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ARGUMENTATIVE STRATEGIES: REVIEW

:: USE AND STRUCTURE

Structure for both written and spoken argumentation:

Introduction → Main Idea + Conflict

Development → Exposition of ideas or analysis of pros and cons
Conclusion → End of text with a solution of the conflict or other type of closure.

* Even in conversations, the cycle to prove a point must be completed, otherwise your counterpart won’t
understand your point and communication will be compromised.

Let’s understand the application of the techniques used in argumentation with some examples.

• Analyzing Pros and Cons → Takes positive and negative aspects into consideration.

Albert York is a successful businessman who’s running for president. On one hand, he’s very experienced in
running companies and he does it quite well. (Positive Aspect) On the other hand, he’s never held public
office before. (Negative Aspect) When analyzing the history of presidents without experience in public
administration, it is possible to say that... (Introduction to present data that supports your analysis)

• Rhetorical Strategies

1) Inductive or Deductive Reasoning. 2) Credibility and Reliability of the Source or Speaker

When we look for a job, we are asked about
experience. Being president is a job. Albert York
doesn’t have any experience. He can’t be president.
(Inductive reasoning and oversimplification of
logic)
Successful businessmen are always smart and
responsible men and the country is nothing but a
big enterprise. Albert York is very qualified to be
president. (Deductive reasoning)
According to Global Image Press, Albert York is a
possible choice to run the country.
3) Appealing to the readers’ emotions.
Albert York is humble, friendly to the voters and
one in three ladies say they’d marry him. He’s
probably a good person to run the country.

• Quotations
In writing or speaking: Indirect quotations—usually
In writing: Direct quotations—exact
introduced by phrases.
fragments copied between quotes (“”)—
followed by credits to the original author.
According to (name of the author)...
Mia Horsbury said: “Albert York is not
As (name of the author) states...
even a choice to be considered.”
As stated by (name of the author)...
(Name of the author) states that...

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According to Mia Horsbury, Albert York shouldn’t even be considered for presidency.

Important Note: The use of an author’s words, even if paraphrased, without due credit is
what constitutes plagiarism (appropriation of one’s work and ideas taking them as one’s
own). It is considered an ethical foul and undermines the credibility of an author for good.

• Paraphrase • Narrations

Saying the same thing with different words. The
original author must be credited.
Thomas Lowe usually says that a president
must have the population’s respect, so that is
what guides people’s choice.
• Summary
Exemplify the author’s point related to data collected
in their research. They don’t need to be credited if
they reflect the author’s own experience.
In order to justify aspects in the text or speech, you
can use connectors and then refer to the original
source of information that proves your point.

Short versions of an original text that Finally...

concentrates on its main idea, leaving out Because...
details, and told with your own words. Again, the As...
original author must be credited. Due to...

PAST PERFECT
:: USE AND STRUCTURE

• Use

Past Perfect → The past perfect often occurs with the simple past. The speaker establishes a connection
between the more distant past action (used in past perfect) and the more recent past action
(used in the simple past).

When Laura arrived, Mark had already left.

What happened first? Mark left.

What happened after? Laura arrived.
Why did the speaker use the past perfect? To emphasize the relation between the more distant past action
(Mark left) and the other past action (Laura arrived).

Past Perfect Simple Past Present

Mark had left Laura arrived

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I met a Russian co-worker yesterday. I had never met anyone from Russia before.

What happened for a long period of time in the past? I didn’t know anyone from Russia.
What happened yesterday? I met a person from Russia for the first time.
Why did the speaker use past perfect? To emphasize the relation between the more distant past action
(I didn’t know anyone from Russia) and the other past action (I met a Russian co-worker).

Past Perfect Simple Past Present

I had never met I met a Russian
anyone from Russia co-worker

• Structure

Past Perfect

Affirmative: Subject + Auxiliary Verb Have (In the Past) + Main Verb in the Past Participle
I had met someone from Russia before.
Negative: Subject + Auxiliary Verb Have (In the Past) + Not + Main Verb in the Past Participle
I hadn’t met anyone from Russia before.
Interrogative: Auxiliary Verb Have (In the Past) + Subject + Main Verb in the Past Participle
Had you ever met anyone from Russia?

:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

Visiting the Corcovado

Laura – Oh my! I had never seen such a beautiful

view before!
Robin – Hadn’t I told you we had to come here?
It’s awesome!
Laura – Yes! Imagine what we would have missed if we
hadn’t come. Thank you for bringing me here.
Robin – My pleasure.

:: COMMON MISTAKES

INCORRECT CORRECT
I had seen this movie yesterday. I saw this movie yesterday.
I had graduated in 2005 by the time I got my first I had graduated by the time I got my first job in
job in 2006. 2006.
I graduated in 2005 and I got my first job in 2006.

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TALKING ABOUT THE FUTURE

:: USE AND STRUCTURE

→ Talking about the future usually refers to plans, predictions, and guesses.
Future → The representation of the future depends on the speaker’s perspective.
→ There are different ways to express future in English.

This chapter focuses on five ways to talk about the future.

• Modal Verb Will

This dress fits me perfectly. I’ll take it.

Used to make predictions about the future based on the

speaker’s opinion. It also reflects a decision made at the
moment of speaking.

Situation: A woman went to a store to buy a dress as

a gift to her daughter. As she was looking for the dress,
she really liked another model and decided to buy one
for herself. She would say...

• Be Going To

Used to refer to plans for the future and predictions made based on physical evidence.
Let’s see two situations that illustrate the possible uses of be going to.

Situation 1: Mike arranged his vacation from work, Situation 2: Larry’s wife is five-months pregnant, it
his partner will also be on vacation, they checked takes approximately nine months for baby to be born.
the prices to go to the Caribbean, they have some One could say by looking at her...
money and there is still time to save up. He’d say...

We’re going to travel to the Caribbean on our She’s going to have a baby in a few months.
vacation.

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• Simple Present
I can’t believe we have classes on
Used to refer to the future when the action in Saturdays for the next three months.
question is part of a schedule, therefore the speaker
considers it a fact. The future reference is normally
made by using time expressions. Take a look.

Situation: Julia is checking her school schedule and

she notices there are classes on a few Saturdays.
She says...

• Future Continuous (Will + Be + Verb in –ING)

Hello. Mark, are you coming?
I’ll be leaving in an hour, please hurry.
Used when the speaker sees the future action as
relevant and intends to emphasize this feature. It is
generally used in excuses or to justify a refusal or
another decision.

Situation: Nick is at his parents’ house until six p.m.

A friend promised to deliver a package before then,
but it’s five p.m. and the friend hasn’t shown. Nick calls
his friend and says:

:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

An Invitation

Pete – Sharon, will you come to my farewell party tonight?

Sharon – I’m afraid I can’t. I’ll be flying to Denver then. In fact,
I’m leaving soon.
Pete – Oh, that’s a shame. Why are you going to Denver?
Sharon – My son lives there and I’ll help him with some things.
Pete – Oh cool! When do you come back?
Sharon – My flight is on the fifth, but I’m going to stay there for
as long as he needs and my vacation allows me to.
Pete – I see. Well, safe flight and I’ll see you in a few weeks.

