Series in Biologically Inspired Computation 3

SWARM INTELLIGENCE
A Short Introduction

H. Kemal İlter, Ph.D.

Professor, Department of Management Information Systems
kemal.ilter@bakircay.edu.tr

http://link.hkilter.com/swarm
Keynote Live

DOI: 10.6084/m9. gshare.16910104

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 Series in Biologically Inspired Computation 3 Contents
SWARM INTELLIGENCE Intelligence
A Short Introduction

Arti cial Intelligence

H. Kemal İlter, Ph.D. Natural Computing and Biologically Inspired Computing
Professor, Department of Management Information Systems Swarm Behavior
University of Bakırçay
Swarm Intelligence
kemal.ilter@bakircay.edu.tr
https://hkilter.com

Citation
Series in Biologically Inspired Computation 3
İlter, H. K. 2021. A short introduction to swarm intelligence. figshare.
Presentation. https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.16910104

Series in Biologically Inspired Computation 2

İlter, H. K. 2019. 6x9=42 | A brief introduction to swarm intelligence. figshare.
Presentation. https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.10193084.v1

Series in Biologically Inspired Computation 1

İlter, H. K. 2013. I, Cyborg: Yet another story about cybernetic organisms.
speakerdeck. Presentation. https://speakerdeck.com/ilter/i-cyborg
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 INTELLIGENCE
De ning Intelligence

A definition Intelligence has been defined in many ways:

The ability to perceive or infer information, and to retain • the capacity for abstraction,
it as knowledge to be applied towards adaptive behaviors • logic,
within an environment or context.
• understanding,
• self-awareness,
Another definition
• learning,
Intelligence measures an agent’s ability to achieve goals in
• emotional knowledge,
a wide range of environments.
S. Legg and M. Hutter. 2007. A Collection of Definitions of Intelligence.
• reasoning,
Frontiers in Arti icial Intelligence and Applications, Volume 157. • planning,
• creativity,
• critical thinking,
• problem-solving.
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 INTELLIGENCE
De ning Intelligence

Frans de Waal: Moral behavior in animals.

Source: https://youtu.be/meiU6TxysCg
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 Bacteria
INTELLIGENCE
Tree of Life

Eukaryota

David Hillis's 2008 plot of the tree

of life, based on completely
sequenced genomes.

Archaea

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tree_of_life_SVG.svg
INTELLIGENCE
Measurements

Intelligence quotient (IQ) tests Brain-to-body mass ratio

A total score derived from a set of standardized tests or The ratio of brain mass to body mass, which is
subtests designed to assess human intelligence. hypothesized to be a rough estimate of the intelligence of
• Statistical reliability (reproducibility) an animal, although fairly inaccurate in many cases.

• Validity (lack of bias)

E
• Measurement bias (differential item functioning) C=
S
C, cephalization factor
g factor (general intelligence factor)
E, brain weight
Observed correlations between an individual’s scores on
S, body weight
various measures of cognitive abilities.
The tasks focus on such things as; innovation and problem
solving, understanding concepts and meanings, response
to novelty, habit reversal and inhibition, social learning
and culture.
INTELLIGENCE
Measurements

Encephalization quotient (EQ) Currently the best predictor for intelligence across all
animals is forebrain neuron count*.
Snell's allometry equation: E = CS r * Herculano-Houzel, S. 2017. Numbers of neurons as biological correlates of cognitive
capability. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 16: 1–7.
E, weight of the brain
C, cephalization factor - EQ
r, exponential constant

C = ES 2/3

Number of neurons
Neurons are the cells that transmit information in an
animal's nervous system so that it can sense stimuli from
its environment and behave accordingly.
 INTELLIGENCE
Natural Intelligence

Simple representation

Name Plants
Domain: Eukaryota
(unranked): Diaphoretickes
Scienti c classi cation
(unranked): Archaeplastida
Kingdom: Plantae

Brain size and number of neurons N/A

Examples Eg. Seed plants, green algae, moses

Computational use case • Environmental adaption*

* Sarenne Wallbridge. 2018. Thinking about

Arti icial Intelligence? Think about Plants! Phyt|
Reference(s), if any Signs. https://www.phytlsigns.com/thinking-
about-artificial-intelligence-think-about-plants/
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INTELLIGENCE
Intelligence in Nature

