COLONIALISM’S

ENVIRONMENTAL FOOTPRINT
IN AFRICA

Claudia Lucendo Guillan

Environmental Diplomacy
 University of Geneva
May 2023

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction
2. Historical Context: European Colonisation in Africa
2.1 Motivations for the African Colonisation
2.2 The Berlin Conference
3. The Impact of Colonialism on the African Environment
3.1 Direct Impacts
3.2 Indirect Impacts
4. The Enduring Consequences of the Colonial Environmental Practices in
Africa
4.1 Future Prospects
5. Conclusions
6. Bibliography
 1. INTRODUCTION

It is common knowledge that Africa's history is closely connected to European colonialism

which developed from the 19th century and lasted almost until the end of the 20th century.
As a result, one can logically and rationally argue that Africa is deeply marked by the colonial
practices that developed on the continent for so many years. The legacy of European
colonialism extends beyond borders, politics, languages, institutions, or economic models.
The impact of this imperialism is also very significant and visible in the African environment.

Furthermore, the continent has always been of global relevance due to its richness in natural
resources, energy sources and mineral reserves1. This fact attracted European colonial
powers who, for centuries, ruthlessly exploited Africa's natural resources, leaving a major
impact on the environment and the management of its resources. The widespread
exploitation of African raw materials had both direct and indirect consequences on the
environment, society, politics, economy and even the culture of the African people.

Accordingly, this paper aims to explore in detail the footprint left by colonialism on Africa's
environment, focusing specifically on the exploitation of raw materials and the
consequences it had on the ecosystem and natural resource management. It also focuses on
the analyse of the long-term environmental impacts as well as the socio-economic
implications that have influenced the continent’s current landscape. By doing so, the
purpose is to shed light on a relevant but often overlooked topic and to foster a deeper
understanding of how the colonial past continues to influence Africa's present and future in
terms of environmental and resource management.

Thus, the paper follows a clear and well-defined structure. First, it presents the key terms
and principles that will be used throughout the paper and that are necessary for a better
understanding of the topic. Secondly, the historical context will be discussed considering
how colonial relations were established and developed in Africa and what role natural
resources play in this. Subsequently, the impact of colonialism on the African environment
will be developed in detail, analysing how the exploitation of raw materials and other factors
related to the European colonial presence affected African ecosystems. The following will
examine the current implications and legacies of the colonial past on the current
management of African natural resources, including challenges such as unequal access to
resources, environmental degradation, and economic dependence. Possible approaches to
address such threats will be discussed. Finally, some conclusions will be drawn to bring
together the most important elements of this work.

1
Isabelle Ramdoo, El África de los recursos naturales in: La Vanguardia, November 27, 2019, pp. 1-5.
 2. HISTORICAL CONTEXT: EUROPEAN COLONISATION IN
AFRICA

The temporal and historical framework on which this paper focuses concerns the period of
European colonisation in Africa. As mentioned above, European colonisation in Africa was an
episode in history that began in the 19th century and ended in the 1960s with
decolonisation. During this period, Europeans exploited Africa's natural resources and
subjected Africans to slavery and oppression2. The idea behind such domination is based on
the belief that Europeans were superior to Africans.

It is noteworthy that before this era, there are precedents of European colonialism in Africa
between the 15th and 18th centuries. However, it is established that the real competition
for the division of Africa took place between 1880 and 19143.

2.1 Motivations for the African Colonisation

As for the explicit reason for colonisation, there is no consensus among scholars: some argue
that colonisation was motivated by different forces depending on the European countries
that carried it out, while others focus on religious or cultural factors. However, almost all of
them agree that one of the main reasons was undoubtedly economic4.

Despite this, the early settlers invoked religious motives to justify their activity. As Nelson
points out, the hope was to bring Christianity to these domains. However, the results of
these missions have seldom been religious. In fact, they led to the spread of slavery and
other forms of exploitation of African5.