:: COMMON MISTAKES

INCORRECT CORR ECT

Cindy will to go to New York. Cindy will go to New York.

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VERBS FOLLOWED BY GERUND AND INFINITIVE

:: USE AND STRUCTURE

• Use
Used as verb complements
Gerunds and Infinitives Used as the subject of sentences
Used as the object of sentences

• Structure

• Gerund and Infinitive as Verb Complements

1. Verbs Followed by Infinitive

I decided to do what you told me. I have to go now.

Verb Phrase: DECIDE + Infinitive Verb Phrase: HAVE + Infinitive

I wanted to see what was going to happen.

Verb Phrase: WANT + Infinitive Verb Phrase: GO + Infinitive

2. Verbs Followed by Gerund

He keeps making the same mistakes. I really enjoy exercising early in the morning.

Verb Phrase: KEEP + Gerund Verb Phrase: ENJOY + Gerund

I can’t help thinking this was a waste of time.

CAN’T HELP + Gerund

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3. Verbs Followed by Gerund or Infinitive

A. No Change in Meaning

I love to work here. = I love working here. I like to have fruit for breakfast. = I like having fruit for breakfast.

B. Changes Meaning

I forgot to talk to you about it.

Forget + Infinitive: I was supposed to do something but I didn’t
because I forgot to do it.

I completely forgot talking to you about this.

Forget + Gerund: I did something in the past but I forgot I did it.

He stopped to help me with the project.

Stop + Infinitive: He interrupted what he was doing to help me.

He stopped helping me with the project.

Stop + Gerund: He used to help me but he won’t help me any longer.

• Gerund and Infinitive Clauses as Subjects

Working out is good for your health.

Gerund Clause used as the subject of the sentence.

To work out is good for your health.

Infinitive Clause used as the subject of the sentence.

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• Gerund and Infinitive Clauses as Objects

There is nothing better than eating ice cream on a hot day.

Gerund Clause used as part of the object.

It’s late and you are tired. The best thing you can do now is
to go home and rest.

Infinitive Clause used as part of the object.

Verbs that take Bare Infinite (Without To) Use Bare Infinitive after LET.

I’ll let you play first.

Infinitive Clause used as part of the object.

:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

Deadline
Jonas – I can’t believe it’s not right again. I’ve been trying to finish
this report for days.
Amanda – Jonas, working this hard will only get you stressed.
You need to rest.
Jonas – But I can’t. It has to be ready tomorrow in the evening.
Amanda – Let me tell you what we’ll do: Go home, relax, get a good
night’s sleep and then, tomorrow, I’ll help you finish it.
Jonas – I think you are right. Thank you, Amanda. You are the best!

:: STAY ALERT

Both gerund and infinitive clauses can be used as subject with the same meaning. However,
nowadays gerund clauses are more frequent and sound more natural in this position.

Working hard is the key to success. → Preferable and accepted in all situations.
To work hard is the key to success. → Correct but less frequent nowadays.

:: COMMON MISTAKES

INCORRECT CORRECT
Read is always a great experience. Reading is always a great experience.

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MAKING A DEFINITION: SUBTLE OR EMPHATIC

:: USE AND STRUCTURE

Definition → It’s a description that identifies what something means.

→ It may answer the questions: What is...? / What do you understand by...? /
What’s your idea of...? / What does...mean?

Being Subtle Being Emphatic

Avoids being direct Makes your point clear
Uses softer words Uses adverbs and words that strengthen your speech
Tends to be more polite Doesn’t mean to be rude

Take a look at the formal definition of the word “book” similar to what is found in a dictionary.

1 [countable] Object made of a sequence of paper sheets where

stories or pictures are printed so people can read them.

When you are subtle or emphatic, you will include personal notes into this definition.
Let’s see some examples using the definition of “book.”

What’s a book?

Subtle
It looks like a bunch of sheets of paper bound together in thread and held with a cover.
It can/could be defined as a vehicle of knowledge and experiences.
You can/could see a book as the most effective tool to improve your writing and reading.

Emphatic
It is an extremely important tool for students.
A book is a remarkable source of knowledge in a pile of paper.
It is absolutely advisable to have the habit of reading books to learn about all things.
It is a really good source of information for students and a great way to pass time.

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:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

Exotic Food

Jake – Laura, let’s go have some kimchi.

Laura – What on earth is that?
Jake – You can say it is the most famous South
Korean side dish...for me, it tastes like
childhood, from when I lived in Seoul.
Laura – Oh, wow! That sounds important. Let’s try it!

MUST, MUST BE, MUST + PERFECT INFINITIVE

:: USE AND STRUCTURE

• Use
Must → Obligation
Mustn’t → Prohibition
Must + Be → Assumption
Must + Participle → Assumption about the past

• Structure

• Must: Obligation

Subject + Must + Main Verb in Bare Infinitive + Complement

We can go to the movies. But first, you must finish your homework.

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• Mustn’t: Prohibition

Subject + Must Not (Mustn’t) + Main Verb in Bare Infinitive + Complement

This is a valuable and old craft. You mustn’t touch it.

• Must Be: Assumption

Subject + Must Be + Complement

That’s such a beautiful painting. It must be John has been playing tennis for five hours.
expensive. He must be exhausted.
(I don’t know the price, but I assume it’s expensive.) (I haven’t talked to John, but I assume he is tired.)

• Must + Perfect Infinitive: Assumption about the Past

Subject + Must + Have + Main Verb in the Past Participle + Complement

I’ve looked all over, but I can’t find my keys. I must

have left them in the car.
(I’m not sure I left them in the car but since it was the
last place I’ve been, I assume I left the keys there.)

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The dogs are not home. Karen must have taken them
to the vet.
(I haven’t talked to Karen, but I assume that she has
taken them to the vet because neither Karen nor the
dogs are home.)

:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT
Bedtime

Jeff – It’s late, baby, leave it for tomorrow. You must be tired.
Olivia – I am, but I must finish reading this book for my class tomorrow morning.
Jeff – OK, then, honey. So I’m going to bed.
Olivia – All right, dear, sleep tight.
Jeff – Honey, by the way, did you see my charger? I’ve looked for it all over.
Olivia – I haven’t seen it, baby. You must have left it in the office. But you can take mine.
Jeff – Well, they say you mustn’t use different charger models, but I don’t think it’s
going to cause any problem. Thanks, baby.

:: COMMON MISTAKES

INCORRECT CORRECT
You must to be back at ten p.m. You must be back at ten p.m.
You musn’t read in such a dark room. You mustn’t read in such a dark room.

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PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

:: USE AND STRUCTURE

• Use

Past Perfect Continuous
→ It refers to an ongoing action or event that started at a point in the past
and continued up to another point in the past.
→ The speaker focuses on showing the progression or continuity of the
action or event.
→ There must be two clear past time references in the sentence or context.

• Timeline

• Structure

Affirmative → Had + Been + Verb in –ING Form

I’d been searching for a present until I decided to just take Julia to dinner.
Mike was tired because he’d been working the night shift.

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Negative → Had Not/Hadn’t + Been + Verb in –ING Form

Jack hadn’t been eating well, so he put on a lot of weight.