Arthropod Cephalopod Vertebrate

Kingdom: Animalia Kingdom: Animalia Kingdom: Animalia
Subkingdom: Eumetazoa Phylum: Mollusca Superphylum: Deuterostomia
Clade: ParaHoxozoa Subphylum: Conchifera Phylum: Chordata
Clade: Bilateria Class: Cephalopoda Clade: Olfactores
Clade: Nephrozoa Subphylum: Vertebrata
(unranked): Protostomia
Superphylum: Ecdysozoa
(unranked): Panarthropoda
(unranked): Tactopoda
Phylum: Arthropoda

Brain-to-body mass ratio 1:7
Number of neurons 105—106
Eg. Ants, cockroaches, spiders
• Ant colony optimization
• Artificial bee colony algorithm
• Particle swarm optimization
• Clustering
Brain-to-body mass ratio* 1:7 Brain-to-body mass ratio 1:12—
(largest among the invertebrates) 1:2789
Number of neurons 5×108 (most Number of neurons 4×106—2.5×1011
complex of all invertebrates)
Eg. Mammals, birds, reptiles, fish
Eg. Octopus, squids, cuttlefish
• Boids, simulation
• Neural networks • Bat algorithm, metaheuristic
• Learning models optimization
• Cat swarm optimization
* Shigeno, S., Andrews, P., Ponte, G., & Fiorito,
G. (2018). Cephalopod Brains: An Overview of
Current Knowledge to Facilitate Comparison
With Vertebrates. Frontiers in physiology, 9,
952. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2018.00952
INTELLIGENCE
Intelligence in Nature

Primates H. sapiens
Kingdom: Animalia Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia Class: Mammalia
Clade: Pan-Primates Order: Primates
Order: Primates Suborder: Haplorhini
Infraorder: Simiiformes
Family: Hominidae
Subfamily: Homininae
Tribe: Hominini
Genus: Homo
Species: H. sapiens

Brain-to-body mass ratio 1:40 Brain-to-body mass ratio 1:40

Number of neurons 3×109—4×1010 Number of neurons 9×1010—1.5×1014

Eg. Chimpanzee, gorilla, orangutan + Measurements

• Brain volume
+ Measurement • Grey matter
• Brain size • White matter
• Cortical thickness
• Cortical convolution
• Neural efficiency
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
A Li'l History

Wolfgang von Kempelen

The Turk

Yan Shi Charles Babbage

A life-size, Ada Lovelace
mechanical humanoid Jabir ibn Hayyan Programmable
Heron of Alexandrea Paracelsus
The artificial creation mechanical calculating
Aeolipile An artificial man
of life in the laboratory machines

Bernard Bolzano
Semantics

Antiquity

-1000 0 1000 2000

René Descartes
Bodies are complex
machines

Aristotle Al-Jazari Francis Bacon

Porphyry of Tyre The New Organon
The Organon Programmable orchestra
Isagoge
of mechanical human
Blaise Pascal
beings
Mechanical calculator
 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
A Li'l History

Kurt Gödel
Theoretical computer IBM
OpenAI
science Deep Blue
GPT-3

IBM
Watson

Future

2000 3000 4000 5000

Alan Turing Brain and Mind Institute

Measuring machine Blue Brain
intelligence
 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
De ning Arti cial Intelligence

We couldn’t find a single definition of AI itself, but

according to Russel and Norvig (2010), it can be
categorized into four groups:

• Thinking humanly
• Thinking rationally
• Acting humanly
• Acting rationally
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 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
De ning Arti cial Intelligence

Thinking Humanly The Cognitive Modeling Approach - Newell and Simon (1961)

The exciting new effort to make computers think ...
machines with minds, in the full and literal sense.
— Haugeland, 1985
John Haugeland. 1985. Artificial intelligence: The very idea. Bradford books. The MIT
Press, Cambridge, Mass., and London.
The interdisciplinary field of cognitive science brings
together computer models from AI and experimental
techniques from psychology to construct precise and
testable theories of the human mind.

