with each other.
➥ The waves always proceed perpendicularly to the wavefronts.
➥ The normal drawn on the wavefront indicates the direction of the light ray.
➥ The energy of the wave, in vacuum or any medium, is transferred from one part to another along the ray.
➥ While the wave propagates, The wavefront proceeds with the same speed as the wave.
[Ref: Ishaque sir]
◉ Light Year
• The distance traveled by light in one year is called light year. Light year is a unit of distance.
1 light year (1ly) = velocity of light  1year (in second)
= 3108ms-1(365246060)s
= 9.461015m = 9.461012km
◉ Principles of Huygens
➥ Each point on any wave front is considered as the source of oscillation or disturbance. The waves generated
from those secondary sources progress forward with the same velocity as that of the principal wave. If a
surface is drawn by the tangents of those secondary waves at any time, then that surface will represent the
new position of the wave front at that time.
➥ By using the principle of Huygens the laws of reflection and refraction of light can be analyzed
➥ Sometimes Huygens's principle is also called Line theory or wave theory.

➥ Secondary waves are sometimes called secondary sub waves.

➥ The amplitude of a secondary wave moving in a particular direction depends on the angle (θ) between that
particular direction and the direction of the principal wave propagation.
➥ The amplitude is maximum when the intermediate angle(θ)is = 0°
➥ If the intermediate angle (θ) is = 180°, the amplitude is zero.
➥ Sub Waves are not emitted backward in wave propagation.
Interference of light
◉ Superposition of waves
If two waves cross through a particle of a medium simultaneously, then each wave will displace that
particle. As a result, there will be a resultant displacement of the particle. This resultant displacement
will be equal to the sum of individual displacement by the two waves.
Let the separate displacement of the particle by individual wave be y₁ and y2
If the two waves are incident with the same phase, then the resultant displacement of the particle, y = y1 + y2
On the other hand, if these two waves are incident on the particle in opposite phase, then the resultant
displacement, y = y1  y2
◉ Coherent source
• If light waves of the same wavelength are emitted from two sources at same phase or with a particular
phase difference and if that phase difference is maintained all along during propagation then those sources
are called coherent sources.
• There is no coherent light source in nature.
[Ref: Tapan sir]
◉ Interference
➥ Definition: When two light waves of same frequency and amplitude emitted from two coherent sources pass
through a point in a medium simultaneously, the superposition of the two waves causes the point to appear
sometimes very bright and sometimes dark.
• At all points where the waves meet at the same phase, the resultant of amplitude and intensity will be
maximum (intensity is proportional to the square of the amplitude)
• Diffraction of light follows the wave theory of light.
➥ Inventor: Scientist Thomas Young discovered the interference of light.
➥ Types: Interference 2 types-

Interference

Constructive interference Destructive interference

1) Constructive interference:
If a bright point is observed due to the superposition of two light waves having the same frequency and amplitude
emitting from two sources, then that interference is called constructive interference.
• In constructive interference superposition of two waves occurs in the same phase.
2) Destructive interference:
If a dark point is observed due to the superposition of two light waves having the same frequency and amplitude
emitting from two sources, then that interference is called destructive interference.
• In destructive interference superposition of two waves occurs in the opposite phase.

➥ Conditions of constructive interference/conditions of bright point

• Superposition of two waves occurs in the same phase.

• Path difference = even multiple of
2
• Phase different have to be the even multiple of π
➥ Conditions of destructive interference /conditions of dark point
• Superposition of two waves occurs in the opposite phase.

• Path difference = odd multiple of
2
• Phase different have to be the odd multiple of π

➥ Conditions for interference:

1. The two sources of light should be coherent sources.
2. The two sources should be very fine and small.
3. The two sources should be very close to each other.
4. The amplitude of the two waves should be equal or nearly equal.
5. For alternate bright and dark points, the path difference between the waves should be even multiples and
odd multiples respectively of half wavelength.
6. The width of the slit used for interference must be close to the wavelength of the light used.
[Ref: Ishaque sir]
➥ Characteristics of interference
1. Interference is produced by waves of light from two coherent sources superposed at a point in a medium.
2. Normally the width of the interference fringes are equal
3. Distances between the bright and dark band are equal.
4. No light is found in dark interference fringes. They are always dark.
5. The intensity of all the bright fringes are equal.
6. Even if displacement occurs in the interference fringe, there will be no change in the width of the fringe.
[Ref: Ishaque sir]
• Two identical light sources cannot create interference.
• Interference fringe: If interference occurs on a plane or on a screen then alternate bright and dark mutually
parallel lines or bands are found. These alternate bright and dark lines or bands are called interference
fringes of light.