Phil hadn’t been studying enough until he realized he could fail.

Interrogative → Had + Subject + Been + Verb in –ING Form

Had you been having trouble sleeping before you visited the doctor?
How long had Sheila been dating Julius before they got married?

:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

Trying to Understand

Tara – Nick, do you know what’s up with Sarah? She won’t talk to me anymore.
Nick – Why would she do that? Had you been having problems before she stopped talking to you?
Tara – Not that I know of. I’d been thinking of changing jobs for a while but I didn’t tell her.
Nick – She wouldn’t be mad because of that, would she? I mean, you’d been friends before working together.
Tara – That’s what I can’t understand. She won’t answer my calls or text messages. I’m starting to worry.
What should I do?
Nick – I really don’t know...I’d keep trying to talk to her. She’ll talk to you eventually.

:: COMMON MISTAKES

INCOR RECT CORRECT

I’d been working weekends. I’d been working weekends for years before
I changed jobs..

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PAST PERFECT VS. PRESENT PERFECT

:: USE AND STRUCTURE

• Use

They both connect actions that happened in the two different moments in a timeline.

Present Perfect → Used when the speaker wants to make a connection between the
past action or event to the present moment.

Past (?) Present

Mary was in my house She knows where it is

Mary has been to my house before. She knows where it is.

Did Mary come to my house at any moment in the past? Yes.

Is Mary in my house now? No.
Why did the speaker use present perfect? To emphasize that the past action (she came to
my house before) is connected to the present
(she knows where my house is).

Past Perfect → The past perfect often occurs with the simple past. The speaker establishes a connection
between the more distant past action (used in past perfect) and the more recent past action
(used in the simple past).

Past Perfect Simple Past Present

I had forgotten I got on the bus
my wallet

When I got on the bus, I realized I had forgotten my wallet.

What happened first? I forgot my wallet.

What happened after? I got on the bus.
Why did the speaker use past perfect? To emphasize that the more distant past action (I forgot my
wallet) is connected to another past action (I got on the bus).

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• Structure

Present Perfect

Affirmative: Subject + Auxiliary Verb Have (In the Present) + Main Verb in the Past Participle.
Negative: Subject + Auxiliary Verb Have (In the Present) + Not + Main Verb in the Past Participle.
Interrogative: Auxiliary Verb Have (In the Present) + Subject + Main Verb in the Past Participle

Past Perfect

Affirmative: Subject + Auxiliary Verb Have (In the Past) + Main Verb in the Past Participle.
Negative: Subject + Auxiliary Verb Have (In the Past) + Not + Main Verb in the Past Participle.
Interrogative: Auxiliary Verb Have (In the Past) + Subject + Main Verb in the Past Participle

:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

First Time in the Snow

Rachel – My nephew Mark was so happy it snowed yesterday.

He had never seen snow before.
Sandra – Really?
Rachel – Mark was born in Florida and he had never been to northern
states before. It was his first time here in Wisconsin.
Sandra – Of course! He is from Florida! I’ve been there. The weather
is awesome, even in the winter.

:: COMMON MISTAKES

INCOR RECT CORRECT

I’ve been to Paris last year. I was in Paris last year. / I’ve been to Paris.
This is not the first time I see snow. I had seen This is not the first time I see snow. I had seen
snow two years ago. snow before. / I saw snow two years ago.

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CONNECTORS: CONDITIONS
:: USE AND STRUCTURE

Connectors → Joining words or sentences

In this chapter, we’ll focus on connectors that infer the idea of conditions.

• If

This word has different meanings depending on context and use. They may be:

• Introducing a situation that would cause another; on the occasion of/on the condition of.

If we need money, we can sell the car.

(They will sell the car on the occasion of lack of money.)

• Connecting sentences referring to uncertain situations.

I don’t know if I’m going to sell the car.

It also forms other expressions, some examples are:

What if something happens? → Raising Hypothesis

Lia looked at me as if I was a stranger. → Similar to Like

• In case

You’d better take some extra cash,

in case you need to take a taxi.

• Unless

Similar to If...not in conditionals, relates an outcome and hypothetical solution as conditional.

You’ll have to walk home, unless you take some extra cash.

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• Otherwise

Used to say that there will be a bad result from the previous action, roughly an opposite use as unless.

You’d better take some extra cash, otherwise you’ll have to walk home.

• Whether

When dealing with uncertain situations, mostly when it presents alternative, you’ll use whether.
In this case if can also be used.

Please, let me know whether

you’re coming to dinner or not.

:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

Invitation List

June – Mom, I don’t know whether to invite Patrice or not.

Edna – It’s your wedding. If you want to invite her, do it.
June – Right. Maybe I should talk to Gabriel first, in case he
gets mad. What do you think?
Edna – He’s mature enough to understand you are friends
with his ex. Unless he still likes her. Oh, boy.
June – Mom, don’t be silly! He’s engaged! You know what, I’ll
invite her, otherwise, I might regret it.
Edna – That’s right! But remember to give Gabe the heads up.

:: COMMON MISTAKES

INCOR RECT CORRECT

If you shouldn’t do it, you are afraid. If you are afraid, you shouldn’t do it.

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EXPLAINING PROCEDURES: ASKING FOR CLARIFICATION

:: USE AND STRUCTURE

Expressions to Show Sequence of Steps

Explaining Procedures Reminders
Asking for Clarification

• Expressions to Show Sequence

Start by / First / Second / Third / Then / Right after that / After that / Finish by

• Reminders

Don’t forget to / Remember to / Bear in mind that / Keep in mind that / It’s important to / Make sure you

• Asking for Clarification

You ask for clarification when there is a step you don’t understand and you ask for a new explanation.

Michael – S
 o, in order to invest your money, you should hire
the bank and they can manage that.
Tom – 
What do you mean?
Can you repeat that?
I didn’t get it. The bank will invest my money?
I’m sorry, can you say that again?
Can you explain it again?

:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

Planning to Buy a House

Stu – Honey, we need to start planning to buy our

house, but where do we start?
Mary – Well, first we need to open a savings
account.
Stu – What do you mean?
Mary – We need to have an account where we can
keep our money or else we spend it all.
Stu – Right…remember that we need a real estate
agent, right?
Mary – Yeah, and that can be expensive. OK, let’s
put it all on paper.

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MODALS + PERFECT INFINITIVE: SHOULD

:: USE AND STRUCTURE

Modals + Perfect Infinitive → Give past reference to Modal Verbs

In this chapter, we’ll focus on the Modal Verb Should + Perfect Infinitive.

Should = I think it is desirable that...

When combined with the Perfect Infinitive, one can understand it as:

Should Have + Verb in Past Participle = You didn’t do what I think was desirable
= What I would have done is...

In this case, it refers to an action that has already happened and the speaker comments on hypothetical
results. Take a look at the sequence of actions:

1. Nick saw his friend’s girlfriend with another man at a café.

2. Nick told Paul he’d seen his girlfriend with another man.

3. Paul confronted his girlfriend and she was angry because she
was talking to a friend.

4. Paul was too jealous; his girlfriend was extremely annoyed and
they broke up.

5. Now, Paul is very sad because he still loves his ex-girlfriend.

Larry, Nick and Paul’s friend, heard about the situation and told Nick:

“Nick, you shouldn’t have jumped to conclusions.”