[The automation of] activities that we associate with

human thinking, activities such as decision-making,
problem solving, learning ...
— Bellman, 1978
Richard Bellman. 1978. An introduction to artificial intelligence: Can computers think?.
San Francisco: Boyd & Fraser Pub. Co.
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 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
De ning Arti cial Intelligence

Thinking Rationally The "Laws of Thought" Approach - Aristotle (Organon around

40 BC by Andronicus of Rhodes )
The study of mental faculties through the use of
computational models. By 1965, programs existed that could, in principle, solve
— Charniak and McDermott, 1985 any solvable problem described in logical notation. The
E. Charniak, D. McDermott. 1985. Introduction to Artificial Intelligence. Addison- so-called logicist tradition within artificial intelligence
Wesley Publ.
hopes to build on such programs to create intelligent
systems.
The study of the computations that make it possible to
perceive, reason, and act.
— Winston, 1992
P. H. Winston. 1992. Artificial Intelligence. Addison-Wesley Publ.
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 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
De ning Arti cial Intelligence

Acting Humanly The Turing Test Approach - Alan Turing (1950)

The art of creating machines that perform functions that
require intelligence when performed by people.
— Kurzweil, 1990
Kurzweil, R., Jaroch, D. 1990. The Age of Intelligent Machines. Cambridge, Mass., MIT
Press.
The study of how to make computers do things at which,
at the moment, people are better.
— Rich and Knight, 1991
Rich, E., Knight, K. 1991. Arti icial Intelligence. New York, N.Y: McGraw-Hill, Inc.
Turing Test
Natural language processing to enable it to communicate
successfully in English,
Knowledge representation to store what it knows or
hears,
Automated reasoning to use the stored information to
answer questions and to draw new conclusions,
Machine learning to adapt to new circumstances and to
detect and extrapolate patterns.

Total Turing Test

Computer vision to perceive objects, and
Robotics to manipulate objects and move about.
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 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
De ning Arti cial Intelligence

Acting Rationally The Rational Agent Approach

Computational [i]ntelligence is the study of the design of Computer agents are expected to do more: operate
intelligent agents. autonomously, perceive their environment, persist over a
— Poole et al., 1998 prolonged time period, adapt to change, and create and
Poole, D., Mackworth, A. K., Goebel, R. G. 1998. Computational Intelligence: A logical pursue goals. A rational agent is one that acts so as to
approach. New York: Oxford University Press.
achieve the best outcome or, when there is uncertainty,
the best expected outcome.
AI ... is concerned with intelligent behavior in artifacts.
— Nilsson, 1998
Nilsson, N. J. 1998. Artificial Intelligence: A new synthesis. San Francisco, Calif:
Morgan Kaufmann Publishers.
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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
Google Duplex

Making an appointment
Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JvbHu_bVa_g
 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
De ning Arti cial Intelligence

AI generated art
Source: https://deepart.io/img/0SQJ7PBH

AI generated profile photo

Source: https://generated.photos An article by GPT-3
Source: https://t.co/pR5u3S4wj4
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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
Types of Arti cial Intelligence
Strong AI
Artificial General Intelligence (AGI) is the hypothetical
ability of an intelligent agent to understand or learn any
intellectual task that a human being can.
Academic sources reserve the term strong AI for computer
programs that experience sentience or consciousness.
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Weak AI
It is any program that is designed to solve exactly one
problem.
Academic sources reserve weak AI for programs that do
not experience consciousness or do not have a mind in the
same sense people do.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
Types of Arti cial Intelligence

AI-hard (AI-complete) AI-complete problems are hypothesized to include:

An analogy with NP-complete and NP-hard in • AI peer review
computational complexity theory. • Bongard problems
• Computer vision
• Natural language understanding
• Dealing with unexpected circumstances while solving
any real world problem

Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Bongard_problem_convex_polygons.svg
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/P_np_np-
complete_np-hard.svg/600px-P_np_np-complete_np-hard.svg.png
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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
Goals and Tools
Goals
• Reasoning, problem solving
• Knowledge representation
• Planning
• Learning
• Natural language processing
• Perception
• Motion and manipulation
• Social intelligence
• General intelligence
Tools
• Search and optimization
Search algorithm, Mathematical optimization and
Evolutionary computation
• Logic
Logic programming and Automated reasoning
• Probabilistic methods for uncertain reasoning
Bayesian network, Hidden Markov model, Kalman
filter, Decision theory and Utility theory
• Classifiers and statistical learning methods
Classifier (mathematics), Statistical classification and
Machine learning
• Neural networks
Artificial neural network and Connectionism
• Control theory
• Languages
 NATURAL COMPUTING
De ning Natural Computing

