STRING-BODY COUPLING IN THE CLASSICAL GUITAR.

EFFECTS ON THE SOUND

GIUSEPPE CUZZUCOLI

This note anticipates the results of a study on the phenomena that occur as a result of the interaction
between the string and the resonator of the classical guitar, and affect the sound produced by the
instrument when the strings are plucked. The topic will be developed extensively in a subsequent
article.

The interaction between the string and the resonator must be studied taking into account:

• The excitation mechanism of the plucked string and the parameters on which it depends

• The behavior of the resonator, therefore of the distribution of its resonances

• The coupling between string and resonator, therefore of the (partial) transmission of vibratory
energy from the string to the resonator, and the (partial) restitution of energy from the
resonator to the string

• The coupling between the resonator modes and the surrounding air that produces sound
through the interface of the vibrating surfaces.

In this study, I examined the sound emitted by the six 'open' strings of three guitars whose bracing
is similar, while the bottoms are different both in modal frequencies and in the longitudinal 'profiles'
of the vibrating areas. The 'three degrees of freedom' model of the resonator and the contribution of
the background on the response curve is the subject of my previous studies. Although the general
architecture of these three instruments is similar, the analysis of the sounds produced by plucking
the strings highlights some significant differences between them.

The time signal is examined with FFT analysis, allowing to separate (in the sound of each of the six
strings) the individual contributions of each harmonic in a frequency range up to 1260 Hz. This
means examining the first fifteen harmonics of the low E string but only the first three harmonics of
the high E string. The high resolution of the analysis (0.168 Hz) and the use of a window that
moves in steps of 50 ms. along with the analog signal, allow capturing the evolution of the
amplitude of each spectral component during the time interval (3 sec.) where the signal is observed.

For each of the three guitars, I have also examined the body resonances in the range up to 1260 Hz,
which were previously obtained from the top and the bottom by using a kind of acoustic hammer
and software developed for this purpose. Where possible I tried to attribute a 'meaning' to the
various resonances taking into account that some constructive parameters of these guitars are
known, such as the natural frequency of the body with a rigid back and the modal frequencies of the
clamped back. A previous investigation on the same guitars made it possible to apply a
mathematical model of the resonator, aiming to evaluate the resonances of the top (in its main
mode), the bottom (in its three main modes of vibration), and the air (the 'tuning note’). Afterward,
the comparison of the calculation results with the measurements has proved the consistency
between them. This method allows to quantitatively characterize the resonances in the medium-low
frequency band (up to 350 Hz), while for the higher band it was necessary to be restricted to
qualitative considerations.

1
The frequency, amplitude and Q factor of resonances and harmonics have been evaluated not only
at the moment when the oscillation starts but also during the time. While the sound produced by
striking the resonator dies out after a few hundred milliseconds, the sound produced by plucking an
open string lasts several seconds. During this time each harmonic follows its evolution and is
extinguished with its trends, different from those of the other harmonics of the same string and
those of the other strings. As a result of the string-body coupling, the amplitude is also modulated to
a greater or lesser extent, and this influences the timbre as it is perceived.

In the course of this study, only the sounds emitted by the strings in the open position have been
considered. It would be possible to study the sound emitted when the strings are played at the frets
but certainly, it would be much more expensive, given the enormous number of combinations of
sound -note-position possible on the guitar. In this regard, we must remember that the presence of
the finger touching a fret introduces further variables: restricting the study to open strings can allow
neglecting all the aspects related to the damping (and losses) due to the action of the finger on the
keyboard.