“You should have talked to Paul’s girlfriend first to understand the situation.”

By saying these sentences, Larry indicates what he thinks was the desirable action in such situation,
therefore, what he would have done if it had happened to him.

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:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

A Warning Letter

Jack – What’s up with you Albert?

Albert – I got a warning letter from Mrs. Harper about
my frequent tardiness.
Jack – Dude, that’s bad. You should have been
more careful about your hours.
Albert – I shouldn’t have moved to another house
without considering the commute. It takes
me too long to get here.
Jack – Well, maybe you should consider buying a
car or negotiating your hours with the board.

:: COMMON MISTAKES

INCORRECT CORRECT
Leo should to have work harder. Leo should have worked harder.
Sam should stopped smoking. Sam should have stopped smoking.

PASSIVE VOICE
:: USE AND STRUCTURE

Passive Voice → The focus is on the action (what was done) rather than the doer (who did it).
→ The doer can be mentioned or not.

Take a look at how the passive voice is formed from the active voice.

Active Voice: The marketing team presented the new campaign.

Subject Verb in the Object
Simple Past

Passive Voice: The new campaign was presented (by the marketing team).
Optional

So, in order to form the passive voice:

1) Object of the Active Voice → Subject of the Passive Voice

The new campaign...

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2) Main Verb of the Active Voice →

To Be (same form as the Main Verb of the Active Voice) + Main Verb (Past Participle)

The new campaign was presented...

3) Subject of the Active Voice → By + Agent of the Passive Voice (Optional)

The new campaign was presented by the Marketing team.

:: STAY ALERT

Not all situations can be used in the passive voice. If there is not an action in the sentence and a complement
it is impossible to form the passive voice.

The program starts at five. ------------ Impossible to form the Passive Voice
The room is well-decorated. ---------- Impossible to form the Passive Voice
The auditors made the announcement today. ------- The announcement was made by the auditors today.

:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

Custom-made Products

Anna – I love your new place! It’s fantastic.

Jamie – Oh, thank you! The whole thing was projected just for me.
Anna – That’s lovely. This table is so unique!
Jamie – I know. It was custom-made following every detail I asked for. I love it.
Anna – You should!

:: COMMON MISTAKES

INCOR RECT CORRECT

It given to me as gift. It was given to me as gift.

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CONNECTORS: EXEMPLIFICATION + CAUSE AND EFFECT

:: USE AND STRUCTURE

• Use

Connectors → Used to join words, phrases, or clauses implying different ideas, among them
Exemplification and Cause and Effect.

• Structure

Connectors for Exemplification

All the following connectors introduce an example. They can be used

interchangeably and they usually precede the examples.

For instance That is (to say)

For example Such as
As an example Namely

We must keep ourselves well-informed. There are Simple daily habits such as using recycled paper can
several ways to do that, namely reading books, have a huge environmental impact.
newspapers, and magazines.

Connectors for Cause and Effect

All the following connectors are used to express a relation of cause and
effect. However, they are used in different ways.

Hence That’s why

Thus Because of that
As a consequence / Consequently As a result

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Hence / Thus

Used in the middle of two sentences or at the beginning of sentences.

If we are thinking about a family trip, thus / hence we

have to save money.
Traveling overseas with your whole family is expensive.
Thus / Hence we need to save money.

Consequently / As a consequence (of something)

Used in the middle of two sentences or at the beginning of sentences. They usually have
negative connotation.

I told you not to spread your toys in the living room and
you did. As a consequence / Consequently, I’ll keep
them with me for three days.

That's why / Because of that

Used in the middle of two sentences or at the beginning of sentences.

We must take care of our planet, that's why / because

of that we should recycle.

As a result

Our body was made to move and we have been neglecting that.
As a result we have been having more heart diseases and arthritis.

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:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

Analyzing Results

Manager – Guys, not only have we achieved our goals, but we managed to surpass even the most
optimistic predictions. Thus, I’m glad to announce that not only the company but also the team
profits from that. For instance, this year’s Christmas bonus will be really fat!
Team – That is great news!
Manager – Yes! But remember, everyone, we’ve managed to increase our customer portfolio, which is
wonderful, but as a result our responsibilities have also increased. That is to say we have to
keep our customers satisfied and also attract new ones. Let’s celebrate but let’s also put our
thoughts into how we can keep on improving.

:: STAY ALERT

Thus / Hence → Considered to be more formal.

As a consequence / Consequently → Used mostly for negative consequences.

:: COMMON MISTAKES

INCORRECT CORRECT
I got the manager position and I got the manager position and thus
as a consequence I’ll have a raise. I’ll have a raise.

EXPLAINING PROCEDURES: REVIEW

:: USE AND STRUCTURE

• Use

Explaining Procedures Organize Instructions in a Sequence

Remind of Important Steps
Ask for Clarification
Add Further Information

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• Structure

In order to explain You should also draw the listener’s Give the listener the
procedures, you should tell attention to important steps that can’t chance to clarify steps.
the order events take place. be skipped. Use reminders to do so.

Organizing a Sequence Reminders Adding Further

Information
First, Second, Third… Make sure you…
Right after Don't forget to… You should…
After that Remember to… You must…
Then Bear in mind that… You are supposed to…
Start with… Keep in mind that… You have to…
Finish by… It's important to…

:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

Analyzing Results

Mother – I loved this new washing machine, but I have no idea how to use it.
Son – I’ll show you, mom. It’s not rocket science. First, place your laundry in the machine.
Second, add the detergent to this drawer here.
(Organizing a sequence.)
Mother – Sorry, I didn’t get it. Can you show me again how to open it?
(Asking for clarification.)
Son – Here. You just have to pull it gently.
(Adding further information.)
Mother – Good.
Son – Then you should choose one of the preset cycles: regular, heavy, or delicate.
Mother – All right. It’s not that difficult.
Son – But don’t forget to set the water temperature: cold or warm. Finish by pushing the start button.
(Reminding) (Organizing a sequence)
Mother – Excellent!

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:: COMMON MISTAKES

INCORRECT
Start by organize your clothes by colors.
Bear in mind to press this red button.
Click on the link than log on.
CORRECT
Start by organizing your clothes by colors.
To start, organize your clothes by colors.
Bear in mind that you should press this red button.
Click on the link then log on.

PASSIVE VOICE
:: USE AND STRUCTURE

• Use

Focus on the action not on the doer.

Passive Voice The doer is irrelevant.
The doer is unknown.

• Structure

Example 1

Active Voice auxiliary verb –

Past Continuous object

Kate was writing the report.

Subject main verb –

Past Continuous

Step 1 → The object of the active voice becomes the subject of the passive voice
Step 2 → Repeat the auxiliary verb (if there is one)
Step 3 → Include the verb to be conjugated in the same form as the main verb from
the active voice
Step 4 → Use the main verb in the past participle
Step 5 → Use subject of the active voice preceded by the preposition by (optional).

Passive Voice Step 2 Step 4

The report was being written by Kate.

