Department of Mechanical Engineering

MEC304 – Materials and Metallurgy

Module 1: Introduction

Course Incharge:
Mohsin Dalvi
Assistant Professor
 Recommended books
1. Kodgire & Kodgire: Materials Science and Metallurgy for Engineers
2. U. C. Jindal:
3. Callister & Rethwisch: Materials Science and Engineering - An
Introduction
4. Singh, Chander & Prasad: Materials Science and Engineering
5. S. B. Barve: Materials Science and Engineering

Prof. Mohsin Dalvi MEC304 Materials and Metallurgy 2

Laying the Groundwork
• Definitions: matter, material
• Stone age, Bronze age, Iron age
• Possible to deliberately alter material properties
• Mat’ls structure & properties are related (< 100 years ago)
• Mat’ls Sci.: Investigate structure-property correlations; develop new mat’ls
• Mat’ls Engg.: Design structure for properties; decide processing techniques
• Metallurgy: Study behaviour & extraction of metals, alloys
• Interdisciplinary: chemistry + physics + engineering
Prof. Mohsin Dalvi MEC304 Materials and Metallurgy 3
Why study Mat’ls and Metallurgy?
• Trends: Composites, Nanomat’ls, • Understand mat’l composition &
Smart mat’ls, 4D mat’ls, Biomat’ls structure to improve properties
Composition = chemical makeup
• Engg. decisions reqd:
Structure = arrangement of atoms
• Strength, toughness
Property = response to stimulus
• Suitability for application
• Occurrence • Knowledge of properties for better
• Cost synthesis & processing
• Manufacturability Synthesis = preparing new mat’l
• Degradation Processing = shaping mat’l for use
• Sustainability

Prof. Mohsin Dalvi MEC304 Materials and Metallurgy 4

Structure-Property Relationship
• A material’s performance is a function of its properties
• Material properties are influenced by its structure
• Material structure depends on the processing method used

Processing Structure Properties Performance

Temperature Electronic Mechanical Strength
Pressure Atomic Thermal Fatigue
Duration Microscopic Electrical Conductivity
Macroscopic Optical Corrosion
Magnetic

Prof. Mohsin Dalvi MEC304 Materials and Metallurgy 5

Material Structure
Structure Description Visualizing Method
Nuclear No. of protons & neutrons Nuclear magnetic resonance
Electronic Electrons arrangement Spectroscopy
Crystal 3D arrangement of atoms X-ray diffraction
Sub-structure Crystal defects & Field ion microscope
dislocations
Nanostructure Electron microscope
Microstructure Porosity, micro-cracks Optical microscope
Macrostructure Cracks, segregations Magnifying glass
Prof. Mohsin Dalvi MEC304 Materials and Metallurgy 6
Material Properties
Property Stimulus Response (Qualitative/Quantitative)
Mechanical Applied force Stiffness, Toughness, Hardness
Electrical Electric field Conductivity, Permittivity
Thermal Temperature gradient Expansion, Heat capacity
Magnetic Magnetic field Susceptibility, Permeability
Optical Light (visible, UV, IR) Reflectivity, Refractivity, Opacity
Acoustic Sound waves Transmissivity, Reflectivity
Deteriorative Chemical exposure Corrosion resistance, alkalinity
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 Selection of Materials
• Properties: mechanical, chemical, dimensional
• Availability: on hand, minimum order quantity, suppliers
• Economics: procurement, processing, service life, quantity
• Sustainability: recyclability, hazards, emissions, disposal

Prof. Mohsin Dalvi MEC304 Materials and Metallurgy 8

Structure-Property Relationship Example
• Material polyester gives different products yarn and sponge
• Material Al2O3 gives different types of optical properties:

Transparency: Opacity:
Single crystal Numerous grain
allows complete boundaries &
transmission of pores scatter light
light completely
Translucency: Grain boundaries due
to multiple crystals scatter light

