Lesson 3.

1: The Concept of Culture

Discussion 3.1.1

Most practices, including the variance of languages and even the physical
appearance of dominant Filipino groups, are products of colonization. Only the
Philippine Indigenous people depict a real Filipino, both in physical appearance and
culture. However, the latter is currently facing a lot of challenges due to
amalgamation, migration, and encroachment of development projects to indigenous
territories, the assimilationist nature of government policies, and many more. These
challenges are posing threats to the perpetuation of indigenous culture that existed
since time immemorial. Thus, it is very important to understand the concept of
culture, specifically in the context of the indigenous people, to understand further the
challenges that they are experiencing and how they respond.

As defined by Sir Edward Tylor (see Kottak, 2008), culture is that “complex whole
which includes knowledge, language, belief, arts, morals, law, custom, and any other
capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society”. It is also commonly
known as people’s way of life. Culture is present in all human societies. Each culture
has its subculture/s, which refers to the distinct patterns of learned and shared
behavior and ideas found in local and/or particular groups, such as ethnicity, gender,
age, and more.

Culture is symbolic. A symbol is anything that has cultural meanings attached.

“Anything” refers to not just street signs, but also an object, word, action, gesture,
facial expression, and many more. Meanings vary as culture also varies. So since
symbols are arbitrary, meaning it does not have a direct relationship to that it
symbolized, cultures are unpredictable in putting meanings into various symbols.
Staring at a woman may mean showing interest in one country, but it may mean
offensive in another country.

Culture is shared. With the use of the said symbols, it becomes possible for a
culture to be shared. A culture must be shared for a community or society sharing
the same patterns of behavior and understanding the same meanings to symbols to
co-exist, cooperate, and be stable.

Culture is learned. Since culture is not part of humans’ genetic make-up, a member
of the society needs to learn its respective culture. It starts from birth as parents, for
most cases, teach their babies to speak using their language, to use utensils, to
reprimand inappropriate actions. Children also learn from observation and advice
from adults. These may sound common because the “learning of culture” here is
unconscious, but this is already the process of transmitting culture from one
generation to the next, called enculturation.

Culture is integrated. Culture is a system; each part has functions to make the
entire culture work. Meaning, all elements of culture like language, political system,
economic system, religion, arts, norms, etc. are significantly connected. It would be
difficult to understand the Ivatan’s behavior in Batanes if one will only look at the
structures of their houses that can withstand typhoons without considering other
aspects of their culture. This is crucial in introducing programs or projects to change
people’s lives, like their economic status, because such intervention would become
detrimental if it fails to consider other domains of culture.

Culture Change and Exchange

Social interactions between various groups of people are currently intensifying due to
the advent of technology and easy transportation. These have significant
contributions to culture change, and exchange; specifically, when two different
cultures met. Meeting of cultures may be in a first-hand contact (face to face) or
second-hand contact (through various forms of media). Three possible processes
will occur if there is contact between two cultures: diffusion, acculturation, and
assimilation.

Diffusion is the spread of culture. It does not require face-to-face contact, media like
the internet, television, and other platforms capable of disseminating information that
is enough to influence others, consciously or unconsciously. This usually happens
when people are consciously xenocentric (those who consider other cultures as
desirable). There is no need for an individual to go to Korea just to know and learn
the famous Korean pop songs and Korean lifestyles. One only needs to watch
Korean music videos, movies, and other shows.

On the other hand, both acculturation and assimilation require first-hand contact for
culture change to happen.

Acculturation will take place after intensive contact. This will result in “subsequent
massive changes in the original culture patterns of one or both groups (Haviland,
1996 p. 426), and the process is in two-way direction but not necessarily egalitarian
(Teske & Nelson, 1974). According to Herbert Gans (2007), acculturation happens
automatically, for instance, when migrant parents encourage their children to do well
in school or aim for a lifestyle of those whose status they seek to achieve.

