PHILOSOPHY REVIEWER 1.
Correspondence Theory
OPINION FROM TRUTH
Where does knowledge come from?
EMPERICISM
 States that knowledge is a result of experience. A
result of an encounter between the knower and the
known.
 Classical Philosophers: Aristotle and St. Thomas
Aquinas- “there is nothing in the mind that has not
first passed through the senses.”
 English Philosopher John Locke, “Man is a tabula
rasa at birth,” whose mind is like an empty board
in which nothing is written, but as he encounters
the world around him, as he experiences reality,
that empty board is gradually filled with
information.
 Limitation-cannot account for the existence of
moral, ethical, or even theological knowledge
(positivists) dismiss the validity of moral, ethical
and theological issues since these cannot be
supported by concrete facts.
RATIONALISM
 Knowledge comes from through reason alone, in
contrast to empiricism which emphasizes the role
of experience.
 Rene Descartes- 17th century French Philosopher
and Scientist.
 He held that by means of reason alone, certain
universal, self-evident truths could be discovered.
 He assumed that these self-evident truths were
innate, not derived from sense experience.
METHODS OF PHILOSOPHY
VALIDITY OF KNOWLEDGE
 direct relationship
 Asserts that a statement is true because it
conforms with facts or concrete reality.
 Apple is red is true only when the apple is
really red.
 Validated by empirical verification.
 Ex. A mammal is an animal which is warm-
blooded… a dog barks… Pigs has wings-
false…
2. Coherence
 systematic, logical connection, and consistent.
True if it makes sense when placed in a certain
situation or context. A Statement is true when
it conforms with other statements previously
accepted as true.
 Ex. Muslim have a belief that certain animals
like pigs are unclean.
 Ex. Abortion is evil because it conforms with
the accepted commandment. (Thou shall not
kill.)
 Mathematical equation 1+1=2 is true if it
conforms with the ideas represented by the
symbol.
3. Pragmatic theory
 Truth or falsity of a statement depends upon its
effectivity or utility. True or false by examining
the consequence of holding or accepting the
statement or belief to be true. Ex. Death penalty
is an effective deterrent of crime is true if upon
implementation decreases crime…et.
4. Consensus theory
 Based on agreement that something is true if
almost everyone agrees to be true.
5. Constructivist theory
 Knowledge is shaped by social forces and
influenced by culture and history. What a person
considers true may be influenced by historical
developments and social struggles.
6. Relativism
 no absolute truths, only true within a particular
context Philosophical concept which contend
that there are no absolute truths. An idea or
principle is only true within a particular
context…
METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING
1. Socratic questioning - Interrogative, repetitive
confirmation
Dialectic method (dialecticae - To converse) -
creative Questioning, conversing, casual debate
Scientific method (sientia - to make knowledge)
methodological testing, proven facts,
experimentation, logical reasoning, observation
Historical method - (iotopia - investigate, to
find out) examination of past records and
documents to come up with truth. Validate
present hypothesis using archived knowledges
2. EXISTENTIALISM
 It is a philosophy that emphasizes the
importance of free individual choice regardless
of the power of other people to influence and
coerce our desires, beliefs, and decisions. It
focuses on the question of human existence, and
the feeling that there is no purpose or
explanation at the core of existence.
3. PHENOMENOLOGY
 The phenomenological method was conceived
by Edmund Husserl, one of the greatest
intellects of the 19th century.
 Husserl’s main purpose was to build a
philosophy free from any biases or preconceived
ideas. One can only do this if one returns to
immediate experience.
 This experience is the world as it appears to us
or the phenomenal world - hence, the term
phenomenology.
Logic and Critical Thinking: Tools in Reasoning
 Logic is centered in the analysis and
construction of arguments.
 Critical thinking is distinguishing facts and
opinions or personal feelings.
 Critical thinking also takes into consideration
