ABBREVIATED CONTENTS 1. Structure of Materials... 2. Plastic Deformation .... 3. Mechanical Testing and Evaluation of Properties... 4. Non-Destructive Testing ... 5. Equilibrium Diagrams... 6. Corrosion and Prevention ..... 7. Temperature Measurement (Pyrometty) . 8. Metallography (Optical and Electron). 9. Steels and Heat Treatments... 10. Engineering Alloy Steels... 11. Cast Iron: 12. Engineering Non-ferrous Alloys ... DS 13, Strengthening Mechanisms. P 14. Powder Metallurgy 15. Polymers. 16. Joining Processes... 17. Methods of Surface Improvement ... Appendices... References... Index. Everest Engineering Books Lis 1 42-6) 63-152 + 153-166CONTENTS t 1-41 1. Structure of Materials 1.1. Crystal structures... 1.2. Indexing of lattice planes 1,3. Indexing of lattice directions .... 14. Average number of atoms per unit cell... 15. Co-ordination number (Ligancy). 1.6. Atomic packing factor... 1.7. Density calculations... 1.8. Imperfections in crystals (or lattices) 2. Plastic Deformation 2.1 Mechanisms of plastic deformation 2.2 Deformation of single crystals by slip.. 2.3 Work hardening or Strain hardening .. 2.4 Plastic deformation of polycrystalline materials... 25 Eflect of cold working and annealing... 2.6 Hot working. 2.7 Preferred orientation... 2.8 Annealing textures... 3. Mechanical Testing and Evaluation Of Properties 63-152 3.1 Tensile test 3.2 3.3 3.4 35 3.6 37 Condition for necking... Evaluation of properties.... Types of engineering stress-. Strain curves,3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12. 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.20 3.21 3.22 3.23 3.24 hy 3.25 3.26 3.27 3.28 3.29 3.30 3.31 3.32 3.33 3.34 3.35 3.36 3.37 Paes of increasing carbon on engineering stress-strain curves of steels... Compression test... Effect of size and shape of specimens on the compressive strength......, Bend test... Torsion test... Formability. Hardness testing... Brinell hardness test.. Poldi hardness test... Meyer hardness test... Vickers hardness test... Rockwell hardness test... Rockwell superficial hardness test . Microhardness testers.. Shore scleroscope hardness test. Sonodur hardness test. Durometers Standardization of hardness testing machines. Moh’s hardness test... Hardness conversions... Impact tests... Fracture mechanics and fracture toughness. Fatigue test... Fatigue testing... Bauschinger effect. Woods concept of fatigue... Fracture appearance... Protection methods.. Factors affecting fatigue life Creep test.3.38 Testing method.. 3.39 Creep fracture... 3.40 Requirements for creep resistant materials.. 4. Non-Destructive Testing 4.1 Magnetic particle (Magnafluxjinspection ... 4.2. Dye penetrant inspection. 4.3 Sonic inspection 4.4 Ultrasonic inspection.. 4.5 Radiography... 4.6 Eddy current testing... 4.7 Visual inspection... 5. Equilibrium Diagrams 5.1 Definitions of terms.... 5.2 Hume-Rothery’s rules of solid solubility... 5.3 Gibb’s phase rule. 5.4 Polymorphism....... 5.5 Solidifcation of a pure metal ..... 5.6 Critical size of nucleus. 5.7 Shape of crystals 5.8 Dendritic growth... 5.9 Types of cooling curves... 5.10 Plotting of equilibrium diagrams... S.11 Lever rule. 5.12 Isomorphous systems. 5.13 Coring 5.14 Eutectic systems. 5.15 Partial Eutectic systems... 5.16 Uses of Eutectic alloys...5.17 5.18 5.19 Layer type systems .. Other transformations in alloy systems..... Non-equilibrium cooling... 6. Corrosion and Prevention 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 ) 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.16 6.17 6.18 6.19 6.20 6.21 6.22 6.23 6.24 6.25 oN Dry corrosion. Pilling and bedworth rule... Formation and growth of films... Growth laws... Effect of temperature... Action of hydrogen... Wet corrosion... Electro-chemical series of metals............. Galvanic series of metals... Galvanic corrosion. Polarization. Mechanisms of wet corrosion... Concentration cell corrosion. Passivity .. Stray-current corrosion Uniform corrosion... Pitting corrosion... Stress corrosion (or Stress corrosion cracking)... Season cracking... Caustic embrittlement... Corrosion fatigue Erosion-corrosion.... Cavitation corrosion... 248 Fretting corrosion... a Intergranular corrosion. 246.26 6.27 6.28 6.29 6.30 631 6.32 Selective corrosion... Proper selection of materials, and proper design and fabrication procedure... Modifcation of the corrosive environment .... Purifcation and alloying Cathodic protection... Application of protective coatings... Application of inhibitors. 7. Temperature Measurement (Pyrometry) 7.1 Introduction. 7.2. Thermoelectric pyrometer (Thermocouple)..... 7.3 Resistance pyrometer.........c.0.000 7.4 Disappearing filament optical pyrometer.... 75 Total radiation pyrometer.. 