• Slit: A narrow rectangular hole whose width is very much smaller than the length is called a slit.
[Ref: Tapan sir]
◉ Young's Double Slit Experiment
Inventor Thomas Young, Year- 1807
instruments ➢ A coherent light source
for the ➢ Slit
experiment ➢ Screen
Result of the ➢ Alternating bright and dark bands are seen in the screen, which are called constructive
experiment and destructive interference respectively.
➢ In double-slit experiment, it is seen that interference of light takes place.
Taken
➢ Since due to light wave interference takes place, so light is a form of wave. Double-slit
Decision
experiment supports the wave theory of light.
[Ref: Ishaque + Tapan sir]

◉ Phase difference and path difference

2
• Phase difference  =  path difference


• Path difference =  phase difference
2

◉ Distance between successive Bands and width of Bands

D
• Distance between the centers of two consecutive bright or dark bands, x = a .
D
• Distance between the centers of two consecutive bright and dark bands or width of band, x = .
2a
Here,
 = Wavelength
D = Distance of screen from double slit
a = Distance between the two slits
 Diffraction of light
The phenomenon of flaring out of light along the sides or edges of a body is called diffraction
of light. This power of bending or flaring out increases as the wavelength increases.
Definition
• The diffraction is observable when the size of the sharp edge obstacle or the slit is
comparable with the wavelength of light. All sorts of waves exhibit diffraction.
There are two conditions for the production of diffraction:
(1) In case of straight edge:
Conditions for The edge should be very sharp and its width is to be equal to or is of the order of the
diffraction wavelength λ of light.
(2) In case of thin hole: The diameter of the hole should be extremely small such that it is
equal to or close to the wavelength λ of light.
Diffraction is of two types:
(1) Fresnel's class of diffraction
When the source of light and the screen are at finite distance from the obstacle or hole aperture,
then the diffraction observed due to the obstacle is called the Fresnel's class of diffraction.
In this type of diffraction, wave fronts are generally spherical or cylindrical.
This type of diffraction occurs on
● Straight edge,
● Fine wire and
● Narrow slit.
Types
2) Fraunhofer's class of diffraction
When the source of light and the screen are effectively at infinite distance from the obstacle or
aperture causing diffraction, then that type of diffraction is called Fraunhofer's class of diffraction.
● In order to produce this type of diffraction, a convex lens is placed in front of the
lens in such a way as parallel rays come out of it.
● This diffraction is produced by
i. Single slit,
ii. Double slits and
iii. Grating.
1. Diffraction is produced due to the interference of the secondary waves emitted from
different parts of a wave front.
2. Widths of the fringes in the diffraction pattern are never equal.
Characteristics
3. In case of diffraction the distances between the bright and dark band gradually
of diffraction
4. In diffraction, dark bands are not completely dark. Some light is observed there.
5. The intensity in the bright diffracted band never remains same. The intensity is maximum
in the central band and intensity gradually decreases on both sides of the central band.
• In a single slit Fraunhofer's fringes central band is always bright; but in case of Fresnel's
fringes central band may be bright or dark which depends on the number of half wavelength
regions in a single slit.
• Diffraction of light is produced as a result of interference.
Diffraction at a single slit:

Some • Condition for bright point/maximum point: a sin  = (2n + 1) 2 [Path difference]
information
• Condition for dark point/minimum point: a sin  = n [Path difference]
• Path difference between the secondary Maxima on both sides of the central bright band (θ=0)

is a sin θ = (2n+1)
2
That means, distances between the secondary maxima are not equal.
Again, path difference between the minima points, a sin  =  n
[Ref: Ishaque + Tapan sir]
◉ Diffraction Grating:
The special device for the production of diffraction is called grating. It consists of a very large
Definition
number of narrow slits of equal width side by side.
Grating is mainly of two types:
Types (1) Transmission grating and
(2) Reflection grating

◉ Transmission Grating:

Definition • The fine slits of many aggregates placed side by side are called transmission gratings
• An essential part of light source analysis is the diffraction grating. A grating is made by
scoring a transparent flat glass sheet with a pointed diamond piece.
Special
• The grating has about 10,000 lines per centimeter. A grating width of about 10–4 cm.
information
• Replica grating is commonly used in laboratories for general work which is made of
celluloid film and is prepared by cast-on method.