Another reason that has been raised and the most relevant to this paper is the access to the
natural resources of the African continent that fostered the development of industry in
Europe6. Since it was and still is considered to be the world's richest continent in natural
resources7. At that time, European countries were experiencing a growing and accelerated
development of their industries and therefore demanded large quantities of raw materials.
And Africa possessed a large part of the reserves of the three main types of raw materials:

2
Jakob F. Ade Ajayi, Colonialismo: un Episodio en la Historia Africana in: Relaciones Internacionales, nº44, 2020,
pp. 165-176.
3
Antonio Ariso Segura, European Colonialism in Africa (Final thesis), University of Zaragoza, 2021, pp. 1-89.
4
Rosenberg Dominique, Le príncipe de la Souveraineté des Etats sur leur Ressources Naturelles, Paris, Librairie
générale de droit et de jurisprudence, 1983.
5
Peter H. Omara-Ojungu, Resource Management in Developing Countries, New York, Longman Scientific &
Technical, 1992.
6
Anne Patricia Kameri-Mbote and Philippe Cullet, Law, Colonialism and Environmental Management in Africa
in: RECIEL Journal, vol 6, nº1, 1997, pp. 23-31.
7
Jesús García-Luengos, La Gestión de los Recursos Naturales en África Subsahariana, Clave para la Paz y el
Desarrollo in: Revista Española de Desarrollo y Cooperación, nº 16, 2005, pp. 119-134.
the fertile land needed for agriculture, the minerals, and the energies essential for the
world's industrial development8. In short, the role of the exploitation of African raw
materials was key to European colonialism and the economic development of the old
continent.

Regardless of their motives, as Kameri-Mbote and Cullet note in their article, what is clear is
that "The colonisers considered the annexation of territory crucial to the achievement of
their objectives"9. Furthermore, they relied on the natural right of international trade and
the principle of commercial freedom to justify their appropriation of African territory. The
European reasoning was that local peoples, who were more technologically and culturally
backward, were unable to benefit from the natural resources of their territories, which
constituted a hindrance to the benefit of all mankind. Therefore, on behalf of humanity,
they should thus expropriate the lands of the local communities and exploit them on their
own. Taking it a step further, G. Scelle believed that these communities should be governed
by more civilized people, rejecting their right to self-government and resistance against
outside intervention10.

2.2 The Berlin Conference

The Berlin Conference, which took place between November 1884 and February 1885, was
convened by Germany and France to reach an agreement between the powers involved.
Fourteen nations participated and the decisions taken largely determined the future of
Africa. Although no African country was present, the continent was divided up without any
possibility of resistance11.

The main objective was to establish the rules and principles for the colonisation of Africa by
the European powers to avoid the potential international conflict that would have arisen
from rivalry between them12. During this conference, they peacefully divided up the African
continent as if it were a pie, without regard for the historical, cultural, or ethnic boundaries
of the different regions.

Many scholars view the Berlin conference as a decisive moment in the history of imperialism
and its impact on Africa. They argue that it served as the starting point for the current
arrangement of African borders as it created the legal framework for the formal partition of

8
Isabelle Ramdoo, El África de los recursos naturales, pp. 1-5.
9
Anne Patricia Kameri-Mbote and Philippe Cullet, Law, Colonialism and Environmental Management in Africa,
pp. 23-31.
10
Rosenberg Dominique, Le Principe de la Souveraineté des États sur leur Ressources Naturelles.
11
Antonio Ariso Segura, European Colonialism in Africa, pp. 1-89.
12
Claire Vergerio, The Berlin and Hague Conferences in: Oxford Handbook of History and International
Relations, 2021, pp. 1-15.
Africa13. This meant the legalization of exploitation, which caused devastating consequences
for the continent and its local population.

Although not decisive, in the years following the conference, European countries engaged in
a race to sign numerous treaties with local African governors to gain greater territorial
sovereignty over Africa. By 1904, there was no territory left in Africa that was not under
European control14.

3. THE IMPACT OF COLONIALISM ON THE AFRICAN

ENVIRONMENT

Environmental problems in Africa have been a constant concern for a variety of experts,
including geographers, historians, anthropologists, archaeologists, and medical scientists 15.
In fact, the distribution of natural resources has played a crucial role in the rise and fall of
pre-colonial and colonial kingdoms, and both famine and resource depletion have been
recurrent problems in African politics. Indeed, Africa's valuable resources have been an
attraction for traders, colonial powers, and settlers16.

As already outlined, the impact of European colonialism on the African environment was
significant and persistent. During centuries of colonial rule, European powers exploited the
natural resources of the African continent to satisfy their own economic and political needs,
without concern for ecological balance or the long-term welfare of local communities and
the natural environment.

The main and direct environmental impacts that caused the degradation of African
environments and ecosystems were the massive exploitation of natural resources,
deforestation, the introduction of monocultures, the construction of infrastructure, as well
as the introduction of exotic species and unsustainable hunting practices. It should also be
noted that European settlers also imposed changes in traditional practices, such as property
rights, the relationship between the community and the land, and access to natural
resources. The latter can be seen as indirect consequences of colonialism on the African
environment, but especially on resource management.

