between uand v

Aim:
between 'u' and 'v',
To find the focal length of convex lens by plotting graphs
Apparatus required:
A source box with filament lamp, metre
scale, lens holder, screcn, given convex lens ctc...

Theory: 1 1 1
According to lens formula as 'u' is ncgativc and 'v'is positive.

1 1 1 1

Therefore f=

Where u - distance of the object from lens in cm.

V -Distance of image from the lens in cm.
f- Focal length of the given convex lens in cm.
According to sign conventions f is positive in cm.
Ray Diagram:

8
8'

Model Graph:
GRAPH BETWEENuAND V
Scale
X'-axis : t cm =.. cm of u
Y'-axis: l cm=cm of v

v(cm)

45°
B

Fu(cm).
 10

Procedure:
towads distant tree (or)
I) Find loutthe rough focal length by foousing the givenlens
build1ng and obtain the image on screen
2) This distancebetwcen the lens is rough focal length.
3) Keep the source box and screen, on both the sides of the lens.
4) Place the given lens at a distance arOund2f from source.
S) Note the distance between lens and object (object distance "u').
0) Adjust position of screen and obtain a clear image and note the distance bet ween the lers
and screen (image distance 'v').
7) Repeat the experiment for different values of 'u and corresponding values of 'v Is
measured.
8) Record observations and calculate focal length using the formula.
Table for u-v Method

Object distance Image distance Focal length

S.No F=
u+v
(cm) (cm) (cm)
1. ho c M
hacm
2.
30 C
3. 26 emy
4. 36 cm

5.

Mean Focal length= Cm

Result:
Focal length of given convex lens from
Distant object method 20 cm

u-V graph cm

U-v calculations

Precautions:
1. Aiways lens should be fixed vertically in a lens holder.
2. Measure distance between lens and screen only when clean, well-defined image of object is
obtained.

Sources of error:

1. There may be aparallax error while measuring distances.

2. Unifom intensity of light on cross- wire may not be adequate to form wel-defined image on
the screen.
3. Lens may not be fixcd vertically.
 22

values of'u',in case of a

10. To find the value of 'v' for different length.
concave mirror and find the focal
Aim: focal
concave mirror and findthe
values ofu', in case of a
To find the value ofv' for different
length.
Apparatusrequired:
concave mirror etc.,
lamp, metre scale, mirror holder, screen, given
A source box with filament
Theory:
According to mirror formula
1
+ =1 here both u' and 'y' are negative.

1 1
Therefore +
-u

Thus f = (
According to sign conventions, fbecomes negative.
Where u- distance of object from the mirror in cm
y- Distance of image from the mirror in cm.

f- Focal length of the given concave mirror in cm.

Procedure:
1) Find out the rough focal length by focusing the
mirror towards distant tree (or) building and
obtain the image on screen.
2) This distance between the mirror and the screen is rough focal length.
3) Keep the source box and screen, facing the mirror.
4) Place the mirror at a distance around 2f from source.

5) Note the distance miror and object (object distance 'u').

distance between the mirror
6) Adjust position of screen and obtain a clear image and note the
and screen (image distance "y').
ofy'.
7) Repeat the experiment for different values of 'u' and corresponding values
8) Record observations and calculate focal length using the given formula.
 --23 --

Ray Diagrams:

LoNCAVE MiRkOR
focAL LLNGIH_Ot

) invehed
e) dininished
d)bmed ad F

A ) eal
)inwaed
c) dininished

3Oyict adat C: Amag

a) eal
b) invehled
c) bame

Ymape
A
a) sead

c) enlangud
a) Jomid beyord

) inweed
F
 --24

Table for U-V Method

Nature of Object Image
the image distance distance
S.No
(cm)
(cm)
(em)

1. U< 2f

2, U<2f 3cm
U=2f hoem 79.6em
3.

4. U>2f

5. U>2f
koem2 Sem8em

Mean focal length = 142 Cm

Result:
Focal length of concave mirror from
Distant object method = 4 cm

u -v calculations = 14ém

Precautions:
the mirror holder
1. Always mirror should be fixed vertically in
screen only when clean, well-defined image of object
2. Measure distance between miror and
is obtained.