283 7.6 Photoelectric pyrometers... » 284 8. Metallography (Optical and Electron) 286-322 8.1 Introduction... +286 8.2 Microscopy .. ++-286 8.3 Specimen preparation........... -287 84 — Metallographic polishing abrasives... +289 8.5 Metallographic polishing cloths... .290 8.6 Mounting of specimens... -.290 8.7 Electrolytic polishing... 8.8 Etching. 8.9 Etching procedure. 8.10 Etching reagents. 8.11 Electrolytic etching.... 8.12 Alternative methods to etching... 8.13 Me Optical metallurgical microscope.......:.::sscsecee.8.14 8.15 8.16 8.17 8.18 8.19 8.20 8.21 8.22 8.23 8.24 8.25 '9, Steels and Heat Treatments 9,1: 9.2. 9.3. 9.4. 9.5. 9.6. 9.7. 9.8. 9.9. 9.10. 9.11. 9.12. 9.13. 9.14. 9.15. 9.16. \ Macroscopy.. Procedure for macro-etching, Methods of recording macro-structures..-- Sulphur printing... Phosphorus printing... Oxide printing... Flow lines observation. Other applications of macro-etching.... Examination of fractures. Spark test. Electron microscope... Methods of specimen preparation...... Introduction. Iron-Iron carbide equilibrium diagram... Critical temperatures... Allotropy, cooling curve and volume changes of pure iron. Solidifcation and microstructures of slowly cooled steels. Estimation of carbon from microstructures. Non-equilibrium cooling of steels. Widmanstatten structure: Property variation with microstructure. Classifcation and applications of steels... Specifcations of steels ... Transformation products of Austenite... Time temperature transformation (TT T) diagrams... Critical cooling rate..... Continuous cooling transformation (CCT) diagrams... Heat treatment of steels...9.17. 9.18. 9,19. 9.20. 9.21. 9.22. 9.23. 9.24. 9.25. 9.26. 9,27. 9.28. 9,29. 9.30. 9.31. 9.32. 9.33. 9.34. 9.35. 9.36. 9.37, 9.38, 9.39, 9.40, 9.41. 9.42. 9.43, 9.44, 9.45. 9.46, Cooling media. Austenitic and Ferritic grain size in steels. Grain size control............ Grain size measurement... Conventional annealing (Full annealing}... Bright annealing... Box annealing... Isothermal (Cycle) annealing... Spheroidise annealing... Subcritical annealing.. Normalising. Hardening. Retention of austenite... Effects of retained austenite Elimination of retained austenite... Tempering... Secondary hardening. Temper brittleness (Embrittlement)....-:..00000++ Quench cracks... Other heat treatments... Hardenability... Carburizing... Selective carburizing... Heat treatment after carburizing... Nitriding Tufftride and sursulf processes Carbonitriding Flame hardening Induction hardening. Inclusions and their effects...es - 10. Engineering Alloy Steels 436-474 10.1. — Introduction 4365, 10.2. Effect of alloying elements.... 10.3. Classifcation of alloying elements... 2439 10.4. Properties and uses of alloying elements 10.5. Typical examples of alloy steels 10.6. Stainless steels. 10.7. Tool steels... 10.8. Other cutting tool materials..... 10.9. Property visualization from the chemical composition. 11, Cast Irons 475-502 11.1. Introduction .475 11.2. Classifcation of cast irons .... A476 11.3. Factors influencing microstructure..... 11.4. White cast irons... 11.5. Malleable cast irons... 11.6. Gray cast irons... 11.7. Nodular cast irons 11.8, Mottled cast irons... 11.9. Chilled cast irons... 11.10. Alloy cast irons... 11.11. Heat treatment of cast irons. 12. Engineering Non-ferrous Alloys 503-530 12.1. Copper and copper alloys. 12.2. Brasses..... 12.3, Equivalent zinc in brasses. 508 12.4. _ Season cracking of brasses.... 1-50412.5. 12.6. 12,7. 12.8. 12.9. 12.10. 12.11. 12,12. 12,13. 12.14. Aluminium bronzes ... Tin bronzes... Beryllium bronzes... Silicon bronzes .. Copper-nickel alloys.. Aluminium and aluminium alloys........... Nickel and nickel alloys... Lead and lead alloys. Tin and tin alloys... Bearing materials (Sliding bearings} 13. Strengthening Mechanisms 13.1. Refinement of grain size... .531 13.2. Cold working (Strain hardenin; 533 13.3. Solid solution strengthening or hardening. 34 13.4. Dispersion strengthening or hardening... 13.5. Age (precipitation) hardening. 13.6. Martensitic transformation. 13.7. Composite materials... 14. Powder Metallurgy 14.1, Introduction... 14.2, Production of sintered structural components... 553 14.3. Advantages of powder metallurgy... 14.4. Limitations of powder metallurgy... 14.5. Characterization and testing of metal powders. 14,6. Powder manufacture... 14.7. Powder conditioning..... 14.8. Oil impregnated porous bearings (Self lubricating bearings). 73 14.9. Cemented carbides... 575h 14.10. 14.11. 14.12. 14.13. 14.14. 14.15. Cermets... Cemented carbide tipped tools (Sintered carbide cutting tools}... Diamond impregnated tools.........- Production of refractory metals..... Electrical contact materials... Sintered metal friction materials... 15. Polymers 15.1. 15.2. 15.3. 15.4. Polymerization mechanisms... 15.5. 15.6. Isomerism... 15.7. | Stereoisomerism..... 15.8. 15,9. 