3.1 Direct Impacts

13
Ibid.
14
Antonio Ariso Segura, European Colonialism in Africa, pp. 1-89.
15
William Beinart, African History and Environmental History in: Affrican Affairs, vol 99, nº 395, 2000, pp. 269-
302.
16
Timothy M. Shaw and Malcom J.Grieve, Africa and the Environment: the Political Economy of Resources in:
The African Review: A Journal of African Politics, Development and International Affairs, vol 9, nº 1, 1982, pp.
104-124.
First, we shall address the effect of massive natural resource exploitation on the African
environment. European technological progress during that period made it possible to start
exploiting new natural resources that until then could not be used to the fullest potential,
often because they were difficult to obtain 17. Thereafter, mineral resources could be
extracted in large quantities from deeper mines, while timber and other forest products
could be extensively exploited, and fishing could be ever in more remote and deeper waters.
Hence, if there was a shortage of resources in one community, it could be countered by
importing it from other regions. As Omara-Ojungu rightly remarks in his book Resource
Management in Developing Countries, “Resources were therefore perceived as being both
absolutely and relatively abundant and, therefore, large amounts were exploited at
commercial scales”18.

Moreover, another major issue concerning the environment was deforestation and soil
erosion. European powers extracted resources such as timber, palm oil and rubber. This led
to the uncontrolled exploitation of African forests, where trees were felled on a massive
scale to meet European demand for resources. This led to the extinction of a wide variety of
indigenous flora and fauna. As a result, African ecosystems suffered a significant imbalance.
On the other hand, the destruction of trees weakened the soil's retention capacity, leading
to erosion, environmental degradation, and a decrease in the quality of crops 19.

According to Kameri-Mbote and Cullet, a further effect of colonialism was the introduction
of invasive exotic species into colonies to set up an agricultural economy focused on
intensive cash crop monocultures. This enhanced yields, but at the price of conventional
food crops, which were seen as inferior and thus abandoned. This had a detrimental impact
on food variety and the adaptation of new crops to climate circumstances. Furthermore,
this technique, as well as the exploitation of timber resources, resulted in widespread
deforestation. Forests of indigenous trees were destroyed to make place for fast-growing
exotic species, thus ensuring an ongoing supply of timber for both colony and
metropolis consumption20.

The colonial rule also required the construction of colonial infrastructure such as roads,
railways, and ports to facilitate the massive export of raw materials and cash crops 21. As a
result, habitats were destroyed, leading to the loss of biodiversity, and disrupting natural
landscapes. Besides, it was common for local people to be compelled to do these harsh
constructions. The forced labour of indigenous people was another way of expressing
European domination in Africa.
17
Peter H. Omara-Ojungu, Resource Management in Developing Countries.
18
Ibid.
19
Anne Patricia Kameri-Mbote and Philippe Cullet, Law, Colonialism and Environmental Management in Africa,
pp. 23-31.
20
Ibid.
21
Walter Rodney, How Europe Underdeveloped Africa, London, Bogle-L’Ouverture Publications, 1972.
The first wildlife conservation policies in Africa were implemented to preserve hunting for
the European elite and later for the settlers 22. The wildlife population became unsustainable
due to excessive hunting, meaning that the number of animals killed exceeded their
capacity to reproduce and replace their numbers feasibly. As a result, a sharp reduction in
wildlife populations was experienced. Meanwhile, local communities began to express
serious concerns as they saw their animals cruelly exterminated as part of a simple
European game. In "The Empire of Nature," MacKenzie outlines how settlers' and
imperialists' ruthless hunting in southern Africa had a devastating effect on wildlife, leading
to the extinction of species such as the quagga and blue antelope23.

It has to be noted, that prior to the European impact, African civilizations did not require
huge quantities of ivory and did not participate in large-scale elephant killing or ivory
gathering until demand arrived from Europe or Asia. Nevertheless, commercial and
unsustainable hunting was practised in places like northern Botswana far into the twentieth
century.

3.2 Indirect Impacts

During the colonial period in Africa, the environmental repercussions of colonialism were
not only constrained to the direct exploitation of natural resources but also brought legal
and economic frameworks of the West. These changes had major consequences for the
long-term management of natural resources and environmental protection.

Before colonialism, African property rights were based on communities and common laws.
This benefited the promotion of sustainability and preservation for future generations. Yet
colonial rulers imposed European conceptions of property, believing that by following the
progress of the European model, they would encourage economic development in Africa.
This resulted in the privatization and expropriation of indigenous tribes' lands, thus limiting
their land rights. Colonial governance emphasized state control and private property
ownership as efficient ways of extracting and using resources. As a result, community
preservation mechanisms were weakened, leading to destabilization, and contributing to the
breakdown of social, political, and economic community structures throughout Africa 24.