Sources of error:

1. Miror may not be fixed vertically.

2. There may be parallax error.

loo >6o)

(l 2Po9)

|Gos

|943
 -20.-

9. To determine the focal length of given concave lens using

convex lens.
Aim:

To determine the focal length of given Concave lens using Convex lens.

Apparatus required:
Asource box with filament amps, metre scale, lens holder, wooden screcn, given Concave and
Convex lens.

Theory:
as donc for a
As Concave lens forms only virtual image, its focal length cannot be found directly
wire gauge
convex lens. For this purposc indirect mcthod is uscd as describcd. Thc image Iof
concave
of the lamp box should be focused on the scrccn with the hclp of convex lens L. The
convex lens L
lens L is placed between convex lens L, The concave lens L, is placed between
formed at I' as shown in
and image I. The concave lens diverges the rays and the image is now
Hence Ol = U and
the diagram. For concave lens, I is the virtual object and I' is the real image.
0,I' = V. Focal length can be calculated using lens formula.

111
f v u

Ray Diagram:

KE
0 - 08JECT

0,- OPcAL CGNRE lwvex LbNS

ly CoNcAVE LENS

I' IMAcGE FokME D By ComeLNAT1ON

W- harUAL OBJEc1 PisTANCA FoR CoNeAVE LENs
 21

Procedure:

a) To determine rough focal

length of convex lens
and face the convex Jens fowards
Mount the convex lens holder. Go out in the open
painted wall (screen)
distant tree of building. Obtain image of trce or building on white
on wall. Measure the
and movc the lens forward and backward to get a sharp image
lens.
distance between convex lens and wall which gives rough focal length of convex
b) To Determine the focal length of concave lens
With the help of the given convex lens trace diminishcd images on screen and that
position should be T' (see to that the distance between convex lens and screen should be
minimum of 10cm). Now introduce the given concave lens too close to the screen. Now
between the
adjust the screen till you get the clear image and mark it as I'. Now distance
concave lens and critical position of screen (I) is 'u' and critical position of screen (°I') is
v. Repeat the experiment for diferent set of object distance 'u' and trace clear image
for it. Follow the same procedure to calculate the image and the object distance.

Focal Length of Combination (E)

Distance between concave lens Distance between concave lens

Focal length
and initial position of screen and final position of screen
f=
No. u-v

(cm) (cm)
(cm)

Mean value of focal length =h: 38_cm

Result: I.3 m.
Focal length of given concave lens = 38 cm

Precautions:
!. Focal length of convex lens should be smaller than focal length of concave lens.
2. Principal axis should be parallel to base.

Sources of error:

1. Lenses may not be fixed upright.

2. Parallax error.
 --33 --

13. To draw 1-V

characteristics of p-n junction diode
Aim: characteristics
To draw IV
characteristics of p-n junction in forward bias and
reverse bias.
Apparatus required:
A p-n junction
Wires etc. semiconductor diode, a 3 Vbattery. a Milli-Ammeter, Ammcter,
connccting
Theory:
When Psection of the diode is connected to
teminal of the battery, p-n junction positive of battery and N
is said to be forward biased. The scction to negative
voltage at which forward current increases value of forward
rapidly is called 'cut in voltage' or threshold bias
When the polarity of battery is reversed in the voltage.
above circuit it is reversed biased.
Procedure:
Forward biasing
Make the circuit diagram as showm
below. Note Jeast count and zero error of
milli-Ammeter. Increase forward bias voltage as 0.1 Voltmeter and
milli-Ammeter current. Record observations and plot V-IV graph.
reverse, 0.2V 0.9V. Note down

Reverse Biasing
Make the circuit as shown. Increase reverse
micro Ammeter curent. biasing voltage in steps of 0.5V to 4V. Note down
Record observations and plot V-I graph.
Circuit Diagram:

TeNZAL
DVEDER
e0+0+

ke:
mA- Mu AmMyA

h-n JuseT Low ProbE ReveRSE B1ASED : Rh- Raso$TAT

foTEATSAL V VoLIETLR
-0 K- Oe Why KEy

-
 34 -

Model Graph
Reverse Biased:
Forward Biased:

FORWARD QIASCHARACTERIAIC CURVE OF

JUNCTION DIODE
A AEVERSE BIAS CHARACTERISTIC CURVE OF AJUNCTION DIODE
Bcale Scale:
XaxÍs cm X-axis: 1cm 5.0 Vof V.
Yaxis : Icn mA of L
Y-axis:1 cm a5 uA of l
feveroetlis volige,(Vjinv
40
10 75

(-15

(-23.-15) 15

-25.-25)
5
25
02-04 o82 6 2 0 212

Note: Calculation for slop is not needed.