15.10, Vulcanization of rubber... Introductiot Formation of polymers. Classifcation of polymers .. Degree of polymerization (D.P.).. Crystallization of polymers... Cross-linking... 15.11. Deformation of polymers. 15,12. Stress relaxation, 15.13. Factors affecting the properties of a polyme 16. Joining Processes 16.1. Solid state welding... 16.2. Liquid state welding, 16.3. Solid / Liquid state joining... 16.4. "Different welding processes... 16.4.1. Solid state techniques..... 16.4.2. Liquid state techniques... 6 16.5. Welding defects...... y16.6. 16.7. 16.8. 16.9. 16.10. 16.11. Testing of welds... Heat treatments after welding... Weldabilits A taeeeen. ~ Metallurgical factors affecting welding... Soldering and brazing Adhesive bonding 17. Methods of Surface Improvement 17.1. Cleaning and preparation of metal surfaces. 17.2. Protective coatings... 17.3. | Methods of application and examples of coatings.. 17.4. Metallic coatings... 17.5. Non-metallic coatings.. 17.6. Chemical conversion coatings... 17.7. . Vapour deposition...... 17.8. Physical vapour deposition (PVD). 17.9. Chemical vapour deposition (CVD)... 17.10. Advantages of PVD processes over CVD processes. 17.11. Ion implantation..... Appendices 678-742 Appendix 1 Table showing Brinell hardness numbers (BHN) with diameter of indentation (10 mm diameter ball for 500 kg and 3000 kg loads.)... Appendix 2 Table showing Vickers pyramid numbers (VPN) with diagonal of indentation for 10 kg load.. Appendix 3 Table showing Knoop hardness numbers (KHN) with length of indentation for 1 kg load... Appendix 4 Table showing conversions of VPN into other hardness numbers... Appendix 5 Table showing conversions of BHN into other hardness numbers.Appendix 6 Appendix 7 Appendix 8 Appendix 9 Appendix 10 Appendix 11 Appendix 12 Appendix 13 Appendix 14 Appendix 15 ti Appendix 16 References .. Index ..... Everest Engineering Books List OY Table showing conversions of Rockwell C scale hardness into other hardness numbers... 699 Chart for conversion of hardness numbers... Table for conversion of milli-volts to temperature in degrees centigrade for Chromel-Alumel thermocouple. Table for conversion of milli-volts to temperature in degrees centigrade for Iron-Constantan thermocouple. Table for conversion of milli-volts to temperature in degrees centigrade for Platinum / Platinum-10% Rhodium thermocouple... Table for conversion of milli-volts to temperature in degrees centigrade for Platinum / Platinum-13% Rhodium thermocouple........... Table showing AISI-SAE Steel designation / compositions.....708 EN Series of Steels........ LM Series for cast aluminium alloys... Some properties of selected elements... Conversion data, Greek alphabet notations and SI unit prefxes....Structure of Materials INTRODUCTION types such as crystal structure, macrostructure, microstructure, ete, All these affect the prop- erties of metals and alloys and hence, it is necessary to study these structures. In this chapter cqystal structures and the related terms are described. The study of crystal structures is usu ally done by X-ray and electron microscopy. The study of macrostructure is done by unaided eyes or by using low magnifications usually below 10 linear magnification i.e. below 10 x. The study of microstructure is done by optical or electron microscopes using much higher magnifications. Optical microscopes provide magnifications in the range of 60 x to 2000 x whereas electron microscopes provide magnifications up to 5 lakh, Details regarding the techniques of observation of macrostructures and microstructures are described in chaprer on Metallography- CRYSTAL STRUCTURES Crystal structures deal with the atomic arrangement in solids, They are regular three dimen- sional patterns of atoms in space. This regularity of atomic arrangement in solids comes due to geometrical conditions which are imposed by directional bonding and/or close packing of atoms, The most stable arrangement of atoms in a crystal will be that arrangement which in other words, the one that: minimizes the energy per unit volume i (i) Preserves electrical neutrality ii) Satisfies the directionality and discreteness of all covalent bonds* Material Science and Metallurgy for Eng nee (iii) Minimizes strong ion-ion repulsion (iv) Packs the atoms as closely as possible, consistent with (i), ( ) and (ii), The crystal structures observed in solids ate described in terms of an idealized geomet concept called a space latce. Space latice isa three dimensional pattern of points in spac {This is also called the poin latce and is shown in Vig, 1.1. Hvery point in the space atic has identical surrounding, with that of every other point,'These points in the space lattice wit, identical surroundings aw Ss ae ealled as latice points. Kdemtical surrounding means the appeatance of a lattice point when viewed in a