cultural systems, values, and beliefs and helps us
uncover bias and prejudice and be open to new
ideas not necessarily in agreement with previous
thought.
Four different methods of philosophy (SUMMARY)
1. LOGIC- in simple words, is the art and science
of correct thinking. “The study of truths based
completely on the meanings of the terms they
contain.
2. EXISTENTIALISM- is a philosophical view
that assert the individuality of any human person
making him free to make choices of what he is
and what he can become. Existentialism teaches
one enjoy freedom but with due responsibility
on what is wrong and is right.
3. ANALYTIC TRADITION- Analytic
Philosophy states that, “assumption of truth only
becomes true after it shall have gone through
validation, experimentation or any scientific
approach for that matter.
4. PHENOMENOLOGY brings varied
perceptions over a thing to a common end that
certain things no matter how different the
perspective of people towards it due to their
experiences would receive justification to its
being.
Fallacies
 A fallacy is a defect in an argument.
 Fallacies are detected by examining the contents
of the argument.
 Group of statement that appear to be arguments
but fail to support the conclusion.
1. Against the Person (Argumentum ad
hominem)
 It links the validity of a premise to a
characteristic or belief of the person advocating
the premise.
 Attacking the person making the argument
instead of argument itself.
 Ex. Of course, he believes that the government
is flawed. He is a rebel and a communist.
2. Appeal to force (Argumentum ad baculum)
 An argument where force, coercion, or the threat
of force is given as a justification for a
conclusion.
 Ex. If this peace agreement will not be signed by
the government, then we will have no recourse
but to go to war.
3. Appeal to pity (Argumentum ad
misericordiam)
 An attempt to win support for an argument or
idea by exploiting his or her opponent’s feelings
of pity or guilt.
 Using emotions such as pity or sympathy
 Ex. All these charges are baseless; this is just
plain harassment-can’t you see how this is
affecting my family.
4. Appeal to the people (Argumentum ad
populum)
 An argument that appeals or exploits people’s
vanities, desire for esteem, and anchoring on
popularity.
 The idea is presented as acceptable because a lot
of people accept.
 Ex. Every boy your age already has girlfriend,
you should go and find one.
5. Appeal to tradition Argumentum ad
Tradition/Antiquitatem
 The idea is acceptable because it has been true
for a long time.
 Marriage should be between a man and a
woman.
 It has been so for a long time in this country, it
should remain so today and in the future.
6. Appeal to ignorance (Argumentum ad
ignorantiam)
 What has not been proven false must be true and
vice versa.
 Ex. Occurs when person mistakenly believes
something to be true that is not because he
doesn’t know enough about the subject.
7. Begging the question/Petitio Principii
 Assuming the thing or idea to be proven is true;
also known as circular argument.
 Ex. I have the right for free speech; therefore,
you cannot stop me from talking.
8. Fallacy of Hasty generalization
 Making an inductive generalization based on
insufficient evidence.
 Ex. All CNHS students are misbehaving. “Our
neighbor who is a police officer was convicted
of being a drug dealer, therefore, all police
officers are drug dealers.”
9. Cause and effect (Post Hoc, Ergo, Propter
Hoc)
 Assuming that the effect is related to a cause
because both events occur one after the
other.
 Assuming a “cause-and-effect” relationship
between unrelated events.
10. Fallacy of composition
 Assuming that what is true for the part is true for
the whole.
 Ex. These cases of robberies in this district have
convinced me that the city has become a den of
thieves and criminals.
11. Fallacy of division
 Infers that something is true of the whole, must
also be true on its parts
 Assuming that what is true for the whole is true
for its parts.
 All to individual
 Ex. You come from a family of doctors and
intellectuals. Surely you can do better of this
course.
 12. Fallacy of equivocation
 Occurs when a key term or phrase in argument is
used to an ambiguous way
 I have the right to watch. The real world.
“Therefore, its right for me to watch the show.