• Processing method affects grain size; grain size influences opacity

Prof. Mohsin Dalvi MEC304 Materials and Metallurgy 9
 Classifying Materials
Atomic structure State Macrostructure
Metals Solid Metals & alloys
Nonmetals Liquid Ceramics & glasses
Metalloids Gas Polymers
Composites
Atomic bonding Molecular diversity
Ionic Elements Function
Covalent Compounds Structural
Coordinate Mixtures Electrical
• Homogeneous Magnetic
Atomic arrangement ⁻ Solutions Optical
Crystalline • Heterogeneous Aerospace
Amorphous ⁻ Suspensions Biomedical
Polycrystalline ⁻ Colloids 10
Classification of Materials by Nature of
Atoms or Molecules

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 Metals
• Composed of metallic elements
• e.g. Fe, Al, Ti, Sn
• Atoms arranged densely and in orderly manner
• Structurally stiff, yet ductile (greatly deforms and resists fracture)
• Structural applications
• Good conductors of heat and electricity
• Not chemically inert – susceptible to corrosion
• Alloys have improved properties compared to base metals

Prof. Mohsin Dalvi MEC304 Materials and Metallurgy 12

 Ceramics
• Composed of compounds between metallic and non-metallic elements
• e.g. rocks, sand (SiO2) computer chips, glass, Al2O3, WC, Si3N4
• Glass: formed by cooling fused mat’l to rigid condition without crystallizing
• Very strong, but brittle (catastrophic failure without warning)
• Very limited electrical and heat conductivity
• High melting point
• Refractory applications
• Highly corrosion resistant
• Glassware, crockery, roof tiles
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 Polymers
• Prepared by chemical combination of monomers (small organic molecules)
to form long-chain molecules or 3D structures with carbon backbone
• Natural polymers: wood, silk, cotton, latex, shellac, amber
• Synthetic polymers: polyethylene, polycarbonate, PVC, polystyrene, nylon,
bakelite, neoprene, silicone
• Thermoplastic: can be reshaped repeatedly by heating
• Thermoset: can be reshaped only once, due to polymer chain cross-links
• Low specific gravity and melting points, but good strength
• Poor conductors of heat and electricity

Prof. Mohsin Dalvi MEC304 Materials and Metallurgy 14

 Composites
• Combination of two or more materials where each material provides its
original performance characteristics, and remains separate & distinct within
the finished structure
• Combined properties include increased strength, reduced weight
• e.g., concrete, carbon fibre, plywood
• Two components:
• Matrix: Binding phase; forms base material or major constituent
• Reinforcement: strengthening phase, has powder or fibrous form
• Solid mechanics calculations are quite involved.

Prof. Mohsin Dalvi MEC304 Materials and Metallurgy 15

 Advanced Materials
• Used in high-technology applications
• High-tech = device that operates using intricate, sophisticated principles
• Usually traditional materials with enhanced properties
• Semiconductors have intermediate electrical conductivity
• Use: diodes, transistors, Integrated circuits
• Biomaterials resist biological reactions and toxic substance production
• Use: implants for replacing damaged parts in human body
• Nanomaterials: distinguished on the basis of size, not chemistry; dimensions
in order of 10-9 m (< 100 nm or 0.1 μm)
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 Smart Materials
• Smart= ability to sense changes in environment and respond in
predetermined manner.
• Components:
• Sensor: detects an input signal like heat, electrical field or magnetic field
• Actuator: responds by changing shape, position or mechanical properties
• e.g. shape memory alloy (deformed object returns to original shape on
heating), electrorheological fluids (viscosity changes on applying electric
field), magnetostrictive materials (expand or contract in response to a
magnetic field)

Prof. Mohsin Dalvi MEC304 Materials and Metallurgy 17

Classification of Materials by Arrangement of
Atoms or Molecules

Prof. Mohsin Dalvi MEC304 Materials and Metallurgy 18

 Crystalline Materials
• Atoms are arranged in periodically repeating pattern over large distances.
• Unit cell: Smallest polyhedron structure that exhibits properties of crystal
• Lattice: 3D array of points representing particles of unit cell
• Basis or motif: Atom or molecule located at a lattice point

Unit cell Unit cell

Aggregate cell model (hard sphere model) (reduced sphere model)
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 Crystallization Process
• Crystallization occurs during cooling from liquid to solid state.
• To promote sufficient release of latent heat of fusion during solidification,
some undercooling is done.
• Some atoms lose latent heat of fusion and form small stable nuclei or grains
of orderly patterns at various positions with random orientations.
• Subsequent cooling and ordered layering of atoms around the nuclei results
in grain growth in 3 dimensions.
• Grain growth stops when extremities impinge on neighboring grains.