Necessarily it is assumed that the strings are always plucked with similar modalities (strength,
position, touch). Even if the experiment was performed by a guitarist 'trained' to play in a controlled
way, in reality, it is not known exactly the position where the strings are plucked, neither how they
are plucked nor the force applied (parameters that influence the distribution and the amplitude of
harmonics).
Guitars are also assumed to be reasonably in tune. Retrospectively one of the three guitars proved to
be slightly low tuned: the fundamental of the Low E was about 80 Hz against nominal 82.41 while
the frequency of the 15th harmonic was 1210 Hz against nominal 1236. This small difference of the
fundamental is reflected in a noticeable (proportional) difference of the high harmonics. With this
tuning the resonances excited by the high-order harmonics are different from those that would be
excited with a correct tuning; consequently, it appears that a slight detuning can affect the timbre.

For these reasons, the study has undeniable limitations. However, qualitatively the main phenomena
that intervene in the production of sound by a plucked string emerge from it, including the
differences that exist (and can be perceived) between similar instruments. Many of these
phenomena are known and plausible: the general framework of the working mechanism of the
plucked string -resonator is clearly identifiable. Certain phenomena cannot be explained based on
the available data and a quantitative evaluation would require resorting to a mathematical 'model'
apt for describing the wave propagation along the chord, the reflection at the bridge, and the
interaction with the resonances of the body.

From a practical point of view, this study shows that the resonances of the body must be seen as
dynamic subjects having an evolution over time. Damping is certainly very important in
determining the characteristics of the sound, both for the single note and for the overall sound
timbre. It would be necessary to develop a model to understand which parameters (including
constructive ones) intervene in determining the damping: the 'losses' in the wood alone are not
enough to fully explain the phenomenon of the sound sustain.
The amplitude of resonances at the starting time is important but not decisive: a high peak results in
rapid absorption of energy and limited duration of the note.

In the sound spectrum, there are areas where many harmonics of different strings fall at the same
frequency. These bands are obviously most relevant for the balance of the instrument.
The harmonics of a string excite not only a resonance more or less close to their frequency, but the
entire frequency spectrum of the resonator, and particularly the low and medium resonances. This
has a major effect on the timbre.
2
The timbre of an instrument such as the guitar depends on the characteristics of the oscillators that
contribute to the production of the sound.
In the context of this study, by timbre I mean the character of the sound in all its distinctive aspects
such as amplitude and duration of the radiation, but also composition, coexistence, interference,
modulation of the single tones that globally contribute to determining these aspects; in the case of
the guitar, these tones are the fundamental and associated harmonics. Therefore the timbre is
determined by the harmonic content of the sound during its evolution over time.

Regardless of how the string is vibrated (a subject involving the playing technique), the timbre
depends on the resonator and, to a much lesser extent, on other vibrating objects (such as the sides).
However, the conclusion that I want to underline is that the timbre does not depend exclusively on
the vibration modes of the resonator evaluated 'statically' (for example with a shaker or with an
acoustic hammer) at the start time when it is set in vibration. The characteristics of the sound
depend on how the string, in its mechanical oscillation, dynamically interfaces with the resonator,
therefore with its modes of vibration. Remember that the oscillator is defined not only by mass,
stiffness, loss coefficient but also by the vibrating surface through which it interfaces with the
environment, generating an acoustic pressure.
The oscillation of the string generates a force at the bridge which is only partially used by the
resonator with partial absorption of the initial energy. The rest is reflected on the string and
becomes available again in the next cycle. So the string is not an ideal signal generator. It is not the
loudspeaker with which the table is sometimes energized, nor is it a low impedance sine wave
generator. Instead, the exchange of energy with the resonator makes it an oscillator coupled to
another, different, system of coupled oscillators having specific modes of vibration defined each by
mass, stiffness, loss, and surface. This is the very complex reality which we must confront:
confining ourselves - as often done in the literature - to examine the initial spectrum of the resonator
means drawing at least partial conclusions.

The study shows that due to the effect of the string-resonator coupling (where also the specific mass
of the string plays a role) the harmonics undergo a shift in frequency that makes them no longer in
exact relationship with the fundamental. The divergence of the harmonics can be calculated and the
results of the measurements are in line with the calculation; however in the guitar, unlike in the
piano, this effect is negligible and is 'compensated' when the instrument is tuned.