Assimilation is uni-directional, and it is often heading towards adopting the culture

of the dominant group or non-migrants (Teske & Nelson, 1974). It requires formal
and informal acceptance (Gans, 2007) and the identification of the migrants or
minority groups by the dominant group or non-migrants for the process to occur. The
latter could also reject. The process may also take place in a situation when
members of the dominant group migrated to the area of the minority group, like in the
case of the mining employees in Surigao del Norte. Some mining companies were
established in the vicinity of the Mamanwa community. Resulting in the provision of
housing units for the latter. The proximity and intensive first-hand contact between
the IPs and the outsiders (employees of the companies) lead to emulating the
outsiders’ language and lifestyle. Children became hesitant in using their indigenous
language because they find it shameful. And due to the monthly royalty share that
the IPs receive, they stopped doing their traditional economic practices
like panguway (rattan harvesting).

In the study of Balilla et al. (2013) among the Aeta Mabuk’ un in Mariveles, Bataan
demonstrated the effect of contacts between an Indigenous people and the dominant
group. The Aeta Mabuk’ un lives in a predominantly undeveloped mountainous area,
maintaining their traditional hunting-gathering activities. They also practice charcoal
production in the forest, an important source of income, especially during the wet
season when they are in short supply of food. Income from charcoal production is
primarily used in purchasing rice. Their community is called bayanbayanan
(village/hamlet), an enclave of Barangay Biaan. The road leading from the local town
center to the Aeta Mabuk’ un’s bayanbayanan was eventually developed and
became the Mariveles-Bagac Highway. Accessibility of this group of indigenous
people and other related developments threatened the preservation of their unique
language and culture. In November 2008, the Municipal Mayor ordered a total ban
on charcoal production, and checkpoints were established to prevent distribution.
This caused anxiety among the Aeta, in the words of an elder: “Paano na kami?
Paano na tayo kung ipagbabawal ang uling? Gugutumin ang pamilya namin!
Napakamahal ng bigas ngayon. . . Paano ko mababayaran ang mga utang ko sa
grocery? Ano ang ating gagawin?” (“How about us? What will happen to us if they
will ban the charcoal? Our family will starve! Rice is so expensive nowadays...How
will I pay my debts in the grocery? What are we going to do?”). The Aeta decided
immediately to act and marched to the town of Mariveles to talk to the Mayor. Led by
the Chieftain, the Aetas were greeted by the Mariveles Municipal Councillors
(including the head of the Cultural Minorities Committee), Bantay Gubat, and District
Supervisor of the Department of Education in Mariveles), in the absence of the town
Mayor. The Municipal Council explained the illegality regarding, charcoal production
and the willingness of the municipality to provide alternative livelihood for the Aeta.
The Aeta then, after knowing that an annual 100 000 pesos allotment was available,
they decided on pananim (plants to cultivate). Also, they requested fertilizer, plows,
and two carabaos to facilitate the cultivation. When asked why they chose to
cultivate plants, considering that as a hunter-gatherer tribe they have little knowledge
about plant cultivation or even carabao husbandry, the Aetas stated that they do not
know anything else to ask for. However, the dialogue between the Municipal Council
and the Aeta community proved to be politically successful at the municipal level.
Only one month after the meeting, the Municipal Council provided the Aetas what
they had requested. Since then, after proving that they can take collective political
action, the Aeta Magbuk’ un tribe initiated regular monthly Tribal Council meetings
(p. 2, 4-5).
Discussion 3.1.2

Cultural Variations

Culture varies from one place to another, from one community to another, even
within the same country. Due to cultural variations, contacts between inferior and
dominant culture is detrimental. Hence, social contact between IPs and a dominant
group often leads to destruction, domination, resistance, adaptation, or modification
of indigenous culture (Kottak, 2008). Filipino IPs struggle as they face modernization,
they are oppressed and pressured to change their ways of life by the dominant
population, capitalists, and government – resulting in the loss of indigenous
practices, knowledge, and ideologies (Ty, 2010).

