AGR 601- CURRENT TRENDS IN AGRONOMY

LECTURE 17
GRASSLAND MANANGEMENT
Introduction:
Grasslands, grazing lands and pasture constitute a vast part of the earth's surface as
natural vegetation supporting grazing animals viz. Cattle, Buffalo, Sheep and Goat.
Grasslands are an important ecosystem covering about 40% of the earth's land surface used
by grazing animals receiving the bulk of their yearlong food from plants, predominantly
grasses and shrubs. In many countries, they serve as major land use supporting livestock
production. As natural vegetation, they constitute grasses, legumes, shrubs and trees. Even
though grasses grow naturally season-wise, fanners also can carry out reseeding and develop
grasslands. Although we do not have specific pastures for livestock like in western countries,
still grazing is the most common and traditional practice of feeding livestock in India.
According to the land-utilization statistics, the area under permanent pastures and grasslands
is 13 million hectare, another 15million hectare classified as cultivable waste land and still
another 7-8 million hectares under the saline and alkaline soils plus those affected by
drought, flood and ravines, which can be utilized for growing various fodder species.
Concepts and definitions:
Can you differentiate between a grassland and a pasture? Grasslands are directly
grazed by the livestock and provide nourishment to them or they can also be harvested and
stored for feeding during the lean periods as hay. In India, Grassland ecosystems form
Himalayan pastures, the Terai grassland of the foothills, semi-arid grasslands of Western and
Central India, in scrublands of the Deccan Plateau and in the Shola forests of the Western
Ghats, Nilgiri and Annamalai ranges. The managed grasslands with high yielding species and
proper fertility are also known as 'pasture'. The composition and the quality of grasslands
vary along different soil and climatic variables. They are described as grass cover with their
specific productivity and quality. When grasslands are managed along with intercropping of
trees they are known as 'silvipastures'. Mostly trees are planted in rows with varying density
and grasses and legumes are sown in between to give a structure of savannah. Trees are
mostly fodder trees which are lopped for fodder. Pastures or grasslands are those covered
with grasses and other edible plants of the locality that can be used for livestock grazing.
Grasslands are characterized by different species and the description of grass cover is
important for their management and sustainability. The closely related terms referred are:
Grassland - a land with more than 80% occupied by grasses.
Rangeland - a piece of vegetation (with grasses, legumes, shrubs and few trees)
wherein grazing occurs or can occur.
Pasture - a piece of land in which grasses are grown/cultivated and managed for
feeding.
Grasslands are characterized by different species composition and successional process in
response to edaphic, climatic and biotic pressure. Pastures are man-made and managed by
man for optimum production. Unlike in western countries, there are no specifically developed
pastures for livestock in India.
Different types of available lands used for grazing in India are as follows:
a) Forest areas - grazing inside forests, especially by goats and sheep is being severely
restricted now by the authorities of the forestry departments, game parks, reserves etc.,
b) Common village lands - the open lands that are not private property but are owned by the
village community or Panchayat as a whole and are accessible to all. Even this area is now
subjected to encroachments and diverted for other purposes.
c) Embankments - of rivers, canals and ponds where herbage grows due to the available sub-
soil moisture.
d) Bunds of crop fields - These are the bunds that separate crop fields. Since very little
walking on them is involved, grasses grow on them. The danger while grazing on them
involves animals straying onto the crop proper.
e) Hill-slopes - especially in humid and sub-humid areas; and
f) Fallow lands - permanent fallows and current fallows (open lands between crops). About
50% of the total area available as wastelands, is endowed with extremely poor soil, water and
nutrient situation where cropping is just not possible. Any effort to allocate these lands for
crops would only add to the uncertainty of agricultural production. Such lands have to be
used with a low level of intensity.
Principles of grassland management
The grasslands normally considered to be the cheapest source of animal feed are in a
degraded and denuded state because of overgrazing and misuse over the years. Therefore, the
improvement and conservation of natural grasslands and pastures deserve special and careful
attention and priority in our drive for increasing forage production. Management systems that
have potentiality for improving production and stability of the pasture are applied for
assuring higher productivity and also its quality.
Grassland management for its improvement can be achieved by adopting the
following approaches:
 Ecological succession
 Assisted ecological
 Intensive management
The ecological succession is a natural process of vegetation development under
protection which takes longer time. In case of assisted ecological, the process of succession is
assisted by improvement in soil and water conservation, soil fertility and seeding with better
productive species. This method speeds up the development process. Whereas, in intensive
management, all the package of practices for development of a productive pasture are
followed and in a short time, the productive pasture is ready for utilization. The sequence of
activities for assuring a managed grassland system are as follows:
 Protection from grazing,
  Soil and water conservation,
 Bush cleaning,
 Re-seeding,
 Fertilizer application,
 Legume introduction and cutting, and
 Grazing management.
Protection from grazing
Protection through fencing brings remarkable recovery of vegetation. Grazing lands
can be protected through barbed/woven/chicken wire chain links supported by angle
iron/cement/stone/wooden poles or through fencing by unpalatable bushes. Efficacy and
cost effectiveness of various kinds of fencing material was worked out and live hedge
fencing was found cheapest, most effective for protecting large areas. For live hedges, the
suitable species are Madras thorn (Monkey pod), shrub verbenas (lantanas), Karonda
(Karamda), Sisal Agave (century plant), Indian fig (prickly pear), Jharber (pala), danti
(pratyanshrani or Barbados Nut), Henna etc. The concept of social fencing in a
participatory management has been also found effective and cheap. Earlier cattle proof
trenches (ePT) of2.0 x 1.5 x 0.9m dimension around the area were being used with
seasonal repairs which gave satisfactory performance.
Soil and Water Conservation
Mostly, degraded grasslands are situated on sloppy, rocky and gravelly soils on undulated
surfaces where precipitation is lost faster due to runoff leaving the soil dry. Proper land
treatment under the principles of watershed with contour bunds, staggered contour
trenches, gabion structures, earthen check dams and masionary check dams facilitates in-
situ water conservation. The number and size of trenches depend upon the target of
checking rainwater storms. It has been possible to check the runoff and soil loss on a
degraded hill near Jhansi with 600 staggered contour trenches/ ha of 3xO.5x0.4 m size.
Water conservation increases soil moisture level resulting in higher biomass production.
Increase in biomass production due to moisture conservation in different grasses and
legumes is shown in Table 17.1
Table 17.1 Increase in Forage Yield due to Soil Moisture Conservation