A somewhat unexpected phenomenon is related to the impulsive action of the string (fundamental
and harmonics) on the resonator, resulting in the excitation of the majority of the vibration modes,
not just those closest in frequency. The amplitude of these components, in particular at higher
frequencies, is reduced, but is still collected by the microphone and therefore by the ear; their
presence, amplitude, and duration (especially for the resonance of the air and for the basic
resonances) is a characterizing factor for the quality of the sound. By superimposing on the
response curve of the resonator the spectrum of a string emission, it is possible to see to what extent
the string (therefore the fundamental and the harmonics) excites the body resonances. Particularly
significant is the excitation of the air resonance (the tuning note), which in the three instruments is
different in amplitude and duration. This effect is due to the different table-to-air and bottom-to-air
coupling, in turn linked to the different coupling surfaces of the table and bottom with the air in the
body.

When a plucked string is released, the propagation wave reaches the bridge and excites one or more
vibration modes with a mechanism where the forcing harmonic puts into forced oscillation one (or
more) modes having, generally, a different frequency. The vibrating surface oscillation in the
excited mode is the result of a conflict between two different frequencies (forcing and forced) that
3
develops over the entire duration of the phenomenon, that is until the initial energy has been
completely converted in sound or dissipated. While, on the one hand, the external excitation system
tries to impose its own oscillation frequency, on the other hand the forced mode reacts by trying to
vibrate at its own natural frequency, which can be considered equal to the resonant frequency.
At least at the beginning in the sound spectrum, both the forcing frequency (the harmonic) and the
forced frequency (the excited mode both components can be observed. On the ground of the
frequency deviation due to the string-resonator coupling, also the frequency of the forced
component will be slightly different from the natural frequency of the mode.

As regards the attack and release transients, it must be noted that in the guitar, where the energy is
provided only at the start time, at no point does the oscillation remain in a steady-state (unlike in the
violin or the winds): the release begins simultaneously with the attack and ultimately the whole
phenomenon develops in a continuous transient regime during which the amplitude of oscillation
(and the consequent sound) vary over time due to the exchange of energy between the systems
involved. And again in this exchange enters the string-to-resonator coupling coefficient.

The parameters that determine this coupling depend on the 'distance' between the harmonic
frequency and the resonance frequency, but also the ratio between the string mass and the modal
mass. A result of this analysis is that, in the guitar, this coupling should be not very strong. In other
words, the energy of the oscillation should stay for a long time restricted in the string to avoid a too
short sound duration or too big peaks in the spectrum. To ensure a weak coupling, the impedance of
the resonator at the forcing frequency must be high compared to the impedance of the string; for the
vibration modes excited at the string -body interface an increase of the mass in the area of the
bridge aids a week coupling.

In this study, I examined the most significant cases of how the radiation of each harmonic develops
over time in amplitude and duration.
The amplitude can reach its maximum value just at the starting time or can start from a lower value
reaching the maximum within a time interval between a few tens and several hundreds of
milliseconds. This initial elongation (or 'overshoot') occurs when the forcing frequency is very close
to the forced one and results from two trends, one decreasing that quickly fades away and the other
increasing and long-lasting that prevails in the end. The sound effect of the overshoot is a 'soft'
timbre that contrasts with the ‘percussive’ timbre produced by a sudden rise in amplitude. However,
a slow rise prevents the amplitudes to reach major levels, to confirm that a 'soft' instrument is
usually not very powerful.