Forward and Reverse biasing:

Forward biasing Reverse biasing

V
SI. No.
(mA) (volts) (u A) (volts)
1.

2.

4.

6.
7

8
9
12
10.

Result:

VI characteristics curve of 'p-n' junction diode in forward and reverse bias are drawn and the
cut in or threshold voltage of the given "p-n' junction diode is

Precautions:

1. Allconnections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. Reverse bias voltage greater than brcak down voltage should not be applicd.
3. While doing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the diode. This may lead to
damage of the diode.,

Sources of error:

1. The junction diode supplied may be faulty.

2. Polarity on diodes may be wrong.
ACTIVITIES
 --42 --

1. To assemble a household cireuit comprising three bulbs,thrce (on/of)

Switches, a fuse anda power sourcc.
Aim: To Asemble ahousehold circuit comprising of three bulbs, three (on / off) switches, afuse
and a power source.
Apparatus Required:
Three bulbs (6v, Iw), fuse of 0.6 A, main switch, a power supply, three (on/of) switches,
flexible connecting wires with red and black plastic covering, fuse wire, main clectric board with
a two - pin socket.
Theory:
Electricity supplied to us for domesticpurposes is 220 VA.C and 50Hz. The houschold circuit
has all appliances connected in parallel with mains. The switches are connected in serics with
each appliance in live wire. 5A switches are required for normal appliances like bulbs,
fluorescent tubes,fans, etc. 15A sockets and switches are required for heavy load appliances like
refrigerator, air conditioner, geyser, etc. All appliances must have three wires called live, neutral
and earth. Total power consumption 'P' at a timc.
P =P +P +P; t....
where P, P2, P; are power drawn by appliances. To protect the appliances from damage when
unduly high curents are drawn, a fuse of 10 to 20% higher rating than the current normally
drawn by appliances is used. For further safety, a suitable value 'mains fuse', rating 32A is
connected in series with supply source.
Procedure:
L. Connect the bulbs B1, B2 and B3 in series with switches SI, $2 and S3 respectively and
connect each set ofB-S in parallel with each other.
2. Connect main supply to a step-down transformer to get required voltage from 0 to 10V.
3. Connect the main fuse M.S in scries with the power supply.
4. Connect an A.C Ammeter in series with the B-S set.
5. Connect one end of power supply to onc end of B-S set.
6. Check the circuit once to ensure that household circuit is complete.
7. Gradually increase the current to 0.75A, the fuse must burm off at about 0.6A.

CIRCII DEAnRAM:

P.S.
M.S.
F

KEY:
B,,Bz, By - BuLas
S,, Sa, Ss -SwITcHES
A- A.C. AmmE TER
F Fv5E
P.S. - Po WER SUPPLY
M.&. - MAIN SwITCH
Conclusion:
The household circuit is assembled using components.
 clectrical circuit
1 To assemble the compeents
sof a given
ver cie
Aim: To assemble the compongnts oe a

an uninown
Apparatus Required: oDe way key.
A Volreter, an Ammeter of apçroçrae g.
rSsnce conncang wres

Procedure:
ensw eact obc nd then in sens
(sss rus
. Cocnet the cumponens
wth the butery
CIr TESU
2Cocnect he Ammer n seres w
RSST RSur orore
3 Conrect Volmeter inpurallei
4 Coorect the swch n sres w uer

Circait Dingr1m:

1.
)

KE:
A-AmnEER
5-BTERy
R-Ris15Tsê

Canciusise:
The eiecEI t
 44

3. To draw the diagram of agiven open circuit comprising of at least

a battery, resistor/ rheostat, key, ammeter and voltmeter, Mark the
componcnts that arc not connected in proper order and correct the
circuit and also the circuit diagram
Aim:

To draw the diagram of agiven open circuit comprising of at least abattery, resistor, rheostat,
key, Ammeter and Voltmeter. To mark the componcnts that are not connccted in proper order
and correct the circuit and also the circuit diagram.