particular dir any other lattice point when viewed in the same direction. Latice points can be arranged in only 14 different arrangements (arrays), called Bravais lattices. The will be similar to these 14 Bravais lattices atoms at the positions of lattice tion will be the same to the appearance of ctual crystal structures and can be obtained by assuming atoms ot group of . In the cubic system, a direction [vw] is always perpendicular to the plane (wow), but this is not generally true in other systems. ‘The procedure of finding Miller indices of any direction such as RS is shown in Fig. 1.7. Figure showing the procedure of finding the Miller indices of a line. (i) Draw a straight line OD passing through the origin and parallel to the line RS. (ii) Take any point on line OD such as P and draw perpendiculars on X-Y, YZ and Z-X planes. | a (iii) Bind the fractional intercepts of OL, OM and ON in terms of axial units (ic. OL/OA, OM/OB and ON/OC). / (iv) Convert these intercepts to smallest integers by multiplication or division throughout. a ; (7) Enclose these in square brackets, which represent the Miller indices of the line RS. This indicates that crystallographic direction indices are the vector components of the direction resolved along each of the co-ordinate axes and reduced to the smallest integers. a a<= 4a 40 Material Science and Metallurgy for Engine, For drawing a direction from Miller indices, a reverse procedure to the above is followey ‘The following procedure may also be used for cubic system. (i) Sketch the plane with the given Miller indices of the direction. (ii) Draw a line perpendicular to the above plane through the origin. This line is th, required direction, For a cubic cell, the directions [112], [001] and [101] are shown jy Fig, 1.8. Zz id Zz ‘ te 1 01 5 F gE F Pito) & A P A a] Sey 4 Gy y xXx? ¢ 2 ¢@ if (a) Direction [112] (b) Direction (001) (6) Direction (101) TERE | Figure showing directions (a) (112), (b) [001] and (c) (101). Fig. 1.9 shows some of the important crystal directions in a cubic cell, For sketching of negative indices, the origin needs to be shifted as shown in Fig, 1.10. z Za Zz y Origin ia lo. [210) {100} y 9 y o y Ne ir10} Ch ul7 R s x x" am OY [GEEEAE Figure showing some of the important crystal directions in a cubic cell Zz Zz 4 4 (170) 71 f a0 y IN t}—>y a Suen — x Note new origin 2% Note new origin HEREC Figure showing negative directions. oestructure of Materials a Two directions with indices [#, », w,] and [1 v, w,] will be perpendicular to each other when: Wy Hy +, y+ w,w,=0 (1.7) For hexagonal system, the directions are best expressed by three basic vectors a), a, and ¢. (Another system involving four indices is sometimes used to designate directions. The required direction is broken up into four component vectors parallel to 2, , a) a, and cand so chosen that the third index is the negative of the sum of the first two. Thus, for example, [100] becomes [21 10], [210] becomes [1010], [010] becomes [1210], etc.) Some of the important directions are shown in Fig. 1.11. {001) for ie > 010] poy rato Some important directions in hexagonal unit cell. AVERAGE NUMBER OF ATOMS PER UNIT CELL We know the various types of erystal structures. From the type of structure, average number of atoms per unit cell can be calculated. In cubic structures, the corner atoms are shared by 8 cells (4 from below and 4 from above), face atoms are shared by adjacent two cells, and atoms in the interior are shared by only one cell. Therefore, in general, it can be written as: Mf, Ni =e 1.8) Nav = et ( Where, ‘Nav = Average number of atoms per unit cell. Ne= Total number of corner atoms in an unit cell. Nf= Total number of face atoms in an unit cell and Ni= Cente or Interior atoms.2 Material Science and Metallurgy for Engineey Using the above equation, we can find the average number of atoms/cell in Simple Cubic (SC), Body Centred Cubie (BCC) and Face Centred Cubic (FCC) structures as below: (i) Simple Cubic (SC) Structures: In these structures, there are 8 atoms corresponding to § comers and there are no atoms on the faces or in the interior of the unit cell, Therefore, Ne= 8, Nf=0and Ni= 0 Using equation 1.8 8 cB Nav =—+ we get, 8 =1 (ii) Body Centred Cubic (BCC) Structures: In these structures, there are 8 corner atoms and one atom in the interior i.e. in the cenue of the unit cell with no atoms on the Faces ‘Therefore, Ne = 8, Nf'= 0 and Ni = 1. Usi oo & we pet, Nana ot quation 1.8 =2 ¢ Centred Cubic (FCC) Structures: In these structures, there are 8 atoms at the 8 esand no interior atoms. ‘Therefore, Ne= 8, Nf=6 (ii) F corners, G atoms at the centres of 6 and Ni= 0, Using equation 1.8 8 6.0 C get, Nav =~ += +4 we 821 =4 (iv) Hexagonal Close Packed (HCP) Structures: For hexagonal structures, the corner atoms are shared