What does it mean by the first paragraph? Since nowadays, political and economic
systems of the IPs are primarily affected by the contact with the dominant culture.
Let us focus on these two systems. The oldest and smallest form of human society is
called a band. It is composed of 50 to more than 100 individuals. The band does not
have a structured political system and no written laws. The leader is usually chosen
based on seniority, and it is typically the household head because the band is a kin-
based community (composed of family members). The leader is the most
respectable person in the group, he is responsible for decision-making and to
resolve conflicts. Usually, he is also the ritual leader and the healer. Most of the
bands are foragers, they hunt and gather food to survive. Since they rely a lot on the
carrying capacity of their environment, they need to be nomadic – they transfer to
another area if resources start to deplete. With that, the population is fluid – group
members can split anytime, especially when they have a conflict with other group
members. This is doable, or else the population will grow and consume the available
resources in no time. Another important characteristic of a band is egalitarian.
Resources and responsibilities, except for the leader, are equally shared or
distributed among the group members. Other aspects of their culture, such as health
system, sanitation practices, religion, and others, are connected to the band’s
characteristics. In other words, they rely a lot on the environment not just as a source
of food, but also for medicine, for shelter, spiritual well-being, and many more.

Next to the band is the tribe. Though in the Philippines, the term tribe is used to
refer to any indigenous communities. In anthropology, the tribe is another form of
human society with a population bigger than a band, usually composed of more than
200 members. It is composed of more than two separate groups but belonging to
one tribe, under one leader. Some tribal groups are kin-based, and others are semi-
kin-based communities. Like the band, the leader is also chosen based on seniority;
for other groups, it is based on strength and power. It is also egalitarian and no
written laws. It is believed that horticulturalism (backyard gardening) and pastoralism
(domestication of animals) started together with the tribe’s formation. Due to the
increasing population, planting for food and domestication of animals for the
community’s consumption has become so viable. Because of this, a tribe is already a
sedentary group.
As the population grows, chiefdom started to form. The chiefdom is unique because
it has the characteristics of both tribe and state. This form of human society is
composed of more than a thousand individuals. It is also composed of more than two
separate groups but under one leader. The leader expands its territory and
jurisdiction by invading other groups. Hence, leadership is based on strength and
power. Due to its bigger population, the political system became structured, written
laws started, and political, physical structures were built. Because chiefdom is
sedentary, other community physical structures also existed like churches, markets,
irrigation systems, granary, and many more. Managing a huge population also
requires division of labor, different groups of people have different responsibilities
that will make the group stable. Several productions existed, not just focusing on
food, but also weapons, clothes, building materials, and other necessary things.
Egalitarianism is impossible in a big population; meaning, social stratification already
started in the chiefdom. Division of labor divided people into different strata
depending on their social status: from the chief, his or her right hand, to the officers,
and down to the slaves. Redistribution of resources also started in the chiefdom.
Redistribution is a characteristic of an economic system that refers to the
redistribution of resources to the constituents by the leader. Like for instance,
farmers will give all their produced goods to the leader as they are required to do so.
The leader will then distribute these goods back to the farmer and other members of
the group who are not farmers, depending on their needs.

The last and most complicated form of human society is the state. States have a
higher population compared to the previous types of society, from thousands to
billions. This high population makes the system of the state quite complicated. For a
particular group of people to be considered as a state, the following are needed: a
territory not too small or too big to protect and enough to meet the needs of the
people, a government, a population, and sovereignty. Some of the characteristics of
the states are the following: intense division of labor, the fierce disparity between
social strata, mass productions of goods to meet mass demands for mass
consumptions not just within the state but also other states, and the crime rate is
high. Unlike a band, the primary focus of a state is not to produce food for immediate
consumption nor to meet other urgent needs; instead, it focuses on a lot of things in
a more sophisticated manner.

There is an extreme difference in the cultural systems between band and state.
Many of the Philippine indigenous communities are having a combination of
characteristics of band and tribe. Unfortunately, these communities co-exist and are
even under the jurisdiction of a more complicated system of a state, which is the
Philippines. In the following topics, you will further understand these complications
and how it affects IP communities.