Bush Cleaning
 Heavy infestation of unpalatable bushes in degraded grazing lands not only adversely
affects the availability of open space for growing grasses, but also forage production. The
standard practice of bush cleaning includes either manual or mechanical felling and
removal of stumps, or application of selective weedicides on the cut stumps to kill them.
Palatable leaf fodder yielding stumps, however, should be maintained in the grazing lands
as these provide fodder during lean period or drought. But their number per hectare
should not exceed 400. They should be regularly cut so that grass production is not
interfered due to shade. Effect of bush density on grass production in arid grasslands is
given in Table 17.2
Table 17.2: Bush density- Dry forage yield relationship in desert grazing lands

Reseeding
For the quick improvement of productivity of deteriorated grasslands/rangelands, it is
essential to replace low yielding annual grasses by re-seeding with high yielding
perennial grasses and legumes which are adaptable to the prevailing condition of the
region. Species choice depends upon the condition of site, soil type and intended use.
For arid and semi-arid zone, the most suitable grasses are Anjan grass (Buffel),
Yellow anjan grass for sandy loam soils, Dharaf grass (Goria) for red gravelly and
sloppy lands, Sewan grass (particularly for extreme arid conditions), Taman or
guinchi (for sand dunes), Marvel grass (Karad grass) for loamy soils of better
moisture status and Musal grass and Guinea grass (Green panic) for clay soils with
higher moisture status. Marvel grass and Anjan grass are two versatile grasses
possessing adaptability over a wide range of climate and soil and are suitable for
sandy or sandy loam soils in the areas having rainfall upto 750 mm. Under such
situation, suitable legumes for re seeding are Stylo, Caatinga stylo, Siratro, Rough
chainpea, Lablab bean etc. The reseeding is carried out with pellated seeds and light
soil working so that the process of seed germination and establishment is facilitated.
The seed rate and productivity of some grasses is given in Table 17.3.
 Table 17.3: Suitable Grasses and Recommended Seed Rate for Reseeding Degraded