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Crystallization Process

Nucleation Grain growth Polycrystals Grain boundary

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 Single crystal
• Periodic and repeated arrangement of atoms extends throughout the entirety
of the specimen without interruption.
• All unit cells interlock in the same way and have same orientation.
• To grow a single crystal, environment must be carefully controlled (no
undercooling).
• When extremities are allowed to grow without any external constraint, the
crystal assumes a regular geometric shape with flat surfaces.
• e.g. gemstones, silicon wafer

Prof. Mohsin Dalvi MEC304 Materials and Metallurgy 22

 Polycrystal
• Vast majority of crystalline solids are composed of a collection of many
small crystals or grains.
• The orientation of atoms in a grain differs from those in adjacent grains.
• During solidification, small crystal nuclei randomly form and grow with
irregular shape and size until their extremities impinge on each other.
• The grain boundary is the region where two grains meet and display atomic
mismatch.
• e.g.: almost all metals, most ceramics

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 Non-crystalline material
• No systematic and regular arrangement of atoms over long range
• No sharp melting point, since all bonds are not of same strength
• Other names:
• Amorphous - means “without form”
• Supercooled liquid - atomic structure resembles that of a liquid
• Atomic structures are complex and become ordered with difficulty. Rapid
freezing temperature gives less time for orderly arrangement of atoms.
• e.g.: some ceramics like glass, most polymers.

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 Face Centered Cubic (FCC) Unit Cell
• Also called Cubic Close Packed (CCP)
• 1 atom on each face of unit cell = 6 face atoms
• 1 atom at each corner = 8 corner atoms
• e.g. Al, Cu, Au, Pb, Ni, Pt, Ag

Atom Proportion of No. of

Location atom in unit cell atoms • No. of atoms per unit cell:
Corner 1/8 8
Face 1/2 6
Body 1 0
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 Atomic Packing Factor (APF)
• Proportion of unit cell volume occupied by
constituent atoms

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 Body Centered Cubic (BCC) Unit Cell
• 1 atom located at the centre of the cubical unit cell.
• 1 atom at each corner = 8 corner atoms
• E.g.: Cr, W, Mo, α-Fe, Ta, Va

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 Hexagonal Close Packed (HCP) Unit Cell
• 3 interior, 2 face, 12 corner atoms
• e.g.: Zn, Cd, Co, Mg, α-Ti

I
K
L
M
Prof. Mohsin Dalvi MEC304 Materials and Metallurgy
J 28
 Close Packing in Crystalline Solids
• In 2D: Row of spheres, representing line of atoms, can be placed with:
• Square packing: rows have horizontal & vertical alignments.
• Hexagonal packing: Successor row sits in depression of previous row.

• In 3D, 3 hexagonal packed layers are stacked, with layer-1 at bottom. Layer-
2 spheres interlock over layer-1 upper Δar voids. This interlocks layer-1
spheres under layer-2 lower Δar voids, & layer-1 lower Δar voids match over
layer-2 upper Δar voids.
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 Close Packing in Crystalline Solids
• 3rd layer stacking occurs in 2 ways:
• Layer-3 spheres interlock over layer-2 lower Δar voids, so that layer-3 is
identical to layer-1 and gives layer pattern ABABAB. This gives HCP
structure.
• Layer-3 spheres interlock with layer-2 upper Δar voids, so as to create layer
pattern ABCABC. This gives FCC structure.