by 6 cells (3 from below and 3 from above’ ce atoms are shared by 2 cells, and atoms in the interior are shared by only one cell ‘Therefore, in general, the number of atoms per unit cell will be as below: Nav = N04, NE Ni i) 672 "4 For HCP struc a For HCP structures, there are 12 comer atoms (6 at the bottom face and 6 at the top fa? atoms at the centres of the above two fai Therefore, and 3 atoms in the interior of the unit Ne Using equation 1.9, we get: 12, Nf=2and Ni= 3 Nav 12g? 43 6°24 =6cture of Materials Strut 13 Ea CO-ORDINATION NUMBER (LIGANCY) Density of packing is expressed in terms of the number of nearest equidistant neighbouring is number is called co- ordination number. atoms surrounding an atom under consideration. In general, less the co-ordination number less is the packing factor. In simple cubic structures, each corner atom is surrounded by six other atoms and hence the co-ordination number for these structures is 6. In body centred cubic structures, each corner atom is surrounded by eight other body centred atoms and hence the co-ordination number is 8. In close packed structures such as HCP and FCG, the toral number of equidistant neigh- planes. There will be six atoms and three from each of the planes rest equidistant neighbours (i.e. bours are twelve irrespective of the method of stacking of th on any one plane surrounding the atom under considerati above and below this plane making the total number of co-ordination number) 12. In ionic solids, the bonds are non directional and hence promot amber or liganey is the number o and can be found out from space-filling are satisfied, The possible values of ces more close packing of the structures, Here, the co-ordination nu f anions surrounding a central cation. The ligancy is a function of ion si geometry when other conditions for stable configuration ligancy and the range of 7/r, ratios for a stable configuration are listed in Table 1.2. Ligancies 5, 7, 9, 10 and 11 do not satisfy che conditions for a stable configuration for any value of the radius ratio and hence they do not appear in the above table. The ratio r/r, = 1 indicates the configurations of close packing of equal sized balls, similar to FCC and HCP structures. BECERRA Showing the possible Values of Ligancy and Range of 1/7, Ratios for a Stable Configuration _ Ligancy Range of r./r4 - | Configuration | 2 0.0-0.155 Linear 3 0.155-0.225 “Triangular 4 0.225-0.414 ‘Tetrahedral 6 0.414-0.732 Octahedral § 0.732-1.0 Cubic 12 1.0 __| ECC or ICP radius of cation radius of anion ‘The ionic radius of an anion is 2.11 A°. Find the radius of the smallest cation eee i that can have stable eight fold co-ordination with the above anions. tA4 . Material Science and Metallurgy for Enginee, Solution: “The range of “ for stable eight fold co-ordination is 0.732 to 1.0 (Table - 1.2). Therefore Ta Yr. the radius of smallest cation can be calculated by taking “= 0.732 Now, 2.11 A° and. =0.732 r Therefore, 1,=0.732X 1, 0.732 x 2.11 1,545 A° Ans. 1 CEE | The chloride ion (C1) has a radius of 0.181 nm. Calculate the radius of small. est cation which can be co-ordinated with eight neighbouring chloride ions. Solution: Now: 7,=0.181 nm (1 am = 10A°) and ligancy = 8 For stable eight fold co-ordination, the smallest radius of cation is given by: £30732 5 Therefore, r=, 0.732 = 0.181 x 0.732 = 0.132 nm =1.32A° Ans FER ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR ‘The fractional amount of volume or space occupied by atoms in an unit cell is called atoms packing factor (APE) or atomic packing density or efficiency. Volume of atoms in unit cell Therefore, APF=—_——_______ Volume of the unit cell The atomic packing factors of cubic and HCP (hexagonal close packed) structures ca calculated as below: (i Simple Cubic (SC) Structures: In simple cubic structures, the atoms are assumed '° le placed in such a way that any two adjacent atoms touch each other (Fig. 1.12). at 1 sae ofstructure of Materials = If‘a’ is the lattice parameter of the simple cubic structure and ‘7’ is the radius of atoms, itis clear from the Fig. 1.12 that: : (1.10) FE + c (b) IGEREEE Simple cubic structure. ApE = Average number of aroms/cell x Volume of an atom 7 Volume of the unit cell _1x4/32r° o _ 43 a ~ (2rP =0.52 (i) Body Centred Cubic (BCC) Structures: In body centred cubic structures, the centre atom touches the corner atoms as shown in Fig. 1.13. Body centred cubic structure,16 Material Science and Metallurgy for Engincex Ifa’ is the lattice parameter of BCC structure and ‘” is the radius of atoms, fron, : + from Fig. 1.13 ic can be written as: (DB? = (DG) + (GFP Now (DG)?