Step 1 Step 3 Step 5

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Example 2

Active Voice main verb – Simple Past

Mark cleaned the house.

Subject object

Step 1 → The object of the active voice becomes the subject of the passive voice
Step 2 → Repeat the auxiliary verb (if there is one)
Step 3 → Include the verb to be conjugated in the same form as the main verb from
the active voice
Step 4 → Use the main verb in the past participle
Step 5 → Use subject of the active voice preceded by the preposition by (optional).

Passive Voice Step 3 Step 5

The house was cleaned by Mark.

Step 1 Step 4

Example 3

Active Voice auxiliary verb –

Present Continuous object

They are painting the office.

Subject main verb –

Present Continuous

Step 1 → The object of the active voice becomes the subject of the passive voice
Step 2 → Repeat the auxiliary verb (in case there is one)
Step 3 → Include the verb to be conjugated in the same form as the main verb from
the active voice
Step 4 → Use the main verb in the past participle
Step 5 → Use subject of the active voice preceded by the preposition by (optional).

Passive Voice Step 2

Step 4

The office is being painted.

Step 1 Step 3
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:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

Project Scope

Mr. Harrison – The scope of the new project was emailed to you this morning.
Please read it carefully. If you have questions, they should be sent to
Mr. Rodgers.
Julia – Is this the final scope?
Mr. Harrison – This is the final scope, all suggestions were taken into consideration.
But minor changes can still be made.
Ben – Perfect. We’ll start reading it today.

:: STAY ALERT

Intransitive verbs, some stative verbs, and some verbs of Movement do not take the passive voice.

This is where the accident happened. → No Passive Voice

(Intransitive Verb)

I like chocolate. → No Passive Voice

(Stative Verb)

I’m going to the beach. → No Passive Voice

(Verb of Movement)

:: COMMON MISTAKES

INCORRECT CORRECT
The office are being painted. The office is being painted.
Paris has been traveled by me. I have traveled to Paris.

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PRONOUN AMBIGUITY
:: USE AND STRUCTURE

Pronouns are used in the place of a noun, to which they refer. Pronoun ambiguity
happens when it is not clear in the context to which noun a pronoun is referring.

• Structure
Antecedent is Not Clear

“It’s not clear who the pronoun HE is

referring to since it was not mentioned
in the sentence.”

Pronoun Ambiguity: Thank God he is better now. Poor boy.

Asking for Clarification: Who are you talking about, mom?
Clarifying the Ambiguity: That singer who was in a car accident last week.

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External Reference is Not Clear

“It’s not clear what the pronoun THAT

is referring to since there are different
objects on the desk.”

Pronoun Ambiguity: Can you hand me that, please?

Asking for Clarification: 
Hand you what? The pen, the marker, the calculator, or
the stapler?
Clarifying the Ambiguity: The stapler, please.

More Than One Possible Reference

“It’s not clear what the pronoun THEY is

referring to. It could be referring either
to Michael’s parents or to the fruits.”

Pronoun Ambiguity: Michael’s parents brought us fruits. They are awesome!

Asking for Clarification: Michael’s parents or the fruits?
Clarifying the Ambiguity: Michael’s parents. I haven’t tried the fruits yet!

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:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

Taking the Babies to the Doctor

Wife – This is where you make a turn.

Husband – Where?
Wife – Here.
Husband – To the left or to the right?
Wife – To the right, as I’m showing.
Husband – Honey, you are in the back seat with the babies and I’m driving.
Wife – Sorry. Drop me here. Park the car and I’m going inside to talk to them.
Husband – To the babies?
Wife – No, to the doctors. Take my purse, the baby’s bag, and the car seats and put them in the trunk.
Husband – Are you going to leave your purse in the trunk?
Wife – No, take my purse and baby’s bag and put the car seats in the trunk.

R E V I E W

EXPLAINING HOW TO DO THINGS

:: USE AND STRUCTURE

Take a look at some resources one uses when explaining procedures.

Verbs
Imperatives → Verb form used to give commands, but it may also be used in requests.
Modal Verbs → Used to present options, mandatory steps, and advisable steps.
Modal Expressions → Be supposed to / Be able to / Be willing to

Expressions
Sequencing steps → First, / Second, / Then / After that, / The next thing you do... / Finally...
Reminders → Remember to... / Don’t forget to... / It is important to... / It is necessary to...
Asking for clarification → What do you mean? / Come again? / I don’t get it. / Can you repeat that?

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:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

Taking the Babies to the Doctor

Wife – This is where you make a turn.

Husband – Where?
Wife – Here.
Husband – To the left or to the right?
Wife – To the right, as I’m showing.
Husband – Honey, you are in the back seat with the babies and I’m driving.
Wife – Sorry. Drop me here. Park the car and I’m going inside to talk to them.
Husband – To the babies?
Wife – No, to the doctors. Take my purse, the baby’s bag, and the car seats and put them in the trunk.
Husband – Are you going to leave your purse in the trunk?
Wife – No, take my purse and baby’s bag and put the car seats in the trunk.

R E V I E W

EXPLAINING HOW TO DO THINGS

:: USE AND STRUCTURE

Take a look at some resources one uses when explaining procedures.

Verbs
Imperatives → Verb form used to give commands, but it may also be used in requests.
Modal Verbs → Used to present options, mandatory steps, and advisable steps.
Modal Expressions → Be supposed to / Be able to / Be willing to

Expressions
Sequencing steps → First, / Second, / Then / After that, / The next thing you do... / Finally...
Reminders → Remember to... / Don’t forget to... / It is important to... / It is necessary to...
Asking for clarification → What do you mean? / Come again? / I don’t get it. / Can you repeat that?

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Let’s see how these structures work in context.

If you want to make a music record, first,

have your songs ready. Second, you should
get some money to pay for the producer and
the recording studio. Then, schedule a few
hours with the studio. Remember that each
instrument is recorded separately. You may
make a single recording with the whole band
together but that will make corrections are lot
harder. Finally, be patient and pay attention to
detail during the mixing and post production.

Here are the elements we have in this piece of explanation:

Imperatives: ...have your songs ready / ...schedule a few hours with the studio. /...be patient...
Modals: ...you should get some money... / You may make a single recording...
Reminders: Remember that each instrument…
Expressions that show sequence: First / Second / Then / Finally

Now, take a look at a dialogue with some other elements.

Rajit – Anya, how can I send an email to the phone company?

Anya – OK, grandpa. First, place your hands on the keyboard and enter the company’s website.
Rajit – All right.
Anya – If you have their email, you can skip this part and use you email provider. So, after you
type in the message, you click on the send button.
Rajit – I don’t get it. Which button? Can you repeat that?
Anya – Sure, grandpa. There is a button with “send” written on it.

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L E S S O N 5

ADVERBS
:: USE AND STRUCTURE

Adverbs are used to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. They can express ideas of time,
frequency, place, and manner.

• Structure

Adverbs of Time

These adverbs are usually placed at the

end or in the beginning of the sentence.

I went to the movies yesterday. I’m thinking about going to the beach tomorrow.

What are you doing today? Next year, my girlfriend and I are going to get married.