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Close Packing in Crystalline Solids

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 Crystal Systems
• As many crystal systems are possible, they are
classified according to some scheme, e.g. unit cell
geometry (shape of unit cell parallelepiped without
considering atomic positions)
• A right-handed coordinate system origin is defined at a
unit cell corner; and x, y, z axes are coincided with the
parallelepiped edges extending from this corner.
• The unit cell geometry is completely defined in terms of 6 lattice
parameters: 3 three edge lengths a, b, c, and 3 interaxial angles , , .
• According to symmetry in unit cell geometry, seven distinct crystal systems
are possible.
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Crystal Systems
Cubic Tetragonal Orthorhombic Hexagonal

Monoclinic Triclinic
Rhombohedral
(Trigonal)

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 Bravais’ Lattices
• 14 types of lattices derived from the 7 crystal systems:

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 Crystallographic planes
• English crystallographer Miller gave the method of symbolically marking
planes in a lattice to indicate plane orientations
• Miller indices are reciprocals of fractional intercepts made by the plane with
the crystallographic axes. If the plane passes through axes origin, then origin
is shifted for obtaining the intercepts.
• The reciprocals are converted to whole nos. by multiplying with least
common multiple. Scaling the indices doesn't change the plane's orientation.
• Planes parallel to each other are equivalent & have identical indices.
• The indices are not separated by commas, and negative values are written
with a bar overhead.
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 Crystallographic planes
• In cubic cells, hkl are indices corresponding to the axes x, y, z. In hexagonal
system, indices hkil correspond to the axes a1, a2, a3, c.
• Miller indices (100), (010), (001), ( 00), ( 0), (00 ) represent a family of
planes of the form .

The origin is shifted to the blue point.

Intercepts:
Reciprocal: 0, -1, 2
Miller indices: (0 2)

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 Crystallographic directions
• Unlike planes, the direction of a line in a lattice is described by translating it
to the origin, obtaining coordinates of some point on the line, and scaling the
coordinates to get integer valued indices [uvw].

For line OM, coordinates are (a/2, -b, 0).

After dividing by a, b, c and multiplying
throughout by 2, the coordinates become
integer-valued. The crystallographic
direction thus obtained is [1 0].

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 Crystal Defects

Prof. Mohsin Dalvi MEC304 Materials and Metallurgy 38

 Defects in solids
• Defect: deviation or irregularity in the crystal structure
• Defects in crystal structure or 100% material purity during solidification are
unavoidable
• Defects or imperfections affect structure-sensitive properties e.g. mechanical
strength, ductility, crystal growth.
• Point defects: 0-dimensional imperfections
• Line defects or dislocations: 1-dimensional imperfections
• Surface defects: 2-dimensional imperfections
• Volume defects: 3-dimensional imperfections

Prof. Mohsin Dalvi MEC304 Materials and Metallurgy 39

 Point defects
• Highly localized disruptions in lattice involving 1 or few atoms
• Causes: 1. High-energy atom breaks loose from lattice site. 2. Presence of
impurity atoms during solidification
• Point defects are sources of distortion & cause residual strains in the lattice.
• Adding impurities enhances parent mat’l properties.
• Adding C, Mn, Cr to Fe enhances steel strength, hardness.
• Sn atoms in Cu increases bearing property of Cu
• Adding Cu in Au increases its ductility
• Doping Si with trivalent & pentavalent atoms increases electrical conductivity

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 Point defects
• Vacancy: Atom is missing from normally occupied posn in lattice. No. of
vacancies increases with temperature & degree of plastic deformatn.
• Interstitial: Extra atom is present in normally unoccupied posn. No. of
interstitial sites reduces with increased temperature.
• Self-interstitial: An atom is displaced from normal posn to interstitial posn
• Substitutional: Foreign atom occupies lattice posn meant for parent atom
• Frenkel Defect: A pair of positive & negative ions missing
• Schottky Defect: An ion moves from normal posn to interstitial posn

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Point defects

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 Line defects or Dislocations
• Line defects arise out of distortion of a row of atoms from its designated
ordered arrangement as a result of mechanical deformation.
• Slip: Process by which dislocation moves and causes plastic deformation
• Slip plane: Plane betn two planes of atoms on which slip occurs
• Slip direction: Direction in which slip occurs on the slip plane
• Dislocation is the region of localized disturbances separating the slipped and
unslipped regions of a crystal.
• Dislocations occur during plastic deformation because of large movement of
atoms due to applied force.