Apparatus Required:
Abattery, a rheostat, a resistance box, a one way key, an Ammeter and a Voltmeter.

Theory:
An open circuit is a combination of primary components of electric circuit in such a manner that
on closing the circuit, no current is drawn from the battery.
Circuit Diagram:

B Rh

KEy:
A-AMMETER
B- BATTERy
Rh RHEOSTAT
R- REsISToR
V- VoLTMETER
k- ONE MWAY KEy
Procedure:

I. Ammeter It should be connected in series with the battery.

II. Voltmeter It should be connected in parallel to the resistor.
III. Rheostat : It should be connected in series with the battery.
IV, Resistance Coil: It should be connected in scries with the battery.
V. One Way Key : It should be connected in series with the battery.

°pen
 45 --

4. To identify a diode, an LED, atransistor, an IC, a resistor and a

Capacitor from a mixed collection of such items.
Aim:

lo identify a diode, an LED. a transistor. an 1C aresistor and a capacitor trom a mikou

collection of such items.

Apparatus Required:
Multimetre, Diode, LED, Transistor, IC, Resistor, Capacitor.

Theory:
For identification, appearance and working of each itenm will bave to be considered.
1. A DIODE is a two teminal device. It also condncts when forward bjased and doesn't conduct
when reverse biased. It does not emit light while conducting and hence, does not glow.
2. ALED (Light Emitting Diode) is also a two terminal device. It also conducts when forward
biased and doesn't conduct when reverse bjased. It emits light while conducting and hence, it
glows.
3. A TRANSISTOR is a three terminal device. The terminals represent Emitter (E), Base (B) and
Collector (C).
4. An IC (Integrated Circuit) is a multi-teminal device to form of chip.
5. A RESISTOR is a two terminal device. It conducts when either forward or reverse biased. It
conducts even when operated with A.C. Voltage. When acapacitor is connected in series, it is
R.Ccircuit.
6. A
CAPACITOR is a twoterminal device. It does not conduct when either forward or reverse
bjased.When connected to a D.C source, multi-meter initially shows full scale current, but it
decays to zero quickly. It is because the capacitor gets charged up initially.

Diagrams:

I DroDES
LED

I TRANSIST OR

I ITE GRATED CIRCuIT5

 46

CAR DON
RES1SToR

I CAPACITOR

PAPER ELECTROLYTIC

Procedure:
chip, it is an IC.
more terminals and has a form of
1. If the item has four or
terminals, it is a transistor.
2. If the items have three
diode or LED.
terminals, it may be resistor, capacitor,
3. If the item has two
resistance R ofa multi-mcter for checking thc continuity.
Todifferentiate, put the selector or common (black
terminals marked on multi-meter as
The probe metal ends are inserted in
probe) and P(+ve) (red probe).
two other metal ends of a probe,
On touching the two cnds of device to the
when reversed
applicd in onc way and docs not move
i) If pointer moves when voltage is
and there is light emission, it is a LED.
reversed
applicd in onc way and does not move when
i1) If pointer moves when voltage is
diode.
and there is no light emission, it is a
one way and also when reverscd, it is a
ii) If pointer moves when voltage is applied in
resistor.
one way and also when reversed, it
iv) If pointer does not move when voltage is applicd in
is a capacitor.
Conclusion:
The components are identified.
 .47 --
beam oflight
lateral deviation of a
5. To observe refraction and l
obliqucly on a glass slab.
incident
Aim: obl1qucly on a gglaass slab.
deviation of abcam1oflightincident
To observe refraction andlatcral
Apparatus Required:
pins and protractor.
slab, drawing board, white papcr shect, drawing pins, office
Glass
since
Theory: bends towards the normal
(PO) incident on the face AB of ølass slah. it
When a ray of light travel along straight
from rarer to denser medium. The refracted ray (OR)
retraction takes place refraction takes place
DC of slab and bends awav from the normal since
line and incident on face
emergent ray.
(RS) out through face DC is called
from denser to rarer medium. The ray
1. The incident ray is parallel to the emergent ray i.e. i = e.
2. The emergent ray is laterally deviated
from its original path by a distance
d=t secr.sin (i - r) cm.
Ray Diagram:
KEY
ABcD hLASS SLAB
|.B, PINS
tTHICKNESS OF hLASS SAs
i-ANaLE OF INcrDENCE
e- ANGLE OF EMERaENCE
N,,N, NoRMALS
dlaERAL DEVEATLQN