◉ Grating Constant

● The distance from the starting of a slit to the starting of the next slit is called the grating constant.
Definition
● From the terminal end of a slit to the terminal end of the next slit is called the grating constant.
• The width of each slit of a grating = a. and width of each line = b According to the
Mathematical definition, the grating constant d = a + b
equation 1 1
• So, number of lines in unit length, N = d = a + b
Special ● d is sometimes called grating element.
information ● Two points between the interval (a + b) of the grating is called corresponding points.
1. To determine the wavelength of light.
Application
2. To separate two spectral lines of the same wavelength.
of Grating
3. To determine the rate of change of diffracted angle with respect to the wavelengths.
[Ref: Ishaque sir]

01. Interference is one kind of……. [D.22-23]

A. Reflection B. Polarization
C. Superposition D. Diffraction
Ans: C
02. By which theory, Diffraction of light from a slit can be explained? [M. 22-23]
A. Quantum theory B. Wave theory
C. Duality theory D. Particle theory
Ans: B
◉ Distinction between interference and diffraction
(A) Similarity: Both types of bands are produced due to the superposition of waves.
(B) Dissimilarity
Diffraction Interference
1. Diffraction is formed due to super- 1. Interference is created due to super-position of two waves
position of secondary waver emitted obtained from two coherent wave fronts emitted from the
from different parts of the same wave same source.
front.
2. Intensity of all bright fringes formed due 2. Intensity or brightness of all bright fringes formed due to
to diffraction is not same. interference remains same.
3. Dark fringes formed due to diffraction 3. No light is observed in the dark fringes formed due to
are not totally dark. There exists some interference.
light always.
4. Width of the fringes formed due to 4. Widths of the fringes formed due to interference may or
diffraction are not same. may not be equal.

Polarization of light
The process by which light waves vibrating in different planes can be made to vibrate in a particular
Definition
plane is called polarization of light.
Inventor Huygens
Brewster's tangent of the polarizing angle is equal to the relative refractive index of the refracting
law medium ( = tan)
➢ Tourmaline is a hexagonal shaped and light green coloured crystal made by the chemical
Remember combination of a number of metallic oxides. Polarization of light can be explained by a
that tourmaline crystal experiment.
➢ Tourmaline, nickel prism and polaroid etc are used as polarizers and analyzers.
[Ref: Ishaque sir]
◉ Some terms relating polarization
Ordinary light waves whose vibrations are normal to the direction of propagation, spread all
Unpolarized light
around the source with equal amplitude is called unpolarized light.
Polarized light The transverse light waves vibrating on a plane or parallel to it is called polarized light.
Plane polarized If the vibration of particles of the waves of light is confined to only one plane, it is called
light plane polarized light.
In a reflecting medium, if the angle of incidence is changed slowly then an angle will be
obtained for which the polarization will be maximum, that angle is called the polarizing
Polarizing angle angle.
● For glass the polarizing angle is 56°
● for pure water the polarizing angle is 53°.
Plane of polarization The plane which exists normal to the plane of vibration is called the plane of polarization.
Double refraction The crystals through which traveling rays of light are splitted into refracted rays
Double refracting The crystals in which double refraction occurs, are called the double refracting crystals.
crystal Quartz, Calcite, Iceland spur etc. are double refractor crystal.
Laws of polarization:

◉ Malus's law
Polarized light while going through the analyzer its intensity becomes proportional to the square of the cosine
of the angle between the axes of the polarizer and analyzer. I  cos2
◉ Brewster's law
Tangent of the polarizing angle is equal to the refractive index of the reflecting medium.  = tan ip

➥ Plane polarized light can be produced by 3 ways

i) By reflection: scientist Malus
ii) By refraction and
iii) By double refraction: Dutch philosopher Erasmus Bartholinus in 1669 first invented double refraction
while performing refraction of light in calcite.