During the release following the peak, it is noted that the amplitude is modulated almost
sinusoidally, indicating a beat between the forcing and forced frequencies. We have seen a
multiplicity of different cases in relation again to the degree of coupling between the two
frequencies: in some cases the amplitude, once the peak has been reached, falls almost to zero and
then rises and remains low for very long times (the modulation is slow); in other cases, the (fast)
modulation gradually fades over time while, on the whole, the amplitude fades with an almost
perfect exponential trend and long decay times. In any case, the amplitude decreases more rapidly at
the beginning, when the forced resonance rapidly absorbs energy from the string and tries to
'impose' its natural frequency on the combined string-resonator system. This phenomenon always
results in a non-constant decay of the amplitude. In particular, the logarithmic amplitude diagram
presents a double slope, associated with two different decay times. The double decay is normally
observed in the spectrum of harmonics: it occurs that at the beginning of the forced oscillation the
excited vibration mode rapidly absorbs energy with its damping rate (which is much greater than in
the string); only at the end of this phase does more gradual damping begin, essentially related to the
string oscillation dampening and to the energy release. The sound produced during the falloff
4
persists over time after the strong initial attenuation, with a more or less accentuated 'percussive'
effect which is a highly distinctive element for the sound quality of each instrument.

Generally, the amplitude follows more complex laws than the exponential one. Despite the
multiplicity of situations that can arise, it makes sense to speak of an 'average' decay time as a result
of a logarithmic interpolation. This parameter takes on an important meaning both for the resonator
itself and for the sound radiation of the harmonics: some resonances and certain modes of vibration
have a high amplitude but rapidly die away; on the contrary, some harmonics fall slowly but, even
with reduced amplitude, they can produce a prolonged and weak emission. A fast decay time is
always due to a very strong coupling between the harmonic and the excited resonance, a situation
generally to be avoided.

But the amplitude or the decay time alone is not enough to characterize the contribution of a
harmonic to the overall composition of the sound. The most characterizing parameter is probably
the energy transferred to the environment as sound radiation during a constant time interval; its
evaluation constitutes a valid alternative to conventional representations of sound composition.

Within its limits, the 'combined' diagram of the amplitudes and decay times is a kind of spectrogram
useful for characterizing the resonator of guitars at least by comparison between various
instruments: it allows to identify weak or predominant modes, looking to the areas where, possibly,
both the amplitudes and the times of the resonances are lacking, therefore the bands that will be
critical for the overall performance of an instrument.

The distribution of harmonics in a played string can be well visualized from the Waterfall
graph. Equally significant is the long-term spectrum, which photographs the spectral composition
after quite a long time since the start of the oscillation. The presence or absence of standing out
harmonics after, for example, two seconds is linked to the tonal richness, therefore probably to the
projection of the sound, while the sustain is mainly linked to the persistence of even only the
fundamental tone with a few harmonics.

By analyzing the spectrum of an open string we can observe that some critical situations can
occur. For example, in an instrument we noticed that, in the long term, the second harmonic of the
low E tends to dominate the fundamental; in a musical context it can be unpleasant that an E at 82.4
Hz switches to an E at 164.8 Hz. And again, the prevalence of the fifth harmonic of the low E
(coincidental with a G #) can somewhat 'blur' the basic pitch in a score in E minor.

There are many differences between the three instruments. Some of them can be attributed to
differently tuned backs: the differences in the back natural frequencies are reflected in a different
distribution of the body resonances, while the different shapes of the vibrating areas influence the
back-air coupling and therefore the body amplitudes and decay times. Obviously, the sound
responses of the harmonics are affected. Other differences in the performance of the instruments are
currently not explainable based on the available data.

More than from the radiation produced by a single harmonic, the characteristics of an instrument
and any criticalities should be deduced from the harmonics spectra as a whole, from the long-term
spectra, from the decay time graphs superimposed on oscillation amplitudes. These data integrate
and complete the information achieved by examining the pure resonator, and can form the basis for
an objective global evaluation of an instrument.

Unfortunately, there is still a long way before finding out what to do or not to do to optimize the
design of a guitar. But I think it is important, even for an instrument maker, to better understand the
5
reasons on which the guitar sound depends, what to look more carefully in the measurement data,
how to interpret both the results of the measurements and the auditory impressions, trying to go
deeper into the causes that originated them.