The video below is not a Philippine IP group but a tribe from Africa, the purpose of
the video is for you to see what a pastoralist group looks like.

Language and Cultural Preservation

Language is quite crucial in cultural preservation, yet it is prone to changes.

Changes in the environment have an impact on a particular group or individual's
language. This is usually caused by the processes (diffusion, acculturation, and
assimilation) mentioned above. In the case of the Indigenous peoples, this happens
when there are various means of social interactions with other groups, usually with
the dominant group. This is quite prevalent during migration when language
acquisition is necessary, and retaining one's language is crucial. Acquiring or
learning a new language is based on the following factors, as posited by Esser
(2006): motivation (e.g., Prospect of increased income), access (e.g., opportunities
for contact and availability of courses), skills (e.g., general intelligence or particular
ability to learn languages) and the costs associated with learning (e.g., time involved,
the pressure to assimilate).

At the onset, it will cause language intrusion – when the language of the minority
group (migrants) is tainted with the dominant group (non-migrants or migrants to the
IPs territory).

The Mamanwa in Surigao del Norte used to interact with the Surigaonon for
economic purposes. Thus, the former knows how to speak Surigaonon. When a
certain group of Mamanwa started to migrate to northern Samar, it necessitates
them to learn Waray-Waray. Eventually, when they migrated to Southern Leyte they
also need to learn Cebuanong binisaya. This resulted in a variant of Minamanwa –
Mamanwa language tainted with Waray-Waray and Cebuanong binisaya. The
latter's' lexicons are quite apparent in the Minamanwa of the first and second
generations. However, due to environmental or ecological changes and an
increasing degree of interactions with the dominant group, the Minamanwa of the
third generation is already facing a challenge. Language acquisition among the
Mamanwa is very important for them to adapt to the new environment. But it may
lead to losing once language as it is replaced by the new one, in reference to Esser's
'cost associated with learning a new language'.
Lesson 3.2: Adaptation

Discussion 3.2

Did you find it easy to answer those questions? Or it made you wonder, “oh yeah, I
haven’t thought of that?” What your parents or guardians are doing is part of the
culture. What we do every single day to survive is part of our culture.

Culture is quite dynamic that despite its characteristics to be learned and

shared from one generation to the next through enculturation, it is still susceptible to
changes and, for worse case, ethnocide (death of culture). The challenge here is to
maintain an equilibrium between the people and their direct social, cultural, and
ecological environment. Why is there a need to maintain a balance? People or
communities are often confronted with external factors, either man-made or natural
catastrophe, such as logging, drought, earthquake, development projects, or even
migration. To survive, people need to deal with these external factors; this is what
Keesing (1974) coined as the “process of adaptation” (p.75). Along the process of
adaptation, people tend to develop specific adjustments to specific circumstances to
obtain and utilize available resources, and to solve the immediate problems
confronting them, Bennett (as cited by Grossman, 1977) coined this as “adaptive
strategies (p. 139). Note that this process is undertaken by a group of people or
communities, not by an individual. Groups or communities that shared a particular
culture are also called socio-cultural organizations, which are viewed as an adaptive
mechanism. These adjustments are crucial to the continuation of an existing cultural
system. Hence, culture is prone to changes, because as mentioned, humans are
often confronted with external factors that require humans to adjust.

The concept of adaptation is defined as “a natural process by which organisms

achieve a beneficial adjustment to an available environment”. This process will result
in possession of characteristics that will help humans overcome the hazards and
challenges of the environment to secure the necessary resources from the same
environment. These characteristics are what Alland (1975) referred to as human
traits that have the “mechanisms to maintain continuity or produce change and
generate transformational rules” (p. 60). Therefore, those cultural traits that persisted
through time in a particular setting are considered adaptive. And those that are
eliminated are maladaptive or not beneficial at all (Alland, 1975). For instance,
during ancient times, foraging as a subsistence activity is quite viable considering the
abundance of forest resources and less population. No matter how beneficial
foraging before, it does not necessarily mean that it is still as beneficial today, due to
depleting forest resources and rapidly increasing population. Therefore, foraging,
specifically in modern societies, is already maladaptive. Hence, the necessity to
change.
Cultural adaptation enables humans to utilize a wide diversity of the
environment and to secure survival.