Adverbs of Frequency

You are always late, Catherine. I rarely drive to work. I usually take the subway.
You need to start planning your day better.

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I had never seen snow before I moved

to Boston. Now I see it all the time.

Adverbs of Place

They are usually placed at the end of sentences.

Come here! I want to show you something. Oh, man! I can’t believe I left my phone behind.

Oops, you fell down! Get up! It’s time

to try again!

Adverbs of Manner

They are usually placed at the end of the sentences. They sometimes go in mid-position.

Many adverbs of manner are formed from the adjective by adding –LY.

I haven’t been feeling well lately. My boyfriend and I simply love this show!

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But some adverbs of manner have the same form as the adjectives.

Speak low. The children are sleeping. Don’t drive so fast. It’s dangerous.

Adverb Phrases

Groups of words, idioms or expressions can also work as adverb

phrases, implying the idea of time, frequency, place, or manner.

I only see my cousin once in a blue moon. I go to the gym every other day.
Idiom – Idea of Frequency Idiom – Idea of Frequency

It’s been a very long time since I traveled abroad. There’s a drugstore right across the street.
Adverb Phrase – Idea of Time Adverb Phrase – Idea of Place

:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

Ms. Williams – Good morning, Mrs. Thompson. This is

Ms. Williams speaking, Charlie’s teacher.
Mrs. Thompson – Good morning, Ms. Williams. How are you?
Ms. Williams – I’m fine. But I’m calling to talk about Charlie.
I’ve been worried about him lately. He
used to be an excellent student. He always
answered all the questions correctly. But on
the past few days, he’s been very distracted.
Mrs. Thompson – Well, it’s probably my fault, Ms. Williams.
I’m pregnant and I’ve been told to rest
practically all the time. Charlie and I used
to do everything together, he’s probably
jealous of the new baby.
Ms. Williams – Oh, now I understand it. Don’t worry, Mrs.
Thompson. I know how to deal with that.
And congratulations on the new baby.

:: COMMON MISTAKES

INCORRECT CORRECT
I just saw late at night your message. I just saw your message late at night.
We never have been so close to each other. We have never been so close to each other.
They seemed happily. They seemed happy.
They were happy married. They were happily married.

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BE GOING TO (PAST)
:: USE AND STRUCTURE

• Use

Be Going To (in the Past) → Used to express the idea of future from a past perspective. It refers to
plans and intentions in the past.

• Structure

Affirmative: Subject + Verb To Be in the Past + Going To + Main Verb

Negative: Subject + Verb To Be in the Past + Not + Going To + Main Verb
Interrogative: Verb To Be in the Past + Subject + Going To + Main Verb

Mark was going to meet us at the restaurant but he got stuck at work.
Past Plan or Intention

I wasn’t going to travel on the weekend, but then Nick called and convinced me to go.
Past Plan or Intention

I’m sorry, did I interrupt you? Were you going to say something?
Past Plan or Intention

:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

Brad’s Back
Brad – Megan, how are you?
Megan – Brad! I didn’t know you were back. Last time we met you
were going to travel to Japan on business. How was it?
Brad – Yes, and I did! It was awesome. I was going to spend six
months there but we managed to finish the work earlier
so I came back after three months.
Megan – Oh! Too bad I didn’t know. I was going to call you two
weeks ago to invite you to Jim’s birthday but I ended up
not calling because I thought you were still in Japan.
Brad – I wish I could have been there. But I wouldn’t make it
anyway. I got back two days ago.

:: STAY ALERT

Very often in spoken language, and sometimes in informal written

language, going to tends to be contracted to gonna.

I was gonna read it today. → In spoken language = informal

In written language = very informal

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THIRD CONDITIONAL
:: USE AND STRUCTURE

• Use

Third Conditional → Refers to past situations that cannot be changed. Something would have
changed the past course of events, if you had done it differently.

• Structure

Third Conditional

If + Subject + Past Perfect + Complement, Subject + Would + Present Perfect + Complement

If Mark had played, we would have won the game.

Present Fact → We lost the game.

Past Condition that could have changed it → Mark playing in the team.
Is it possible to fulfill this condition and change the course of events? → No.

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If you guys hadn’t helped me, I wouldn’t have understood this topic.

Present Fact → I understand the topic.

Past Condition that could have changed it → Not being helped by my friends.
Is it possible to fulfill this condition and change the course of events? → No.

:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

College Graduation

Daughter – Mom, I can’t thank you enough for everything you have done.
Mother – There’s nothing to thank me for.
Daughter – If you hadn’t supported and encouraged me so much, I would never have made it.
Mother – Of course you would! You are an amazing girl. Even if I hadn’t been there for you,
you would have been as successful as you are today.

:: COMMON MISTAKES

INCORRECT CORRECT
If you had called, I would told you. If you had called, I would have told you.
If I have met Mary, I would have invited her. If I had met Mary, I would have invited her.

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PAIRED CONJUNCTIONS: REVIEW

:: USE AND STRUCTURE

• Use

Paired Conjunctions → Used to Give Options

Used to Deny Options
Used to Add Information
Used to Sequence Ideas

• Structure

A. Giving Options

Either…or…
Frequently used before equivalent elements in a sentence.
When used before two subjects the verb agrees with the last subject.

We could visit either a museum or the historical Either Brad or Jonas is able to help you with this
city in the afternoon. Which one do you prefer? task. Ask one of them.

Whether…or…
Used before a conditional sentence in which you present options.

I don’t know whether I should stick to plan A This is one of those movies that in the end I didn’t
or go straight to plan B. know whether to laugh or to cry.

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B. Denying Options

Neither…nor…
Frequently used before equivalent elements in a sentence.
When used before two subjects the verb agrees with the last subject.

Neither the teacher nor his assistant is in the You are neither playing video games nor watching
classroom. TV. You are grounded.

C. Adding Information

Not only…but also…

Frequently used with inversion.
When used before two subjects the verb agrees with the last subject.

Both…and…
Frequently used before equivalent elements in a sentence.
When used before two subjects the verb agrees with both subjects.

Not only is John a great professional but he is

also a great friend.

John is both a great professional and a good

friend.

Not only I but also my whole family is moving

to Chicago.

Both I and my whole family are moving to

Chicago.

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D. Sequencing Ideas

No sooner…than…
Frequently used with inversion.
Implies the idea that one action happens immediately after another took place.

No sooner had Patricia arrived than the meeting No sooner had I washed the car than it started to
started. rain.

:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

Talking About your Day at Work

Wife – You arrived late today, baby. What happened?
Husband – No sooner had I left the office than the system went
down. I had to go back and I was only able to leave
again twenty minutes ago.
Wife – Really? Oh my God. Is everything OK now?
Husband – Well, we managed to put it online again but I didn’t
figure what caused the problem. So I don’t know
whether it is going to happen again or not. Oh, and
by the way, honey, I brought neither the milk nor the
fruit you asked.
Wife – Don’t worry, honey. I’m going out now. I can stop by
either the market or the grocery store on the corner.

:: STAY ALERT

When we talk about a condition with options, it’s advisable to use whether…or…
I don’t know whether I should stick to plan A or go straight to plan B.