Prof. Mohsin Dalvi MEC304 Materials and Metallurgy 43

 Line defects or Dislocations
• Types of line defects
• Edge Dislocation
• Screw Dislocation
• Effect of Line Defects:
• Increase in hardness and tensile strength
• Adding atoms in the structure increases recrystallization temperature & other
phase transformation characteristics.
• Electrical resistance increases with mat’l distortion
• Corrosion resistance decreases with distortion in lattice structure

Prof. Mohsin Dalvi MEC304 Materials and Metallurgy 44

Edge Dislocation
Half plane Dislocation line
• Occurs due to the introduction of an
extra half-plane of atoms.
• Types: positive (extra half-plane
above slip plane) and negative (extra
half-plane below slip plane).
• Lattice above and below slip plane
is distorted.
• Dislocation line: line at the end of half-plane
• In +ve dislocation: lattice below slip plane is in tension & favors interstitial
defects.
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 Edge Dislocation and Burger’s Vector
• Dislocation occurs due to climb and glide
motion.
• In imperfect lattice, a loop formed by taking
equal lattice translations on each pair of ‖el
sides will not be closed. Burger’s vector
• Burger’s vector indicates magnitude and
direction of lattice shift on the slip plane (i.e.
distance reqd. to close the circuit).
• Burger’s vector is normal to dislocation line.
Burger’s vector Burger’s circuit

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 Screw Dislocation
• Crystal portion shears along the slip plane
• Distortion is along dislocation line Dislocation line

• Burger’s vector is parallel to dislocation

line

Prof. Mohsin Dalvi MEC304 Materials and Metallurgy 47

Edge vs Screw Dislocation
Edge Dislocation Screw Dislocation
1 Plane of atoms ends part-way within the Plane of atoms follows dislocation in a
crystal helical path
2 Types: positive ), negative ( ) Types: clockwise ( ), anticlockwise ( )
3 Dislocation line is perpendicular to Dislocation line is parallel to Burger’s
Burger’s vector vector
4 Movement of dislocation line occurs Movement of dislocation line occurs
parallel to Burger’s vector perpendicular to Burger’s vector
5 Dislocation occurs due to glide & climb. Dislocation occurs due to glide.
6 Removed from slip plane by climb Removed from slip plane by cross-slip
mechanism mechanism
7 <Diagram> <Diagram>
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 Surface defects
• Surface defects are associated with change in the stacking of the atomic
planes across the crystal structure.
• This defect may be caused during solidification or mechanical or thermal
treatment on the material.
• Grain boundaries: Region of transition at the separation of grains.
• Twin boundaries: Boundaries in grains at which atomic arrangement on e
side is mirror image of atoms on other side.

Prof. Mohsin Dalvi MEC304 Materials and Metallurgy 49

Surface defects

Labelled atoms on either side of twin

plane boundary are mirror images of
each other

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 Grain Boundary
• Based on magnitude of rotation angle, Grain
boundary can be classified as:
• Small Angle Boundary: angle of rotation <5°
• Large Angle Boundary: angle of rotation >5°
• Based on the relation of rotation axis with
respect to boundary plane, small angle grain
boundary can be classified as:
• Tilt Boundary: Rotation axis parallel to
boundary plane
• Twist Boundary: Rotation axis perpendicular to
boundary plane
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 Volume defects
• Other defects exist in all solid materials that are much larger than those
heretofore discussed.
• These include pores, cracks, foreign inclusions, and other phases.
• They are normally introduced during processing and fabrication steps.
• Three-dimensional macroscopic or bulk defects, such as pores, cracks, or
inclusions.
• Voids — small regions where there are no atoms, and which can be
thought of as clusters of vacancies.
• Impurities can cluster together to form small regions of a different phase.
These are often called precipitates.
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Volume defects
Local HCP structure
CBCB