A definition
Natural computing is a terminology introduced to
encompass three classes of methods:
1. those that take inspiration from nature for the
development of novel problem-solving techniques;
2. those that are based on the use of computers to
synthesize natural phenomena; and
3. those that employ natural materials to compute.
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NATURAL COMPUTING
Types of Natural Computing

Nature-inspired models of computation Synthesizing nature by means of computing

• Cellular automata • Artificial life
• Neural computation
• Evolutionary computation Nature-inspired novel hardware
• Swarm intelligence • Molecular computing
• Artificial immune systems • Quantum computing
• Membrane computing
• Amorphous computing Nature as information processing
• Morphological computing • Systems biology
• Cognitive computing • Synthetic biology
• Cellular computing
 BIOLOGICALLY INSPIRED COMPUTING
De ning

A definition Bio-Inspired Computing Topic - Biological Inspiration

Biologically inspired computing is a field of study which Genetic Algorithms - Evolution
seeks to solve computer science problems using models of Biodegradability prediction - Biodegradation
biology. Cellular Automata - Life
Emergence - Ants, termites, bees, wasps
Neural networks - The brain
It relates to connectionism, social behavior, and
emergence. Artificial life - Life
Artificial immune system - Immune system
Rendering - Patterning and rendering of animal skins
Lindenmayer systems - Plant structures
Communication networks - Epidemiology
Membrane computers - Intra-membrane molecular processes
Excitable media - Forest fires, "the wave", heart conditions, axons
Sensor networks - Sensory organs
Learning classifier systems - Cognition, evolution
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 SWARM BEHAVIOUR
De ning Swarming

A definition Examples
Swarm behavior, or swarming, is a collective behavior
exhibited by entities, particularly animals, of similar size Bird flocks
which aggregate together, perhaps milling about the same Fish schools
spot or perhaps moving en masse or migrating in some
Insect swarms
direction.
Bacteria swarms
Bouffanais, R.2016. Design and Control of Swarm Dynamics. Springer Briefs in
Complexity (First ed.). Springer. Quadruped herds
Algal blooms - phytoplankton (algae)
Another definition
From a more abstract point of view, swarm behavior is
the collective motion of a large number of self-propelled
entities.
O'Loan, E. 1998. Alternating steady state in one-dimensional flocking. Journal of Physics
A: Mathematical and General. 32 (8): L99–L105.
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SWARM BEHAVIOUR
Understand the Behavior, Biologically

Mathematical Models In Nature

Using basic math models to simulate the behavior. Agent-based modeling is a rule-based, computational
Boids simulation modeling methodology that focuses on rules and
Creator: Craig Reynolds, 1986 interactions among the individual components or the
agents of the system.
Evolutionary Models Self-organization is a process where some form of overall
Using a genetic algorithm to simulate evolution of the order arises from local interactions between parts of an
behavior. initially disordered system.
Stigmergy is a mechanism of indirect coordination,
through the environment, between agents or actions.
Emergence occurs when an entity is observed to have
properties its parts do not have on their own, properties
or behaviors which emerge only when the parts interact in
a wider whole.
SWARM BEHAVIOUR
Mathematical Models: Metric vs Topological distances

Zone of attraction
The simplest mathematical models of Move towards the
neighbor
animal swarms generally represent
individual animals as following three
rules: Zone of alignment
Align direction of
• Move in the same direction as their motion
neighbors
Zone of repulsion
• Remain close to their neighbors Avoid collision
• Avoid collisions with their neighbors

Separation: steer to avoid crowding local Alignment: steer towards the average Cohesion: steer to move toward the average
flockmates heading of local flockmates position of local flockmates
SWARM INTELLIGENCE
Boids

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bqtqltqcQhw
For boids see http://www.red3d.com/cwr/boids/
SWARM INTELLIGENCE
Algorithms and Approaches

Stochastic diffusion search • Text search (Bishop, 1989)

In SDS agents perform cheap, partial evaluations of a • Object recognition (Bishop, 1992)
hypothesis (a candidate solution to the search problem). • Feature tracking (Grech-Cini, 1993)
They then share information about hypotheses (diffusion
• Mobile robot self-localisation (Beattie, 1998)
of information) through direct one-to-one
• Site selection for wireless networks (Whitaker, 2002)
communication.