In utilizing a wide diversity of environments, humans do not only react to the

environment as it is given. But it is also based on how humans perceived the
environment. Note that different groups of people may perceive a particular
environment in different ways. Like for instance, the Ikalahan, an upland forest
people in the Cordillera and Caraballo Mountains in Northern Luzon, perceived their
ancestral land as home, as a source of resources for food and necessary things, a
place for their traditional farming practices and many more. But the local government
perceived the area, around the 1970s, as a perfect place to develop into a vacation
center (Rice, nd). To add to the diversity of perceptions, mountaineers, biological
scientists, and different groups of people having different interests will perceive the
place of the Ikahalan quite differently.

Securing survival does not only involve the activities of getting food, building shelter,
protection from wild animals, and many more. But Julian Steward argued that this
also means dealing with the nature of humans. Hence, the need for societies to have
norms and values that will guide people’s actions based on what is culturally
acceptable or not, appropriate or inappropriate, good or bad. In a more severe
matter, laws are imposed to guide and restrict actions that may affect others’
welfare.

Unfortunately, since culture varies, there is a problem in the relativity of adaptation.

What may be considered adaptive for a particular group is possibly maladaptive for
other groups. The problem arises in the co-existence and interactions of different
groups having different cultures in a specific context, often between the dominant
and minority groups. This problem is prevalent both in the international and national
level. At the international level, various indigenous groups and NGOs are fighting
against global corporations encroaching into the territories of the IPs, displacing
them and extracting their resources. The same scenario at the national level, but
sometimes it is the IPs against the government. Apparently, the culture of Ikalahan
developed since time immemorial so that they could benefit in their direct
environment. However, the local government also considers the area beneficial if
they can develop it as a vacation center because the project will generate income.
History reveals that minority groups often lose the battle, but the Ikalahan and few
other IP groups in the Philippines and other countries are fortunate enough to fight
against big international corporations and even their government.

*Watch the attached video to better understand the problem of the relativity of
adaptation
Lesson 3.3: Man-Environment Relationship

Discussion 3.3

Another important factor to consider in looking at the concepts of ‘cultural changes’ is

the environment. Specifically, man’s relationship with his/her direct environment and
the crucial role of the environment in perpetuating one’s culture. What sets human
beings apart from animals is culture. The basic tenet is that culture is the means of
surviving and adapting to the given environment, including the latter’s limitations and
challenges. Hence, the significance of understanding the man-environment
relationship.

“The basic relationships of indigenous peoples is having a relationship with the land.
This relationship is often sacred, rarely, has direct economic value, and is usually
held collectively rather than in individual ownership” (O’ Sullivan, 2012 p. 1876). In
his cultural ecological approach, Julian Steward focused on the part of a culture
that is immediately connected to the physical world, which is the subsistence
strategies. Simply because finding food is quite essential for survival. Hence, the
importance of understanding the subsistence systems of the foragers, pastoralists,
pre-industrial cultivators, and even modern farmers (Moran, 2000).

Apparently, such an approach is quite applicable in understanding the Philippine IPs’