Important Mathematical Equations

Serial Law Introduction Unit
1  = Permeability of the medium H.m-1
01 Velocity of light in any medium, c =
  = Permittivity of the medium F.m-1
1
02 Velocity of light in vacuum or air, c = c = Velocity of light ms-1
00
E E = Amplitude of Electric field NC-1
03 Electromagnetic theory of, =c
B B = Amplitude of magnetic field T
𝐸⃗ = Resultant Electric
𝐸1 = Electric field from equilibrium for a wave
04 Principle of Superposition, E = E1 + E2
𝐸⃗2 = Electric field from equilibrium for
another wave.
D = Distance of screen m
dx  = Wavelength m
05 For bright band of interference, n =
D d = Distance between two slits m
x = Distance of the band m
For minimal point at the time of grating, (a + b) N = 1 = number of lines in each cm.
06  a+b
sin = (2n+1)
2  = Angle of Diffraction
a = Width m
07 Diffraction in a single slit, a sin = n n = Consecutive number
 = wavelength m
 Important Mathematical problems
5
1. Path difference between 2 points is ; What is the phase difference between the points?
4
2 5 
Solution: Phase difference =  Path difference Ans: or,
 2 2
2 5 5  
=  4 = 2 = 2 + 2 = 2


2. For a radio-wave Eo = 10-4 Vm-1, Find out the value of Bo

Eo
Solution: C = , Ans : 3.3×10-13 T .
Bo

3. The intensity of the central bright fringe formed due to interference of 2 identical slits is I. If one slit is
closed, then what change of intensity will happen?
Solution: [If the amplitude of each of the 2 warms is A, Amax = A + A = 2A
Imax = A2max = (2A)2 = 4A2 = 4I0 [ I0 is the intensity for each slit.]
Imax
Or, I0 = Ans : Intensity of the central fringe will reduce by 4 times.
4

1. Who invented the wave theory of light?

A. Wart B. Planck C. Maxwell D. Huygens
2. Characteristics of electromagnetic waves are-
A. in vacuum, travels at the speed of light
B. medium is needed for propagation
C. it is a longitudinal wave
D. It is deviated by electric field
3. Condition for interference of light -
A. the two sources should be far apart
B. there should be sources of different colours
C. the two sources should be coherent
D. the two sources should be large
4. Which of the following transmits through light wave?
A. velocity B. acceleration C. momentum D. energy
5. If the light source and screen are at a fixed distance from the slit of diffraction, then what is it called?
A. Fraunhofer's diffraction B. Fresnel's diffraction
C. Young's diffraction D. Poisson's diffraction
6. What is the process of limiting vibrating light waves in a certain plane at a right angle with the speed of
light called?
A. interference B. diffraction C. polarization D. refraction
7. Electromagnetic waves are generated from-
A. fixed charge B. mobile charge C. accelerated charge D. Magnet
8. Which of the following is not an Electromagnetic wave?
A. visible light B. X-ray C. gamma ray D. aloha ray
9. If the wavelength of a photo is 3000 Å, then what is its frequency?
A. 1015 Hz B. 1010 Hz C. 108 Hz D. 106 Hz
10. Which of the following waves has the maximum wavelength?
A. Infrared ray B. radio wave C. gamma ray D. X-ray
11. Where is the microwave used?
A. in radio B. in telephone C. in Radar D. in telescope
12. Which is not a primary colour?
A. red B. green C. violet D. indigo
13. In which polarization is not possible?
A. sound wave B. light wave C. Radio wave D. water wave
14. Bending of light along the edges is called-
A. polarization B. interference C. Diffraction D. Double reflection
15. For which ray, diffraction occurs the most?
A. Gamma ray B. Ultraviolet ray C. infrared ray D. Radio Wave
16. The property for which the nature of light wave is known is-
A. refraction B. diffraction C. interference D. polarization
17. Which property of light will change with the change of the medium?
A. wavelength B. Frequency C. colour D. None of the above
18. What did Thomas Young demonstrate through the double slit experiment?
A. polarization of light B. refraction of light
C. interference of light D. diffraction of light

19. The path difference between 2 points of a wave is ?
8
   
A. B. C. D.
2 4 6 8
20. Which of the following is an example of Double refracting crystal?
A. Sodium B. Potassium C. Quartz D. Gold

Answer
01. D 02. A 03. C 04. D 05. B 06. C 07. C 08. D 09. A 10. B
11. C 12. C 13. A 14. C 15. D 16. B 17. A 18. C 19. B 20. C