However, in informal spoken language you will often hear it with if.
I don’t know if I should stick to plan A or go straight to plan B.

:: COMMON MISTAKES

INCOR RECT CORRECT

We can go or to the theatre or to the movies. We can go either to the theatre or to the movies.
Both Zack and Karen are not going to the party. Neither Zack nor Karen is going to the party.

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RELATIVE PRONOUNS: WHOM, WHEN, WHERE

:: USE AND STRUCTURE

• Use

Relative Pronouns → Used to join sentences avoiding repetition. They can replace people, things, places,
dates or ideas previously mentioned.

Whom → Refers to people (when they are the object in a sentence).

When → Refers to dates.
Where → Refers to places preceded by prepositions.

• Structure

Whom

Sentence 1: That is the new sales manager, Rachel.

Sentence 2: I met Rachel in yesterday’s meeting.

Rachel is being repeated and is the object of the second

sentence so we can join the two sentences by replacing it with
the relative pronoun WHOM.

Sentence 2

That is the new sales manager, Rachel, whom I met in yesterday’s meeting.

Sentence 1

Sentence 1: This is Scott, our web designer.

Sentence 2: You are going to work with Scott.

Scott is being repeated and is the object of the second sentence

so we can join the two sentences by replacing it with the relative
pronoun WHOM.

Sentence 2

This is Scott, our web designer with whom you are going to work.

Sentence 1

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When

Sentence 1: Julian and I got married in 2009.

Sentence 2: I graduated from college in 2009.

The time expression in 2009 is being repeated so we can join

the two sentences by replacing it with the relative pronoun
WHEN.

Sentence 2

Julian and I got married in 2009, when I graduated from college.

Sentence 1

Where

Sentence 1: I love Buenos Aires.

Sentence 2: I lived in Buenos Aires for three years.

Buenos Aires is being repeated and is preceded by the

preposition IN so we can join the two sentences by replacing it
with the relative pronoun WHERE.

Sentence 2

I love Buenos Aires, where I lived for three years.

Sentence 1

:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT
New Branch
Anthony – Mark, this is Karen Simpson from Human
Resources. She has recently been transferred
to Dallas. Karen, this Mark Hamilton, our
lawyer, whom you should consult if you have
questions about those contracts.
Karen – Mark, hadn’t we met before in Chicago, where
I used to work?
Mark – Sure. We met last year, when I spent a few
days working there. Welcome to our Dallas
branch.
Karen – Thank you.
Anthony – Excellent!

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:: STAY ALERT
Who vs. Whom

Whom is considered to be more formal than who, therefore less frequent. It can always be replaced by who.
Just pay attention to the position of the prepositions – if there’s one.

That is the new sales manager, Rachel, whom I met in yesterday’s meeting. → Formal
That is the new sales manager, Rachel, who I met in yesterday’s meeting. → Neutral

This is Scott, our web designer with whom you are going to work. → Formal
This is Scott, our web designer who you are going to work with. → Neutral

:: COMMON MISTAKES

INCORRECT CORRECT
I love Paris, where is a very romantic city. I love Paris, which is a very romantic city.
That is the man who you should talk. That is the man who you should talk to. /
That is the man to whom you should talk.

L E S S O N 6

CONNECTORS: REVIEW
:: USE AND STRUCTURE

• Use

Cause and Effect

Hence That’s why

Thus Because of that
As a consequence / Consequently As a result

I’ve just learned I’ll have to work on the weekend, that’s

why / because of that I’m not going to the game with
you guys.

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:: STAY ALERT
Who vs. Whom

Whom is considered to be more formal than who, therefore less frequent. It can always be replaced by who.
Just pay attention to the position of the prepositions – if there’s one.

That is the new sales manager, Rachel, whom I met in yesterday’s meeting. → Formal
That is the new sales manager, Rachel, who I met in yesterday’s meeting. → Neutral

This is Scott, our web designer with whom you are going to work. → Formal
This is Scott, our web designer who you are going to work with. → Neutral

:: COMMON MISTAKES

INCORRECT CORRECT
I love Paris, where is a very romantic city. I love Paris, which is a very romantic city.
That is the man who you should talk. That is the man who you should talk to. /
That is the man to whom you should talk.

L E S S O N 6

CONNECTORS: REVIEW
:: USE AND STRUCTURE

• Use

Cause and Effect

Hence That’s why

Thus Because of that
As a consequence / Consequently As a result

I’ve just learned I’ll have to work on the weekend, that’s

why / because of that I’m not going to the game with
you guys.

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Pollution and bad public health policies have been

increasing, as a consequence people have been suffering.

Condition

Unless If
Otherwise Whether

Take a look at these clothes and check whether Unless it rains, we are going to the park tomorrow.
you want to keep something. Otherwise, I’ll give
them all away.

Exemplification

For example Such as

As an example Namely

Luke is a very experienced engineer. He has You should eat healthier food, for example /
worked in several countries such as Germany, namely fruits and vegetables.
England and Sweden.

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Making a Formal Contrast

Despite Despite the fact

In spite of In spite of the fact

Despite / In spite of being an excellent student, Julie got a bad grade in the exam.

“Followed by a verb in the –ING form.”

Despite the fact / In spite of the fact that Julie is an excellent student, she got a bad grade in the exam.

“Followed by That + Complete Clause.”

Despite / In spite of the rumors, Tom and Maggie are still together.

“Followed by a Noun.”

Despite the fact / In spite of the fact that there were rumors, Tom and Maggie are still together.

“Followed by That + Complete Clause.”

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Despite / In spite of the bad results, the financial manager is not going to be replaced.

“Followed by an Adjective + Noun.”

Despite the fact / In spite of the fact that the company had bad results, the financial manager is not going to be
replaced.
“Followed by That + Complete Clause.”

:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

Wedding Anniversary

Rose – What are we going to do on our first anniversary? I’d love

to have a big party, unless you don’t feel like it.
Mike – Baby, we have barely finished paying for our wedding!
Maybe we should just have a get-together, with close
people, such as Liam, Claudia, our parents, and siblings.
Otherwise, we might be a little short on money.
Rose – Honey, I think that in spite of the fact that we may have
to make an effort now, we will keep the memory forever.
If life is not meant to be celebrated, what is it for?
Mike – OK, what if we meet half way? We have neither a big
party nor a simple get-together and we can work on
something in between.
Rose – Perfect!

:: COMMON MISTAKES

INCORRECT CORRECT
Despite she is a good teacher, today’s class was not Despite the fact / In spite of the fact that she is a
very good. good teacher, today’s class was not very good.
Despite it was late, we decided to go. Despite / In spite of being late, we decided to go.

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CONDITIONALS: REVIEW
:: USE AND STRUCTURE

Conditional Sentences → Combined clauses relating possible causes and consequences.

→ Infer present facts, future hypothesis, or different hypothetical outcomes for
something that has already happened.
→ Four types: zero conditional, first conditional, second conditional, and third
conditional.

Let’s review all of them.

• Zero Conditional → Facts

Structure: If-clause with verb in the Simple Present + Clause with the Simple Present
If you’re sick, you need to see a doctor.

• First Conditional → Refers to possible or likely situations in the present or future.