behavior who possess the characteristics of foragers, pastoralists, and pre-industrial
cultivators. According to Steward, there are two components in understanding the
relationship between man and environment: the problem and a method. The
problem involves testing whether human societies’ adjustments to their
environments require specific types of behavior or whether there is considerable
latitude in human responses. To solve the problem, While the method consists of
three procedures: 1. Analyzing the relationship between subsistence system and
environment; 2. Analyzing the behavior pattern associated with a given subsistence
system/technology; and 3. Ascertaining the extent to which the behavior pattern
entailed in a given subsistence system affects other aspects of culture (p. 48). For
instance, the foragers who live in a dense forest tend to hunt and gather food
because their environment is rich in flora and fauna. They use technologies made of
materials that are also present in the environment, like wooden spears, bow and
arrow, traps, and many more. The skills associated with these technologies
developed over time with a significant number of trials and errors until they are
effective enough to serve its purpose. Less population is necessary for the
subsistence system due to the limited supply of food. The population also has to be
fluid and nomadic lest it will grow in a particular area, and available resources will
eventually become insufficient to meet the basic needs of the people. These
behavior patterns are also associated with a paternal form of a political system, the
use of ethnomedicine, language and meanings, indigenous worldviews, set of rules
and principles, and even the belief system. Like for instance, the nomadic Aeta in
Zambales who foraged around the area of Mt. Pinatubo believed that the volcano is
the resting place for the souls of the dead and the dwelling-place of the spirits,
including Apo Namalyari, the Supreme Being and Creator. When the volcano
erupted, the Aeta perceived that the Supreme Being was provoked by the drilling
activities for a geothermal power plant on the mountain (Seitz, 1998).

The Talaandigs in Mt. Kitanglad Range Natural Park (MKRNP) in Bukidnon believe
in the seven nature elements that sustain mankind: water, trees (wood), wind, land
(earth), fire, word (language), and thought. Because of this belief system, their
economic and spiritual lives are strongly intertwined. This is demonstrated through
rituals that either precede or conclude farming and other livelihood activities. They
also observed these rituals during the annual cycle of seasons, controlling pests,
summoning of rains (during drought or forest fires), renewing medicinal skills, and
mere thanksgiving. “We cannot talk about the land without talking about the spirit of
the water, the spirit of the trees, the spirit of the wind, the spirit of the land, the spirit
of the fire, the spirit of the word, and the spirit of the thought. Agriculture has
declined, and the environment has become degraded because we have not
entertained all the spirits equally. To avoid conflict, we must listen to all the seven
spirits”, explained by the Talaandig chieftain, Datu Makapukaw Adolino Saway
(Talamdan, 1996 and Mordeno, 2000 as cited by Canoy & Suminguit, 2001 p. 71).

Challenges in the Environment

The adaptive strategies of Bennett emphasize problem-solving and society’s

decision-making as they are confronted with social and environmental constraints
(Grossman, 1977). These experiences are crucial in shaping human behavior
(Alland, 1975), which are evident in how humans respond to changes. The process
may result in culture change because the culture is the means and ends of meeting
the challenges in the environment. Thus, changes in the environmental niche due to
external forces necessitate culture to change (Appleby et al., 2011). Common
external forces affecting the environment, which eventually affect the IPs are
policies, capitalism, technology, migration, economic development, etc. Specifically,
in the Philippines, some of these forces are natural resource extractive activities
(e.g., logging, mining, and quarrying), agro-plantations, resorts, economic zones,
migration of dominant groups to the territories of the IPs, armed conflict between the
Armed Forces of the Philippines and insurgent groups. How these factors affect the
IPs? And how it affects their relationship with their environment? (this will be
discussed further in the succeeding chapters) What will happen to their culture?

The fate of culture depends on the bearer for adaptation demands change. However,
since culture is quite complex, the decision about what specific aspect of culture
needs to change and what needs to be retained for self-identity lies in the group
(Ponce, 2019). This is best illustrated among the country’s migrant IPs (will be
discussed further in the IP migration chapter).
 Figure 8 Moorage community of the Sama-Dilaut. Photo: Francis Jumala

The Sama-Dilaut in Tawi-tawi has been displaced due to the development projects
that encroached in their natural habitat. The bridge and road constructions destroyed
the Tungkulang reef, where the moorage community of the IP was located. Due to
the circumstance, they were forcibly displaced and opted to settle in urban areas.
Further, it led to the shifting of sea-based modes of production to land-based like
horticulture, stevedoring, laborers, etc.; shifting of traditional modes of exchange
from barter to full use of money; and those who were not able to get jobs ended up
as mendicants (Jumala, 2011). If the Sama-Dilaut chose to stick to their traditional
practices, they would have difficulties surviving in the new environment.