Fertilizer Application
Both forage production and quality of grasses in terms of per cent crude protein can
be improved considerably by application of nitrogen. Research studies have revealed
that application of 40-60 kg N/hectare and 20-30 kg P 205/hectare have increased
pasture production by 50 to 100% in majority of grasses besides increasing crude
protein content considerably. Although many grasses have been found to respond to
very high dose of nitrogen also, but the above recommended doses are highly
economic.
Legume introduction and cutting
The concept of growing legumes and non-legumes as pasture components has been an
important feature of agriculture from early days. Grass-legume mixtures are always
desirable because of their complementary functions in providing nutritive, succulent,
palatable forage for the grazing animals. The mixtures also improves the physical
conditions of the soil, check soil erosion, resist the encroachment of weeds and
withstand the vagaries of weather better than pure stands. They also help to check the
spread of certain diseases and insect pests. Legumes usually maintain their quality
better than grasses even at maturity, and being rich in protein, enhance the forage
value, and also add substantially the much needed nitrogen to the soil. In the diet of
animals, grasses and legumes have also greater beneficial associative effect through
rumen than when they are fed separately. Further, the adopted legumes in the mixture
provide a simple and practical means of meeting the nitrogen need of the associated
grasses as most of the legumes fix atmospheric nitrogen.
Research studies have shown the nitrogen equivalence of legume to the tune of 40-60
kg N/ha when introduced in natural grasslands. This means that 40-60 kg N/ha can be
added to the grassland soil as microbial fertilizer manufactured by legumes. Besides
being a substitute and a cheap source of nitrogenous fertilizers, legume also influence
total dry matter production and crude protein yield which is so much vital for the
livestock. Such mixtures have shown higher grazing value of the pastures. The
legumes that make better association are Caribbean Stylo (Pencil Flower), Caatinga
Stylo, Shriibby Stylo, Sticky Stylo (poor man's friend), Siratro, Giant Mimosa, Wild
Kulthi, etc. . In the first and second year of the pasture growth, it is advisable to adopt
 cut and carry practice after the seeding has been completed. The fallen seeds will
assure a better regeneration during the subsequent years. Although, when cutting is
done after the seed maturity, the biomass is coarse with low digestibility and crude
protein levels. In the subsequent years, harvest at 50% flowering level assures high
nutritive value in the grass. The surplus biomass can be dried as hay and stored for the
lean periods. In the subsequent years, in-situ grazing under carrying capacity can be
practiced. The word 'carrying capacity' is defined as the level up to which the pasture
can be grazed without appreciable damage and decline in the biomass productivity in
the subsequent years
Grazing Management
The greatest single factor, which causes deterioration of grasslands, is overgrazing.
During the course of grazing, certain grasses are preferred while others are avoided.
On account of this, selective grazing, desirable species tend to get depleted in
grasslands much faster than undesirable species. In most perennial grasses, utilizing
the reserve food material that is stored in the underground parts produces new shoots.
Due to overgrazing, the reserve food material is lost faster and perennial grasses are
unable to re-generate due to continuous drain on food reserve. Therefore, certain
period of rest is essential for the perennial grasses to recoup and rejuvenate.
Based on these considerations, the following types of grazing systems can are practiced:
1. Controlled Continuous Grazing: means either limiting the number of animals or
limiting the duration (season) of grazing on a given area of grassland on a continuous
basis. In this system, the grassland is not divided into compartments or paddocks and
animals move in the whole area. Long period of continuous grazing often leads to
deterioration in composition and production of good forage grasses and increase in
unpalatable ones. It also affects soil fertility levels and exposes habitat to rain leading
to runoff and soil loss.
2. Deferred Grazing: Here, the grazing area is divided into compartments and at
least one of the compartments is rested until seed setting. This means, stopping
grazing in the most vulnerable season (summer) in India. But actually, grazing takes
place in all the seasons in India, which is responsible for degeneration of their quality.
3. Rotational Grazing: In this system, pasture is dividing into separate lots, fenced
and the animals are allowed to graze into each lot in rotation. For example, if there are
three lots, all the animals are let into lot A for a month, then into lot B for a month,
and finally the animals are allowed to graze in lot C for a month. After this, all the
animals are again allowed to graze in lot A for a month and repeat the process (Table
17.4)
Table. 17.4: Rotational graazing method
4. Deferred Rotational Grazing: is rotational grazing practiced in restricted period,
that is, not continuously. This system is a mixture of above two grazing systems and
is considered the best system of grazing because of the following benefits: (a) more
number of grazing days from the same grassland used otherwise; (b) maintenance of
proper vegetation composition through self-seeding; (c) health of sward is maintained
as the optimum utilization of biomass takes place and a period of rest is available to
grasses; (d) soil fertility level is maintained; and (e) erosion hazards are avoided.
5. Hohenheim system: involves dividing the pasture into lots and also divide the
animals into groups production-wise i.e., a) early lactation cows (high yielder), b) mid
lactation cows (lower yielder), c) dry cows, and d) growing animals. Into each grazing
lot, group 'a' is let in first for a week, followed by cows of group 'b', then by group 'c'
and finally allowing group 'd' for the same periods. Then, the animals are let into each
other's lot also in order of their productive utility. The idea is to let production-wise
the most valuable animals graze first, followed by second best and then the third
production category. This was strategy adopted during wartime in Germany.
6. Zero grazing or 'Cut & Carry ': is the system practiced in most parts of India. In
this system, animal owner's cut grass and edible weeds from the common grazing
lands and carry the same home for feeding the animals in the stall. Mostly women
folks perform this task. There is a risk of damaging the grassland, if this is overdone,
especially during dry season. The practice of scratching out grass along with root
system from already denuded grasslands can harm the herbage permanently.
Under different pasture utilization systems viz. rotational, deferred rotational,
continuous and cut & carry; highest run-off and soil loss were recorded in continuous
system while minimum run-off was recorded in rotational system. However,
minimum soil loss was recorded in cut & carry system. Research findings have
showed that improved practices of pasture establishment, contour bunding, grazing
management reduced soil loss, made more water available and improved soli
conditions. Out of the 4 systems of grazing management, relatively higher values of
organic carbon and available nutrients (N, P & K) and lower average loss of nutrients
were observed in deferred rotational system, indicating its superiority over other
pasture utilization systems.
Monitoring grassland development and utilization
Grassland health is measured by its condition class which is shown by the density and
cover of different grass species. The condition classes are poor to excellent in
increasing order. When the grassland is poor, its productivity is the most minimum
and is dominated by annual grass species compared to the excellent class where
perennial grasses dominate and the peak productivity is observed. The development of
grassland is measured through the stages of plant succession. The condition class also
determines the carrying capacity of grassland. They are elaborated as under:
Succession
Under the prevalent grazing system and excessive livestock pressure, the
grasslands show decline in their production and quality due to change of species
composition. The species composition change takes place due to selective removal of
more palatable and nutritious species by different species of animals. Utilization of
grassland by anyone species of livestock may create a very typical situation showing
the temporal and spatial features. These communities are called successional stages
and they are characteristic of each grass cover type. Example of successional trends in
one of the grass cover viz., Phragmitis-Saccharum-Imperata cover is shown in the Fig.
17.1. Factors that affect the change to development and deterioration are shown on the
sides. By the presence of these species as dominants one can predict the level of
development.