• Stacking faults: Out-of-sequence stacking of

a 2D lattice over another. Missing of layer
in FCC lattice imparts a local HCP lattice
over small region. Misalignment of a layer
by half an atom in HCP lattice imparts local
FCC lattice over a small region

Local FCC structure

ACBA

Prof. Mohsin Dalvi MEC304 Materials and Metallurgy 53

 Deformation
• Elastic deformation: temporary change in matl shape on application of
mechanical load, such that original shape is regained on removal of load.
• Elastic deformation can be linear or non-linear.
• Plastic deformation: permanent change in matl shape on application of
mechanical load, such that original shape is not completely regained on
removal of load.
• Change in shape occurs because the load breaks the bonds between atoms in
the lattice.
• In metals, plastic deformation occurs due to slip, i.e. sliding of edge
dislocation (extra half-plane of atoms) over adjacent plane of atoms.
Prof. Mohsin Dalvi MEC304 Materials and Metallurgy 54
Deformation

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 Dislocation and slip
• Caterpillar-motion and carpet-wave analogies are used to explain movement
of extra half-plane through the crystal.

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 Dislocation and slip
• The dislocation movement occurs
along the slip plane in the slip
direction. Slip direction is same as
Burger's vector direction.
• In edge dislocation, the dislocation
line moves parallel to shear load &
screw dislocation moves
perpendicular to shear load. But at
the end, both produce same plastic
deformation in the form of a step.

Prof. Mohsin Dalvi MEC304 Materials and Metallurgy 57

Gliding Motion

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Climb Motion

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 Slip phenomenon in crystals
• Slip plane: plane on which easiest slip occurs (highest atomic planar
density)
• Slip direction: direction of movement within the slip plane (highest atomic
density)
• Due to atomic arrangement, there are favourably oriented planes and
directions where slip occurs easily with lesser applied loads.
• e.g. hexagonal and cubic planar closed packing
• Necking is seen during plastic deformation in FCC and BCC metals. This is
a slip that occurs along the 2nd most favourable slip system.

Prof. Mohsin Dalvi MEC304 Materials and Metallurgy 60

 Slip systems
• Slip system: Combination of slip plane and slip direction
• In BCC, slip occurs in 6 (110) planes, with each plane
having <111> directions, which gives 12 slip systems.
• In FCC, slip occurs in 4 (111) planes, each having 3
<110> directions, thereby giving 12 slip systems.
• In HCP, there is 1 slip plane (0001) with 3 slip directions
<11 0>, giving 3 slip systems.
• FCC has more ductility than BCC and HCP because:
• It has 12 slip systems like BCC
• It has high linear density in slip directions like HCP.
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 Slip phenomenon in single crystals

• In a single crystal stressed in tension, slip deformation

presents as parallel steps on the crystal surface that
loop around the circumference.
• The steps appear as lines along the specimen length,
and each step is due to large no. of dislocations along
the same slip plane.

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 Slip phenomenon in polycrystals
• In polycrystals, slip planes and directions change with grain orientation.
• Dislocation occurs along the slip system with highest shear stress.
• The slip lines are microscopic ledges that have exited the grains.

Surface before Surface after Ridges produce

straining straining shadows
Prof. Mohsin Dalvi MEC304 Materials and Metallurgy 63
 Slip phenomenon in polycrystals
• Polycrystals are stronger than
single crystals because:
• Grain boundaries act as hindrance
to movement of dislocations.
• Even though a grain may be
favourably oriented with the load
for slip, it cannot deform until
adjacent less favourably oriented Dislocation pile up
grains are capable of slip.

Prof. Mohsin Dalvi MEC304 Materials and Metallurgy 64

 Working with materials
• Work hardening: phenomenon by which a ductile metal becomes harder and
stronger as it is plastically deformed.
• Cold Working: plastic deformation that is usually carried out below
recrystallization temperature.
• Recrystallization: formation of a new set of strain-free and almost equally-
sized grains that have low dislocation densities and are characteristic of the
precold-worked condition.
• Recrystallization temperature: temperature at which recrystallization just
reaches completion in 1 hour.