Structure: If-clause with verb in the Simple Present + Clause with Will, Can, May, or Be Going To
If you eat healthy during the week, you can give yourself a treat on the weekend.

• Second Conditional → Refers to present or future situations that the speaker thinks to be impossible or
unlikely.

Structure: If-clause with verb in the Simple Past + Clause with Would or Could
If I didn’t have to work, I would live on the road.

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• Third Conditional → Refers to hypothetical past situations that cannot be changed.

Structure: If-clause with verb in the Past Perfect + Clause with Would Have, Could Have, or Might Have
If Nick had taken a taxi, he could have arrived on time.
(He took the bus and arrived late. That cannot be changed now.)

:: STAY ALERT

When the If-clause comes first, you need to use a comma to split the conditional sentence.
When the If-clause comes second, you don’t use a comma to split the conditional sentence.

If I had met you before, I’d have invited you to travel with me.
=
I’d have invited you to travel with me if I had met you before.

:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

Playing Cupid
Carly – Kevin, I have someone to introduce you to. If you go out
with her, you’ll fall in love.
Kevin – Thanks but I’m not interested.
Carly – What do you mean you’re not interested? You’ll never
find a girlfriend if you don’t go out with anyone.
Kevin – I never asked you to hook me up with anyone. If
I’d asked you to find me someone, it would be a
completely different situation. Besides, who says I’m
single?
Carly – All right.

:: COMMON MISTAKES

INCOR RECT CORRECT

If I knew, I will help you. If I knew, I would help you.
If you had studied harder, you will pass. If you had studied harder, you would have passed.
If I get transferred, I would live on my own. If I get transferred, I will live on my own.

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PERFECT FORMS: REVIEW

:: USE AND STRUCTURE

 ormed by the Auxiliary Verb Have + Past Participle, each verb form
F
with a particular structure.
Perfect Forms
 hows events that happened or started earlier than another moment
S
(past, present, or future).

• Present Perfect (Have/Has + Verb in Past Participle)

The speaker sees a past action from a present perspective. This past action may refer to the present
through relevance or continuity.

1. Reference of Relevance → Action that happened at any time before now and still affects the present.
The time when the action happened is rather unknown or irrelevant.

I’ve studied English in London, and that inspired me

to get a degree in Languages.

(This person is probably an English teacher in the

present, so this information is relevant now.)

The present perfect can be used with certain adverbs that will add meaning to the verb.

Have you ever studied English? (Ever → any time in your life)
Nick has already worked as a teacher. (Already → before now or sooner than expected)
Ian has just arrived from Paris. (Just → a short time before now)
Tony has never been interested in Languages. (Never → no time until now)
Sarah hasn’t graduated yet. (Yet → not before now but will in the future)

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2. Reference of Continuity → Action that started in the past and continues up to the present.

Mary has lived in Miami since 2001.

(This action started in 2001 and is still true in the
present.)

When referring to continuity, the present perfect can be used with the following adverbs.

Nat and Sam have been married since 2005. (Since → marks the beginning of the action)
Nat and Sam have been married for ten years. (For → marks the duration of the action)
Tim has always dreamed about buying a house with a pool. (Always → 100% of the time since childhood)

• Present Perfect Continuous (Have/Has + Been + Verb in –ING Form)

The speaker refers to an action that started in the past and continues up to now, focusing on
showing the progression or continuity of such action.

Michael has been planning to move abroad.

(By using this structure, there is no doubt that Michael
started planning at some point in the past and he is
still planning it.)

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The present perfect continuous might be interchangeable with the present perfect in regards of
actions that continues up to the present. However, the present perfect needs contextual support.

Michael has planned to move abroad since 2005.

Michael has planned to move abroad for years.
(In both sentences, you can’t tell whether Michael has already moved abroad.)

Michael has been planning to move abroad.

(It is clear that he hasn’t moved abroad yet.)

• Past Perfect (Had + Past Participle)

The speaker looks back from the present moment to a past action that was completed before
another past action or moment in the past. We refer to it as “the past of the past.”

Abby had failed the driving test twice before she

finally passed.
(Abby has passed the test after two failed attempts.)

• Past Perfect Continuous (Had + Been + Verb in –ING Form)

The speaker looks back from the present moment to past actions that had extended
from a point in the past to another past moment closer to the present.

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Lana had been trying to call Mike when she saw him
park his car.
(Lana made repeated attempts to call Mike then, as
she took another look, she saw him park.)

:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

At Home
Jules – Hey, mom, listen up.
Kate – Jules, did you stop by the grocery store?
Jules – What? No…I’ve just arrived from school.
Kate – Come on! I’d left you a note by your computer!
Haven’t you seen it?
Jules – No, sorry, I didn’t.
Kate – Your dad has been bugging me for a cake, now what?
Jules – Ask him to buy some. I’m going to Parker’s house for
the weekend, OK?
Kate – What? No…you never told me about it.
Jules – I’d been meaning to tell you before you started this
grocery store thing.

REPORTED SPEECH: INTRODUCTION

:: USE AND STRUCTURE

Reported Speech → Retelling a story or something you witnessed.

→ You report statements, questions, and commands.
→ You can keep the verb form of the original sentence or change it.

Reporting Statements

When you retell a dialogue, you can send the verb one step into the past (backshift) or you can keep the verb
form used in the original dialogue.

Maintaining the Verb Changing the Verb (Backshift)

When the speaker retells the story on the same When the speaker retells the story days
day it happened or when the intention is to make later or when the speaker chooses to do so
the story more vivid. It is a matter of speaker’s to emphasize the story happened in the past.
choice.

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If you opt to change, here are some backshifts you can make.

Direct Speech Reported Speech

Simple Present Simple Past
Simple Past Simple Past / Past Perfect
Present Continuous Past Continuous
Past Continuous Past Continuous or Past Perfect Continuous
Present Perfect Past Perfect
Will Would
Can Could
May Might
Must Had To

General Structure of Reported Speech

Reporting Clause (with or without a conjunction) + Reported Statement

Mary, Carl said (that) he wanted to talk to you.
(Direct Speech: Carl – I want to talk to Mary.)

Reporting Verbs

When retelling a story, there are some verbs that will help. Let’s see some of them.

Say
Mentions something specific. → Liam said he loved the party. (Direct Speech: Liam – I loved the party.)

Tell
Narrates a story or gives a command. → Benny told me about his divorce. (Direct Speech: Benny –
I’m getting a divorce.)

Ask
Reports questions. → Daniel asked me if I was tired. (Direct Speech: Daniel – Are you tired?)

Answer
Reports answers to questions. → I answered that I was tired. (Direct Speech: Leo – I am tired.)

:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

Asking about Someone

Sam – Hey, Jake, have you seen Kim?
Jake – Yes, I have. What about her?
Sam – I haven’t seen her in such a long time. She said
she was going to move abroad.
Jake – Oh, yeah. She asked me if I wanted to go with
her.
Sam – So, what did you say?
Jake – I answered that it’s not that simple. Come on,
I’d need money and I don’t know if I want to go.
Sam – Fair enough. Well, if you see her around, tell
her to call me, please.
Jake – Will do.

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