Bishop, J.M. (1989). "Stochastic Searching Networks" (PDF). Proc. 1st IEE Conf. on
Artificial Neural Networks. London: 329–331.
Bishop, J.M. & Torr, P., (1992). The Stochastic Search Network. In R. Linggard, D.J.
Myers, C. Nightingale (eds.), Neural Networks for Images, Speech and Natural
Language, pp370–387, New York, Chapman & Hall.
Grech-Cini, H.J. & McKee, G.T. (1993) Locating the Mouth Region in Images of
Human Faces. In P.S.Schenker (Ed.), Proceedings of SPIE – The International Society
for Optical Engineering, Sensor Fusion VI 2059, Massachusetts.
Beattie, P.D. & Bishop, J.M., (1998). Self-Localisation in the 'Senario' Autonomous
Wheelchair. Journal of Intelligent and Robotic Systems 22, pp 255–267, Kluwer
Academic Publishers.
Whitaker, R.M., Hurley, S., (2002). An agent based approach to site selection for
wireless networks. Proc ACM Symposium on Applied Computing (Madrid). 574–577.
SWARM INTELLIGENCE
Algorithms

Particle swarm optimization

A computational method that optimizes a problem by
iteratively trying to improve a candidate solution with
regard to a given measure of quality.

Kennedy, J.; Eberhart, R. 1995. Particle swarm optimization. Proceedings of IEEE

International Conference on Neural Networks, IV. pp. 1942–1948.
Kennedy, J. 1997. The particle swarm: social adaptation of knowledge. Proceedings of
IEEE International Conference on Evolutionary Computation. pp. 303– 308.
Shi, Y.; Eberhart, R.C. 1998. A modified particle swarm optimizer. Proceedings of IEEE
International Conference on Evolutionary Computation. pp. 69–73.

Source: Pedersen, M.E.H., Tuning & Simplifying Heuristical

Optimization, PhD Thesis, 2010, University of Southampton,
School of Engineering Sciences, Computational Engineering and
Design Group.
SWARM INTELLIGENCE
Algorithms

Ant colony optimization

A probabilistic technique in metaheuristic optimizations.

Colorni, A., Dorigo, M., Maniezzo, V. 1991. Distributed optimization by ant colonies.
Proceedings of the European Conference on Arti icial Life, ECAL’91, 134-142.
Dorigo, M. 1992. Optimization, Learning and Natural Algorithms. PhD thesis, Politecnico
di Milano, Italy.

Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Aco_shortpath.svg
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SWARM INTELLIGENCE
Algorithms

Artificial Swarm Intelligence

A method of amplifying the collective intelligence of
networked human groups using control algorithms
modeled after natural swarms.

Rosenberg, Louis (2015-07-20). "Human Swarms, a real-time method for collective

intelligence". 07/20/2015-07/24/2015. 27. pp. 658–659.
Rosenberg, Louis; Willcox, Gregg (2020). Bi, Yaxin; Bhatia, Rahul; Kapoor, Supriya
(eds.). "Artificial Swarm Intelligence". Intelligent Systems and Applications. Advances
in Intelligent Systems and Computing. Springer International Publishing. 1037: 1054–
1070.
Metcalf, Lynn; Askay, David A.; Rosenberg, Louis B. (2019). "Keeping Humans in the
Loop: Pooling Knowledge through Artificial Swarm Intelligence to Improve Business
Decision Making". California Management Review. 61 (4): 84–109.
SWARM INTELLIGENCE
Algorithms

Artificial bee colony algorithm Differential evolution

Intelligent foraging behaviour. A method that optimizes a problem by iteratively trying to
improve a candidate solution.
Multi-level thresholding Parallel computing
MR brain image classification Face pose estimation Multiobjective optimization
Constrained optimization
D. Dervis Karaboga, An Idea Based On Honey Bee Swarm for Numerical Optimization,
Technical Report-TR06,Erciyes University, Engineering Faculty, Computer Storn, R.; Price, K. (1997). “Differential evolution - a simple and efficient heuristic for
Engineering Department 2005. global optimization over continuous spaces”. Journal of Global Optimization 11: 341–
359.
Storn, R. (1996). “On the usage of differential evolution for function optimization”.
Biennial Conference of the North American Fuzzy Information Processing Society
(NAFIPS). pp. 519–523.
SWARM INTELLIGENCE
Algorithms

The bees algorithm Artificial immune systems

A population-based search algorithm A class of computationally intelligent systems and adaptive
systems.