Procedure:
1. Fix a white paper sheet by drawing pins on a drawing board.
2. Take aglass slab and put it symmetrically in the middle of the paper and mark its boundary
ABCD.
3. Draw a normal at point Q on face AB and draw a line PQ making an angle 'i' with the normal.
PQ willrepresent the incident ray.
4. Fix twO pins at points I and 2 on the line PO at distances lcm or more between themselves.
5. See images of these pins through face DC and fix two more pins at points 3 and 4 such that
these two pins cover the images of first two pins, all being along astraight line.
6. Remove glass slab. Draw aline RS through 3and 4.This is emergent ray and QR represents
refracted ray.
7. Measure angle 'e'. Produce PQ forward to cut DC at T. Draw TUperpendicular to RS. TU
measures lateral displacement 'd'.
8. Repeat the experiment.
Conclusions:
1. Angle of incidence (1) = Angle of emergence (e)
2. Lateral displacement increases with thickness.
3. Lateral displacement increases with the angle of incidence.
 (a) To Study the Nature & Size Of the Image Formed By a
Convex lens On a Screen By Using a Candle & a Screen (For
Different Distances Of the Candle From the lens)

Aim
To study the nature and size of the image formed by a convex lens on a screen by
using a candle and a screen (for different distances of the candle from the lens).

Apparatus
An optical bench with three uprights, a convex lens with holder, a burning candle, a
card-board screen.

Theory

From lens formula,

when u= (infinite), U=f

when u=-2f, v=2f
when v= o(ininite)
when u<-f), o becomes negative, (image becomes virtual).
As the object (burning candle) is moved from infinity towards the convex lens, Its Image
(position of screen) moves from lens focus towards infinity.
For candle distance less than focal length, image becomes virtual and does not come
on screen.

Diagram
Simllar to Ray diagram (Experiment 3: Section B) having a burning candle in place of
object needle and cardboard screen in place of image needle.
Procedure
Find rough focal length of the convex lens by usual method.
Mount the convex lens in holder in central upright and keep it in the middle of the optical
bench. Mount the card-board screen on another upright and keep it at distance equal to
rough focal length of the lens, from the central upright.

Mount the burning candle in third upright and keep it on the other side of the central
upright and near the end of the optical bench. Adjust heights so that
the inverted image
of erect flame of burning candle is formed on screen. Move the screen to make the
image sharp. The screen will be nearly at the focus of the convex lens.
The image will be real inverted and much more diminished.
As the burning candie is moved towards the lens on one side, the screen has to be
moved away from the lens on other side, for getting sharp flame image. The inverted
image size increases. When the position of the candle is at distance 2f from the lens,
the screen is also at same distance on the other side. The image size will be equal to
the actual flame size.

Move the candle further nearer to the lens. The screen has to be moved away for
getting an enlarged inverted real image on screen.
As the candle reaches the focus of the lens, the screen may not be able to get its image
which will be at infinity i.e. beyond the ends of the optical bench.

Conclusion

This change in position, nature and size of the image is according to theoretical
predictions.
 M

C,
2, 2F, F

Case (i) Object at infinity Case (i) Object at beyond 2f

M

C B'
B 2F,
2F, F, 2F, F.
C.
A
N

Case (ii) Object at 2f Case (iv) Object in between f and 2f

M

2F, 2F
B 2F, F, B
2F, C,
C,

Case (v) Object atf Case (vi) Object dístance <f