= (DO? + (CG)* and DF = 4r Therefore, (DA? = (DO? + (CG)? + (GF? ie. 4P=e+aeta Therefore, as (1.11) » 4 APF= : ax4al 08 3 4 @ = 0.68 Volume of the unit cell eters (lattice constants) and atomic radii are given in “Vable 1.3. Average number of atoms per unit cell x Volume of an atom Average number of atoms per unit cell x Volume of an atom Some of the metals having BCC structure at room temperature with their lattice param- EEVIEEEN Some Metals Having BCC Crystal Structure at Room Temperature With Their Lattice Constants and Atomic Radi. Calculated from lattice parameters by using equation 1.11. (1 nm = 10A°) (iii) Face Centred Cubic (FCC) Structures: In face centred cubic structures, centre of faces are touching the corner atoms as shown in Fig 1.14. Metal: Lattice constant 4, nm Atomic radius 7, 01m | Chromium 0.289 0.125 | Tron 0.287 0.124 Molybdenum 0.315 0.136 Potassium 0.533 0.231 Sodium 0.429 0.186 ‘Tantalum 0,330 0.143 | ‘Tungsten 0.316 0.137 Vanadium 0,304 0.132 the atoms at thstructure of Materials i BUH Face centred cubic structure. Ifa’ is the lattice parameter of FCC structure and ‘r’ is the atomic radius, from the Fig. 1.14 it is clear that: (DB)? = (DO? + (CBy ie. 4rnsaet+a Therefore, r= LE (1.12) Apr = AYE#2ge number of atoms per unitcell x Volume of anatom Volume of the unit cell Some of the metals having FCC structure at room (emperature with their lattice param- ¢ters and atomic radii are given in Table 1.4. TEQEERA Some Metals Having FCC Crystal Structure at Room Temperature With ‘Iheit Lattice Constams and Atomic Radii. Lattice constant a, nm Atomic radius r*, am 0.405 0.143 ~ 1 0.3615 0.128 0.408 Odd 0,495 O75 0.352 0.125 0.393 0.139 0.409 7 0.145 _ ‘Calculated from lattice parameters by using equation 1.12 (1 nm = 10A°)material Science and Metallurgy for Engine, nit cell is shown in Fig, 1.15 acked (HCP) Structures: The HCP u il can be found out by finding out the area of the basal plane ani eight. | e — [EEREED Hexagonal clote packed sructure, it cell is the area ABDEEG of Fig. 1.16 (a). f equilateral triangle ABC of Fig, 1.16 (b). From Fig, 1.16 (0: 18 (iv) Hexagonal Close P: ‘The volume of the unit ce then multiplying this by its h “The area of the base of the uni This area is six times the area ol T roe ¢ ; Fe f G Y D yy rk } Ligsecs, leo, | Aaa? Ateaol? Ae a1 @ (b) © [GEEELA Dizgrams for calculating the yolume of an HCP unit cell. ‘Area of triangle ABC = 5 (ba) x (height) = 510 (a sin 60°) 1 = zesin 60° “Therefore, oral area ABDEFG = 6x? sin 60° 2 = 32" sin 60° Now, volume of unit cell = Area of base x height = 32" sin 60° Xc For HCP structures, the corner atoms are touching to the centre at fom. bot tom faces i.e. atoms at ABDEFG are touching the C atom. — (13)structure of Materials Therefore, a=2r _4@ ie. ra (1.14) _ Average number of atoms per unit cell x Volume of an atom Volume of the unit cell 6x4ne = 3 3a’ sin60°Xe 3 6x a (2) = 2 A2/ 3a” sin60°Xc la —— 115) 3.csin60° an ¢ The < ratio for an ideal HCP crystal structure consisting of uniform spheres packed as tightly together as possible is 1.633 as shown below: . A Bo R a7 A J EXERT Atomic arrangement in HCP structures which have packing sequence of the type AB AB AB..... The atomic arrangement on planes ttes of atoms on plane B, and point Ps dl in plane A. Now, QR= RS = SQ= a and cis wwice Ul t_2PT a RS ru = (Rs) —(suy =a? -a7/4 ‘Aand Bis shown in Fig. 1.17. Points Q, R, Sare the cen- he centre of atom just below and above these three atoms he normal from point P on plane QRS. Therefore,vy 30 Material Science and eel, Therefore, = 1.633 Therefore, substituting e/a = 1.633 and sin 60° = 0.866 in the equation 1.15, au P= — __ aaa APE = 51,633 0.866 =0.74 Some of the important HCP metals at room temperature with their lattice constants (aand cvalues) and atomic radii are given in Table 1.5. EELICEREN = Some Metals Having HCP Crystal Structure at Room Temperature With Their Lattice Constants, Atomic Radii and c/a Ratios. Metal Lattice constants, nm | Atomic radius 7, nm | c/a Ratio |% Deviation from ide, 4a ¢ Cadmium [0.2973 [0.5618 [0.149 1.890 [+157 7 Zinc 0.2665 [0.4947 [0.133 | 1.856 +13.6 | Ideal HCP 1.633 0 | Magnesium |0.3209 0.5209 {0.160 1.623 : 0.66 | cobalt = [0.2507 |0.4069 J 0,125 1.623 0.66 | onium |0.3231 0.5148 {0.160 1.593 2.45 | [Tiana [02950 [0.4683 |o.147 1587 281 j Beryllium {0.2286 |. ; x | Beryllium 0.3584 [0.113 1568 |-3.98 4 (1 nm = 10A°) innestructure of Materials 2 From the above table, it can be seen that metals cadmium and zinc have cla ratios higher than the ideal ratio i.e, 1.633. This indicates that the atoms in these structures are slightly elongated along the C axis of the HCP unit cell. The metals magnesium, cobalt, zirconium, titanium and beryllium have c/a ratios less than the ideal ratio which indicates that the atoms in these metals are slightly compressed in the direction along the C axis. [ERAL_ DENSITY CALCULATIONS (A) Volume Density: The volume density of a metal can be calculated as below: Volume density (p,) = cent of atoms in the unit eel Volume of the unit cell __ Average number of atoms in the unit cell x Atomic weight Avogadros number (NV) x Volume of the unit cell ZA Volume density (p,) = (1.16) where A = Sum of atomic weights of the atoms in a unit cell N= Avogadros number (= 6,02 x 10°) V= Volume of unit cell ‘The equation 1.16 gives the theoretical volume density of meral on the assumption that atoms are like hard spheres. The atomic radius or the lattice parameter of a metal is obtained by X-ray diffraction analysis. The volume density calculated by using atomic radius or lattice parameter obtained by X-ray diffraction analysis is called as the X-ray density of metal, PEELE Calculate the X-ray density of aluminum. Givens Lattice constant = 4,049 A°, atomic weight= 26.93 gm/mole and Avogadros number (N) = 6.02 x 103 atoms/mole. Solution: Now, Val | ‘Average number of atoms per unit cell x Atomic weight olume density (p,) = N X Volume of the unit cell Since aluminium is FCC, on an average it has 4 atoms per unit cell Fen 4x26.98 erefore, P= — "6.0210 x (4.049/10°) = 2.699 gm/em? Ass, PEMTNCRMH Find she cheoretical density of copper (FCC) assuming the atoms to be hard spheres Given: Atomic weight of copper = 63. 54 gm/mole and radius of atoms = 1.278 A°.2 Material Science and Metallurgy for Engineer Solution: Equation 1.12 can be used t FCC i.e. o find out the lattice parameter of copper since its structure a Wh where r is radius of atoms and a is the lattice parameter. Therefore, =2N2r = 221,278 =3.614° Now, using equation 1.16, we get: 4x 63.54 6.02 x10” x (3.61/10°) = 8.94 gm/cm> Ans (B) Planar Atomic Density: The planar atomic density indicates the number of atoms whose cen- tres are intersected by unit area selected for the purpose. Therefore, Planar atomic density (p,) _ Number of atoms whose centres are intersected by selected area Py (1.17) Selected area Planar atomic density depends on the type of crystal structure and the plane under consideration. ‘We shall calculate the average number of atoms per square millimetre on different planes for the crystal structures of the cubic system as below: (1) Simple Cubic Structures: @ On (100) plane: Fig. 1.18 shows the actual atomic arrangement on (100) plane. The squat ABCD contains 1/4 x 4 = 1 atom and the area of this square is a x a= a’, where a is the lactice parameter. Therefore, the number of atoms/square mm = 1/ 2, where a is in mm.structure of Materials 23 eA = Wy VD . 6 (@) ) Plane (110) of simple cubic structure. (i) On (110) plane: Fig 1.19 shows the atomic arrangement on (110) plane. From the geometry of the above figure, it is clear thar the length AD =a and the length DG (or AF) = V2 a. Therefore, area of rectangle ADGF will be ax V2a = 2a”. This area contains 14x 4= 1 atom. Hence, the number of atoms per square mm = 1/(¥2a*), where a is the lattice parameter in mm. (ii) On (111) plane: Figure 1.20 shows the atomic arrangement on (111) plane. From the Figure 1.20, it is clear that the length of equilateral triangle DEG i.e. the length DE or EG or GD is equal to V2 a where a is the lattice parameter. The height of perpen- dicular EK will a3 sin 60° ic. V2 0.866 a. Therefore, the area of triangle DEG will be 1/2x(V2a) x (0.866 x V2) = 0.866 a*. This triangle contains 1/6 x 3 = 0.5 atoms. Hence, number of atoms per square mm. 0.5 _ 0.577 “0.86607 a® where a is the lattice parameter in mm. E fa) [GREER Plane (111) of simple cubic structure. (2) Body Centred Cubic Structures: (@ On (100) plane: The atomic arrangement on (100) plane is shown in Fig. 1.21. The square ABCD contains 1/4 x 4= 1 atom and the area of this square is ax a= 2”, where ais the lat- tice parameter. Therefore, the number of atoms per square mm = 1/a, where a is in mm.a Material Science and Metallurgy for Engincer, Plane (100) of body centred cubic structure. (ii) On (110) plane: Fig. 1.22 shows the atomic arrangement on (110) plane. ‘th area ADGF contains 1/4 x 4 +1 = 2 atoms and the area of this rectangle is (AD) x(DG) = (a)x(V2a)=V2a?. Therefore, the number of atoms per square mm 2 _ V2 _ 1414 CW ~ ic 7" A ve J @ (b) GPRERER Plane (110) of body centred cubic structure, (iii) On (111) plane: The atomic arrangement on (111) plane is shown in Fig. 1.23. In Fig. .23 (6), centre atom is not shown on plane (111) because the above plane does not pass through the centre of the atom. The area DEG contains 1/6 x 3=0.5 atoms and the arca of this triangle can be calculated as below:structure of Materials os From the geometry of figure, it is clear that the length DG of the equilateral triangle DEG is = 2a and the height of the perpendicular is V2a sin 60° i.e. = V2ax 0.866. Area of triangle DEG = ; x DG xheight -(} ) x(a) (v2 «0.866) = 0,866 a? Therefore, the number of atoms per square mm _ 05 0.866 a* = 0.577 