Fig. 17.1: Sucession in Phragmitis-Saccharum-Imperata cover

Climax
Although grasslands are not the natural climax vegetation in India, yet under
bio-edaphic pressure the dominant community of grasses develops as a stable climax.
The climax grassland communities produce high biomass and level of productivity as
 shown in Fig. 17.1 by the Phragmitis - Saccharum - Imperata community. The
developmental stages are known as seral stages. Climax community is very specific
and characteristic of the soil and climate of the area and the level of protection /
management / disturbance that it experiences. It also indicates the level of
development and the needed effort/ input that can improve the situation.
Carrying Capacity
Carrying capacity of a pasture depends upon the available biomass and its rate
of production. The stocking rate (number of animals that can be allowed per ha should
be such that it balances the livestock needs with available forage supply. It is found
that heavy stocking rate lowers animal liveweight production compared to moderate
and light grazing. In pastures with seasonal growth pattern, stocking rate variation can
be adopted with peak rate in monsoon season compared to the summers and winters.
Thus, carrying capacity needs to be properly determined for grazing management to
maintain a sustainable pasture production. Depending upon the seasonal productivity,
stocking rate should match the carrying capacity. The successional stages show the
symptoms of deterioration / development and thus, can be related in the grazing
management directions. There may be further correction if several species of livestock
with different body weight and food requirement are introduced together. In such
cases, the number is converted into adult cow unit (acu). The example of condition
class, productivity and carrying capacity is presented in Table 17.5. Carefully
determined carrying capacity with proper grazing management is key to the
sustainable pasture management.

Table 17.5: Pasture Land Degradation (34.5% of the Land is Under Open Pastures)
and Carrying Capacity
Suitable Grasses and Legumes for Different Agro-Climatic Regions of India