13. Fallacy of Accident

 Occurs when one attempts to apply a general
rule to an irrelevant situation.
 Example: Cutting people with knives is a crime.
Surgeons cut people with knives. Surgeons are
criminals.
14. Argument from Authority (Argumentum ad
Verecundia)
 Committed when a person uses a name of a
popular celebrity or name of an expert to put
more weight in the assertion being made.
 Example: “My assignment in Chemistry is not
wrong. Ms. Aguirre, my English teacher who is
known internationally as a novelist, confirmed
my answer The Human Person as an Embodied Spirit

Arguments are series of statements that provide

explanations to convince the listener or a reader that the
opinion is truthful.
Types of Arguments:
1. Fallacy or Fake argument (maling
pangangatuwiran)
 are group of statements that appear to be
arguments to support the conclusion. Example:
Person- Refers to human being granted recognition of
There is no hope in the Philippine government,
certain rights, protection, responsibilities, and dignity,
because it is tropical country. What makes the
above all. The totality of an individual, possessing
statement fallacious? It is fallacious because
awareness, self-determination and the capacity to
climate has nothing to do with the hope of
interact
Philippine government.
2. Bias Personhood- the state of being a person with unique,
 refers tendencies or influences which affect the sacred, and ethical status within him/herself Human
views of the people. When looking at an opinion
you must be aware of bias so that you can Nature - A general term refers to the deepest and natural
objectively and critically examined points of behavior of a person that distinguish human from
view. animals. A collective trait that formed and considered the
very essence of humanity. Nobody can be considered
man without human nature.
Human person is someone with an exact origin of
his/her classification.
 From the biblical perspective, we came from
Adam and Eve.
  For science, we came from an ape under the
class: Mammalia, successfully adapted species
on the planet.
 A human person is typically with a body which
is tangible and has three components composed
of SOUL, MIND and SPIRIT. Also, he or she is
entitled and granted rights and privileges by the
state which he or she legally belong
COGNITIVE AND PHYSICAL SELF
1. The Physical Self (something can be seen in
his/her physical appearance) which deals with
the essential features of the human way of life or
THE WHO OF A PERSON which includes
his/her body type, strength and appearances.
2. The Cognitive Self (something within and
cannot be physically seen) is the essential
components of a human persons that deals with
THE WHAT OF A PERSON which includes
human persons’ belief, desire, dreams, and
intentions.
EMBODIED SPIRIT
 Embodied spirit is an animating core living
within each of us.
 It is known to be the driving force behind what
we actually think, do and say.
Spirit- This intangible element enables us to exercise
thought, possess awareness, interiority, and the capacity
to reach out to the outside world and other persons.
 Embodiment, the representation or expression
of something in a tangible or visible form,
enables us to do and experience all the things
that make us human persons.
 The embodiment of the spirit particularly refers
to the inseparable union of human body and
soul.
 Inseparable which also means the body and soul
work together at all times. Hence, we can safely
say that “embodied spirit” that the body is not
separate from the soul, just as the soul is not
separate from the body.
HUMAN PERSON AS AN EMBODIED SPIRIT
1. SELF- AWARENESS- refers to person having a
clear perception of oneself, including his or her
thoughts, emotions, identity, and actions. It is the
ability of one’s consciousness to look inward
thus discovering the presence of a self. The
human person is defined by a deeper awareness
that is driven by rationality or human thought. A
person is aware of both his or her surroundings
and himself or herself.
 This awareness gives rise to the notion of the
“self,” which the philosophers describe as the
person who is actively aware that he or she is
perceiving and experiencing reality. We
experience interiority, that is, the quality of
being focused on one’s inner life and identity.
 I am a Person, I am alive, I exist, I am here, I am
Present, I am Living at this moment.
2. EXTERNALITY- It is the capability of a
person to reach out and interact with others and
the world. The realization that we are not alone
and that there are indeed other people around us
enables us to reach out and establish meaningful
relationships with others. Philosophers consider
man as a social being and that a person never
exist in isolation.
 Our interactions with others define our existence
as persons. We grow and develop not only
through our thoughts and actions, but also
through the influence of other people in our
lives, and the individuals we meet and interact
with.
3. SELF-DETERMINATION- It refers to the
capability of persons to make choices and
decisions based on their own preferences,
monitor and regulate their actions, and be goal-
oriented and self-directed. We are persons
because we act and we are aware of our actions.
 Free will is the capacity to choose a course of
action from various alternatives
 Consequence is the result or effect of an action
or condition. Philosophers believe that a person
acts freely and with due regard for the
consequences of his or her actions.
 Morality is the “goodness or badness” of an act.
4. DIGNITY- It is the innate right to be valued
and respected. Philosophers consider all humans
as having an inherent worth or value. Each
person is worth the same as another person in
 the sense that every person is priceless, unique,
unrepeatable and irreplaceable.
 Human dignity is rooted in the nature of the
human. It means that a person has dignity
simply because of the fact that he is human.
Dignity is not defined by outside factors like
intelligence, beauty, skills, etc. A person retains
his dignity in spite of his or her actions or
behavior. Dignity also drives us to seek what is
good. Doing good deeds upholds and promotes
dignity of the human person. This recognition of
dignity is also the basis for the recognition of
human rights.
3. Aquinas considers the human beings as moral
agent. We are both spiritual and body elements:
the spiritual and material.The unity of both
elements indeed help asto understand our
complexity as human beings. Through our
spirituality, we have aconscience. Thus, whether
we choose to be good and evil becomes our
responsibility.