7 where a is in mm. a ECE = The lattice parameter of chromium (BCC) is 2.8845 A°. Find the number of atoms per square mm on planes (100), (110) and (111). Solution: We know that the number of atoms per mm? on (100) plane of BCC structure are 1/a?, where a is the lattice parameter in mm. Substituting the value of a in mm (i.e. 2.8845 x 1077), we get: L (2.8845x107)* = 1.20 x 103 atoms/mm? Ans. The number of atoms/mm? = v2 For (110) plane of BCC, Planar atomic density is given by ~>. Therefore, substituting the a value ofa in mm (je. 2.8845 x 1077), we get: v2. *(2.8845x107 7 = 1.70 x 10"? atoms/mm? Ans. ‘The number of atoms /mm” For (111) plane of BCC, planar atomic density is given by substituting the value of ain mm (ie. 2.8845 X 1077), we get: _ 0.577 (2.884510)? = 6.93 x 10? atoms/mm? Ans. The number of atoms/mm?. | Material Science and Metallurgy for Engineer, | (3) Face Centred Cubic Structures: @ On (100) plane: The atomic arrangement on (100) plane is shown in Fi " g 1.24. The squar ABCD contains -x4-+1= 2 aroms and the area of this square is a x a= a2, the lattice parameter. Therefore, mm. where a i the number of atoms per square mm = 2/42, where ais in D c Plane (100) of face centred cubic structure, (ii) On (110) plane: The (110) plane of FCC is shown in Fig. 1,25. (@) HGEEEEEEN Plane (110) of face centred cubic structure. From the geometry of 7 Pau, itis clear that the number of atoms on plane (110 i.e. in the area ADGF are gnteghae 2and the area of this rectangle is AD x DG ie equal to axV2 a= /2 @*. Therefore, 2 VW a the number of atoms per square mm where a is in mm. ' (ii) On (111) plane: Fig. i: 74 shows the atomic arrangement on plane (111). The equilater# triangle contains 2 Vegi 732 atoms and the area of the triangle DEG can be calet” «lated as below:structure of Materials . Plane (111) of face centred cubi¢ structure. Area DEG = (E)xworx height of perpendicular from point E on DG 1 0 =(5)x(v2e)x( Vie sina) =a sin 60° = 0.886 a, (Since sin 60° = 0.866) Therefore, the number of atoms per square mm 2 © 0,866 a? =231 a where a is in mm. SCREEN Find the number of atoms/cm? on (100) planes of lead (FCC) Given: Interatomic distance = 3.499 AY. Solution: The atomic arrangement oit (100) plane is shown in Fig. 1.24. It is clear from the figure that the interatomic distance is 2r, where ris the radius of atom. Therefore, 2r= 3.499 A° ive r= 1.75 A° Also, ic is clear from the same figure that DB? = DC? + CB? 4P=a+a _4r 7 ie, Therefore,Material Science and Metallurgy for Engineers 28 = 4.95 A° ¢ of FCC is Now, we know that the planar atomic density on (100) plan the value of @ in em, we get: Substitutin, - lem? = ————st ‘The number of atoms/em’ = os 59 82 =8.16x 10" Ans. AEE MM Me atomic radins of copper (FCC) is 1.28.A% Calculate the number of copp: ¢ plane (110). atoms per square metre on th Solution: ‘We know from equati and the lattice parameter (a) is: on 1.12 that for FCC structures the relation between atomic radius (7 _ 4 We a=22r = 22 x1.28 3.62 A° We also know that the phinar atomic density for FCC structures on plane (110) is given bs Therefore, Substituting the value of a in metres (i.e. 3.62 x 10°"), we get a The number of atoms per sq. metre v2 Garxi0™ = 10.79 x 10! atoms/sq. metre. Ans. (4) Hexagonal Close-Packed Structures: (i) On (0001) plane i.e, either on top or bottom (basal) plane: From the Fig, 1.15, it hero 1S, clear that this plane contains — X6+1= 3 atoms and the area of the plane from equatio” 113 is 3a? sin 60°. Therefore, atomic density on (0001) plane will be: 3 3a" sinG0® a? x0.866 _ 1.1547 astructure of Materials . (ii) On any of the vertical faces of the hexagon i.e. on planes such as (1010) or (0110): ae 1 From the Fig. 1.15, it is clear that these planes contain geatia2 atoms and the : 2 area of the plane is @ x c, Therefore, planar atomic density = Gxo’ where a and care a xe) the lattice constants of the HCP unit cell. (©) Linear Atomic Density: Linear atomic density is the number of atoms intersected through the centres by a line of selected length in the direction of interest. The value of linear atom ic density (,) depends on the crystal structure and the direction under consideration. The following example shows the method of calculating the linear atomic density. EUS Culculate the linear atomic density (p,) in atoms per metre in the direction (110) for aluminium (FCC). Given: Lattice parameter of aluminium = 4,049 AP, Zz be—a—>| x (110) Atomic arrangement in the direction [110] of FCC structures Solution: ‘The atomic arrangement in the direction [110] is shown in Fig. 1.27. The length of the face 1 1 diagonal will be V2 a and this length intersects gtlty=2 atoms. Therefore, pre Substituting the value of a in metre (i.e. 4.049 x 10~), we get: -_ 2 © 4.04910" = 3.49 x 10° atoms/metre Ans. PL