• Optimisation of classifiers/Clustering systems

• Manufacturing • Bioinformatics
• Bioengineering
J.D. Farmer, N. Packard and A. Perelson, (1986) “The im- mune system, adaptation and
• Multi-objective optimization machine learning”, Physica D, vol. 2, pp. 187–204.

Pham DT, Ghanbarzadeh A, Koc E, Otri S, Rahim S and Zaidi M. The Bees Algorithm.
Technical Note, Manufacturing Engineering Centre, Cardiff University, UK, 2005.
Pham, D.T., Castellani, M. (2009), The Bees Algorithm – Modelling Foraging
Behaviour to Solve Continuous Optimisation Problems. Proc. ImechE, Part C, 223(12),
2919-2938.
Pham, D.T. and Castellani, M. (2013), Benchmarking and Comparison of Nature-
Inspired Population-Based Con- tinuous Optimisation Algorithms, Soft Computing,
1-33.
SWARM INTELLIGENCE
Algorithms

Bat algorithm Glowworm swarm optimization

A metaheuristic optimization algorithm. The algorithm makes the agents glow at intensities
approximately proportional to the function value being
optimized.
• Engineering design
• Classifications of gene expression data
K.N. Krishnanand and D. Ghose (2005). Detection of multiple source locations using a
glowworm metaphor with applications to collective robotics. IEEE Swarm Intelligence
Symposium, Pasadena, California, USA, pp. 84- 91.

X. S. Yang, A New Metaheuristic Bat-Inspired Algo- rithm, in: Nature Inspired
Cooperative Strategies for Optimization (NISCO 2010) (Eds. J. R. Gonzalez et al.),
Studies in Computational Intelligence, Springer Berlin, 284, Springer, 65-74 (2010).
K.N. Krishnanand and D. Ghose. (2006). Glowworm swarm based optimization
algorithm for multimodal functions with collective robotics applications. Multi- agent
and Grid Systems, 2(3):209- 222.
K.N. Krishnanand and D. Ghose. (2009). Glowworm swarm optimization for
simultaneous capture of multi- ple local optima of multimodal functions. Swarm Intelli-
gence, 3(2):87- 124.
K.N. Krishnanand and D. Ghose. (2008). Theoretical foundations for rendezvous of
glowworm-inspired agent swarms at multiple locations. Robotics and Auton- omous
Systems, 56(7):549- 569.
SWARM INTELLIGENCE
Algorithms

Gravitational search algorithm Multi-swarm optimization

Based on the law of gravity and the notion of mass Use of multiple sub-swarms instead of one (standard)
interactions. swarm.

Rashedi, E.; Nezamabadi-pour, H.; Saryazdi, S. (2009). “GSA: a gravitational search

algorithm”. Information Science 179 (13): 2232–2248. Multi-swarm system effectively combines components
from particle swarm optimization, estimation of distri-
bution algorithm, and differential evolution into a multi-
Self-propelled particles
swarm hybrid.
Predict robust emergent behaviors occur in swarms
independent of the type of animal that is in the swarm.

Buhl, J.; Sumpter, D. J. T.; Couzin, D.; Hale, J. J.; Desp- land, E.; Miller, E. R.; Simpson,
S. J. (2006). “From dis- order to order in marching locusts” (PDF). Science 312 (5778):
1402–1406.
 Series in Biologically Inspired Computation 3

SWARM INTELLIGENCE
A Short Introduction

H. Kemal İlter, Ph.D.

Professor, Department of Management Information Systems
kemal.ilter@bakircay.edu.tr

DOI: 10.6084/m9. gshare.16910104

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