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 Mechanism of Cold Working
• Types of Cold Working Processes:
• Cold Rolling
• Cold Forging
• Cold Extrusion
• Sheet metal forming processes

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 Effect of Cold Working
• During cold-working, number of dislocations
increases.
• Increase in the number of dislocations causes a
metal’s yield and tensile strength to increase and
its ductility to decrease.
• After a certain amount of cold work, a metal
cannot be cold worked further without cracking.
• The amount of cold working that a particular
metal can withstand before cracking depends on
its composition and microstructure.
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 Recrystallization annealing
• Heat treatment designed to eliminate effects of cold working.
• The properties of metal revert back to the pre-cold-worked states through
following three processes.
1. Recovery: Relieving of some internal strain energy of a previously cold
worked material.
2. Recrystallization: The formation of new set of strain free grains within a
previously cold worked material.
3. Grain Growth: The increase in average grain size of a polycrystalline material

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 Recovery
• Some of the stored internal strain energy is relieved by virtue of dislocation
motion (in the absence of an externally applied stress), as a result of
enhanced atomic diffusion at the elevated temperature.
• There is some reduction in the number of dislocations, and dislocation
configurations are produced having low strain energies.
• In addition, physical properties such as electrical and thermal conductivities
and the like are recovered to their pre-coldworked states.
• Even after recovery is complete, the grains are still in a relatively high strain
energy state.

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 Recrystallization and Grain growth
• Recrystallization is the formation of a new set of strain-free and equiaxed
grains (i.e., having approximately equal dimensions in all directions) that
have low dislocation densities and are characteristic of the precold-worked
condition.
• The driving force to produce this new grain structure is the difference in
internal energy between the strained and unstrained material.
• The new grains form as very small nuclei and grow until they completely
replace the parent material
• Recrystallization of cold-worked metals are used to refine grain structure.

Prof. Mohsin Dalvi MEC304 Materials and Metallurgy 70

Recrystallization annealing

Figure: The effect of annealing temperature on the microstructure of cold worked metals
a) Cold Worked, b) After Recovery, c) After Recrystallization, d) After grain growth

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 Effect of Recrystallization annealing
• New grains are formed and these have greatly reduced number of
dislocations compared to the cold-worked metal.
• This change returns the metal to its pre-cold-worked state, i.e. lower
strength and increased ductility.
• With continued time at the annealing temperature, some of the newly
formed grains grow at the expense of neighboring grains.
• There is some decrease in strength and increase in ductility as the average
grain size increases during grain growth phase of annealing.

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Property and structural changes

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 Temperature and time
• The higher is the temperature, the shorter it takes to recrystallize the cold
worked material.
• Furthermore, the material can be recrystallize at any temperature provided
enough time is allowed for the process to occur.
• In practice, most metals the recrystallization times are prohibitively long for
any meaningful recrystallization to occur at room temperature.
• The exceptions are lead, tin and indium which recrystallize at room
temperature.

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 Cold Work
• The prior cold work is essential for recrystallization because an annealed
material does not recrystallize even when heated close to its melting point.
• It is so because the driving force for recrystallization is the strain energy
from cold work, a part of which was recovered during the recovery stage.
• It is also found that a certain minimum cold work, called critical cold work,
is needed for the recrystallization to occur.

Prof. Mohsin Dalvi MEC304 Materials and Metallurgy 75

 Initial grain size & Material Purity
• Smaller the grain size of matl before cold working, larger will be both grain
boundary surface area after cold working & lattice strain from cold work.
• no. of nuclei formed in recrystallizn  grain boundary surface area and
strain intensity. matl with finer initial grain size will give finer grain size
after recrystallizn .
• In material purity with its presence in the missing plane of atoms in a
dislocation, an impurity atom lowers strain energy in dislocn region.
• This reduces strain energy, which requires higher temperature for
recrystallizn.

Prof. Mohsin Dalvi MEC304 Materials and Metallurgy 76

 Thank you for your attention

Prof. Mohsin Dalvi MEC304 Materials and Metallurgy 77