JONAHLYN FUENTES DUCRAO BAPS3( Block3)

MODULE 8
THE CLASSES OF ARGUMENTS; INDUCTION

=== KNOW ====

Activity 1

1. Yes I've already tried arguing with someone or even myself. I reason out by explaining my
point or my side of the story. And sometimes I get mad about explaining because there are
people that can't hardly understand my point but still I can manage to express and explain
myself clearly so that the one that I am arguing with can still understand or appreciate what I've
been telling.

==== PROCESS ====

Activity 2

1. The two methods of reasoning or inference are induction and deduction. Deduction is
dependent upon induction in that the universal rule which forms the basis of reasoning has been
brought about by a previous induction. In other words, without a previous induction, there can
be no postulate upon which deduction is predicated. On the other hand, induction is dependent
upon deduction, because we cannot reason by induction unless we assume as existing a
general law of conjunction or concurrence uniting the instances, facts, or phenomena from
which we infer.

2. •Perfect induction
(a) Perfect induction. Is one which simply enumerates the particulars which form a class. It is
obviously not a form of argument because in perfect induction, the conclusion does not cover
new matter.

•Imperfect Induction
(b) Imperfect induction. Is one in which from certain known individual cases, facts, or
phenomena we draw a general principle. In this way, the mind advances to a new fact.

•Inductive Method or the Scientific Method

(c) The inductive method or the scientific method of inquiry. Is one whereby from varying
observations and repeated experiments, analysis and generalization, a truth or principle is
drawn. These are the following terms:
(1) Phenomenon, which means anything that appears:
(2) Antecedent, refers to anything, condition, or circumstances which exist before or at the same
time with an event or phenomenon;
(3) Cause, any circumstance that must precede in order that the phenomenon should occur or
happen; i.e., a necessary antecedent; and
(4) Consequent, which is anything, circumstance, phenomenon that is different from any of the
antecedent and follows from their conjunction or concurrence.

=== REFLECT & UNDERSTAND ===

Activity 3

1. A fortiori argument is an argument from a stronger reason,meaning that because one fact is
true, that a second related and included fact must also be true.

Example:
If it has been established that a person is deceased, then one can, with equal or greater
certainty, argue that the person is not breathing.

==== TRANSFER ====

Activity 4

1. Literal analogy compares things that are within the same class,whereas figurative analogy
entails comparisons from different classes.
Literal Analogy: The bible is to Christianity, Quran is to Islam.
Figurative Analogy: Gangs are the cancer of society.

SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT

1. D.
2. A.
3. C.
4. C.
5. D.
6. B.
7. C.
8. B.
9. D.
10. D.

MODULE 9
THE CLASSES OF ARGUMENTS: DEDUCTION

=== KNOW ====

Activity 1

1. INDUCTION

Is that process of reasoning whereby from the concurrence or conjunction of particular

instances or phenomena we draw a general principle, rule or postulate. In induction, the mind
starts from particular phenomena, facts, or instances; and from their conjunction or concurrence
it infers a general truth.

DEDUCTION

Is that process of reasoning whereby it is shown that a particular case is true because it falls
under some general law or principle, which is already known or assumed to be true.

==== PROCESS ====

Activity 2

1. -The enthymeme (thymos, mind) is an argument in the form of the syllogism in which one of
the premises or the conclusion is implied, not expressed. It is sometimes called an abridged or
abbreviated syllogism.
-The sorites is a chain syllogism. It is a chain of reasoning consisting of more than three
propositions so joined that the two terms of the conclusion are united through the mediation of
more than one intervening middle term. The argument is a combination of simple syllogisms.
-Inferences in quantitative relations. An inference in quantitative relations is a form of reasoning
similar to the syllogism in which the true major premise is not expressed, but implied or
understood. For this reason, this form of reasoning violates the rule of the syllogism which
requires that the syllogism should have three terms and only three terms and three propositions
and only three propositions. Although it commits the fallacy of the four terms, yet the inference
is still valid. But it is valid only with reference to quantitative relations – as to dimension, height,
weight, intensity, density, direction, distance.

2. Syllogism is the act of thought by which from two given propositions, called the premises, the
arguer proceeds to a third proposition; the truth of which necessarily follows from the truth of
these propositions.
Rules of Syllogism:

(a). The syllogism has three and only three terms and these terms must be used in the same
sense. They are the major terms. The middle term and the minor term.
(b). The syllogism has three and only three propositions. They are the major premise, which
generally states the general fact; the minor premise, which generally states a particular fact; the
conclusion which contains an inference from the two premises.
( c ). The middle term must be distributed at least once in the premises and must not be
ambiguous. Distribution of terms means to use terms in the proposition in such a way as to
include all the members which it denotes.
(d). No term must be distributed in the conclusion which is not distributed in one of the
premises. There are two terms in the conclusion: the minor term, the subject of the conclusion;
and the major term, the predicate of the conclusion. If the minor term is distributed in the
conclusion but not in the minor premise, a fallacy is committed (the fallacy of illicit minor). If the
major term is distributed in the conclusion but not in the major premise, a fallacy is committed
( the fallacy illicit major)
(e). From negative premises nothing can be inferred.
(f). If one premise be negative, the conclusion must be negative; and we cannot arrive at a
negative conclusion unless one of the premises is negative.
(g). From two particular premises no conclusion can be drawn. A premise is particular if it
asserts something not of the whole of a class but only a part.
(h). If one premise is particular, the conclusion must be particular.

3. Classes of syllogism
(a) Categorical syllogism is one in which all the propositions are categorical. It declares
something absolutely, admitting no condition or limitation.
(b) Hypothetical syllogism is one in which the major premise is a hypothetical proposition and
the minor premise and the conclusion are categorical propositions. It is one that asserts
something subject to a condition or limitation.
(c) Disjunctive syllogism is one in which the major premise is a disjunctive proposition and the
minor premise and the conclusion are categorical propositions. It is one in which the
predicate is made up of words, phrases, or clauses that express oppositions or separation or
mutual exclusion.
=== REFLECT & UNDERSTAND ===

Activity 3

1. The relationships between syllogism,propositions and premise is that this three can be use in
arguement. Because syllogism is the simplest sequence of the logical premises and
conclusions, while premise is a propositon used a evidence in an arguement which is this three
are all part of the arguement which we use in arguementing.

==== TRANSFER ====

Activity 4

1. (a). The syllogism has three and only three terms and these terms must be used in the same
sense. They are the major terms. The middle term and the minor term.
Example: The major term is the predicate of the conlusion – mortal in the example.
The middle term does not occur in the conclusion – women in the example.
The minor term is the subject of the conclusion – Ana in the example.

(e). From negative premises nothing can be inferred. Example: Dogs are not pig;
Pigs are not dogs;
(No conclusion).

(f). If one premise be negative, the conclusion must be negative; and we cannot arrive at a
negative conclusion unless one of the premises is negative.
Example: The students at the school did not believe about the ghost
Kiara is one of the student of the school;
Kiara don't believe in ghost.

(g). From two particular premises no conclusion can be drawn. A premise is particular if it
asserts something not of the whole of a class but only a part.
Example: Some people are kind;
Some people are good
(No conclusion)

(h). If one premise is particular, the conclusion must be particular.

Example: All dancers dance;
Some teenagers are happy;
Some happy teenagers dance.
SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT

1. C.
2. B.
3. D.
4. D.
5. A.
6. C.
7. B.
8. A.
9. A.
10. A.