TRANSCENDENCE

HOW DO LIMITATIONS LEAD TO

TRANSCENDENCE?
FACTICITY –refers to the things in our life that are
already given. Example: life • We are free to define who
we are and who we are to be.
 Transcendence or a state of “existence above
and beyond the limits of material experience.
 Transcendence originated from the words Trans,
meaning “go beyond”, and scandare, meaning
“climb”
TWO CLASSICAL VIEWS ON HUMAN PERSON
AS AN EMBODIED SPIRIT
1. PLATO: DUALITY OF THE BODY AND
SOUL
 OUR BODY IS SEPARATE AND DISTINCT
FROM OUR SOUL.
 According to Plato, man is his soul. This is the
essence of his humanity and the sources of his
activities. The human body is an unfortunate
accident and cruel imprisonment of the free and
pure soul. In death, the true man is freed from
his imprisonment to see perfectly the pure light
of absolute truth.
2. ARISTOTLE: UNITY OF THE BODY AND
SOUL
 Man is the whole of his body and soul. They are
one like the oneness of the ugly and his figure.
The relation of the body to the soul is the
relation of matter to form. The body and soul are
only two aspects of the whole man.
TRANSCENDENCE
 As human persons, we have natural tendencies
or inclinations. Some of these are felt bodily
functions like hunger, fatigue, etc.
Transcendence means overcoming oneself or
being in control even if the body reminds us of
certain tendencies. Although these tendencies
are felt, the person can govern them and ensure
that they are exercised within the bounds of
reason.
THE HUMAN PERSON IN THE ENVIRONMENT
Three major views on the relationship between
humanity and the environment
1. Anthropocentrism
 focuses on the significant role of human kind in
the world and considers nature as the means by
which humans are able to meet their needs and
survive. This view believes that humans are the
most important species on the planet, and they
are free to transform nature and use its resources
2. Biocentrism
 Believes that humans are not only significant
species on the planet, and that all organisms
have inherent value and should be protected.
 This view drives the activities of humane
organizations that advocate the ethical treatment
of animals.
3. Ecocentrism
 places great value on ecosystems and biological
communities.
 This view believes that humankind is part of a
greater biological system or community and that
we have a significant ROLE AS STEWARDS or
guardians OF NATURE.