In connection with the latter, environmental resource rights were taken away from the
control of local communities who mainly depended on them for basic needs. Previously,
wildlife and forests played a crucial role in the lives of local communities, providing essential
food and medicinal plants. However, once these lands were privatised, they were no longer
22
Anne Patricia Kameri-Mbote and Philippe Cullet, Law, Colonialism and Environmental Management in Africa,
pp. 23-31.
23
Ibid.
24
Ibid.
accessible for use by communities. As a result, Africans lost the benefits of wildlife and its
products, forcing them to rely on poachers to obtain these resources. Disappointingly,
colonial rulers did not take into account the needs of local communities. Consequently, this
process contributed to increasing inequalities both within local societies and between the
colonies and the metropolis25.

Colonialism had a dramatic and long-lasting influence on Africa by breaking the tight bond
between people and land. This link was essential since, as previously stated, most of the
people relied directly on the land and its resources for a living. Local people were displaced
and excluded from their ancestral lands from the beginning of colonial environmental
policies, being compelled to relocate to other places against their choice and without
recompense for the loss of their property and other rights, such as hunting and gathering. In
fact, they were divided from their land and deprived of the resources they need for survival,
resulting in a rupture in their customary relationship with nature. As a result, traditional land
management knowledge and skills were lost. Moreover, there were also tensions and
disputes between local populations and colonial officials. These policies were viewed by
Africans as an external imposition that denied them their traditional rights and ways of life26.

As a final insight and according to Kameri-Mbote and Cullet, colonialism negatively affected
the sustainable management of environmental resources. By taking land control away from
communities, they weakened the environmental sense of responsibility, equity, and care
that prevented the depletion of resources. Before this period, communities had norms and
traditions that ensured sustainable resource management, and the role of elders and chiefs
was central to this process. However, land tenure policies and colonial legislation restricted
the participation of communities in natural resource management, which impeded them
from applying fundamental principles such as intra- and intergenerational equity in the use
of resources. In addition, colonial authorities did not recognise communities as capable
managers of the environment. In short, concern for the sustainability of resources for future
generations was lost when the colonisers took full control of the land and resources. Since
they were not personally affected by this issue, they did not care about it, yet this has led to
some serious problems that future generations of Africans have had to face27.

4. THE ENDURING CONSEQUENCES OF THE COLONIAL

ENVIRONMENTAL PRACTICES IN AFRICA

Besides the relatively immediate outcomes of colonization on the African environment,

there are enduring effects that have persisted throughout time. These adverse impacts,

25
Anne Patricia Kameri-Mbote and Philippe Cullet, Law, Colonialism and Environmental Management in Africa,
pp. 23-31.
26
Ibid.
27
Ibid.
which are going to be discussed in this section, primarily pertain to the social and economic
domains.

As claimed by Robert Nelson, the modern environmental movement is related to recent

dominant initiatives to "preserve" Africa. While the environmental effects have not been as
terrible as slavery, they have frequently benefitted Western interests and aims over local
people. Over the last five decades, a new type of "environmental colonialism" has been
imposed on Africans on the pretext of safeguarding the African environment28.

In terms of the environment, while environmental colonialism is no longer as explicit as it

was during the colonial period, it is nevertheless present in the policies of many modern
African countries. The way in which this is done has changed; today, it is not an imposition,
but rather a strong influence on the decision-making process and the creation of
environmental policies. In the most recent example, African government officials in charge
of maintaining national parks and wildlife reserves continue to work to please European and
American donors and tourists, even at the cost of Africans' well-being. The establishment of
national parks and other conservation zones has only been and continues to be
accomplished by removing indigenous tribal communities from their native lands, leaving
them economically isolated and, in some cases, in extreme poverty. This issue continues to
struggle people in several places in Tanzania, as reported in “Environmental Colonialism:
“Saving” Africa from Africans”29.

Besides, Africa's economic and political standing in the global arena has remained relatively
unchanged. Instead, they are facing many issues regarding economic underdevelopment and
dependence. Africa's political independence has not resulted in progress; rather, it has
increased economic dependence. To improve their possibilities for growth and
development, African countries have pursued new types of commerce with wealthy nations.
However, new confrontational and cooperative relationships, as well as recent changes in
the global economy, have had an unequal influence on Africa. Indeed, growing disparities on
the continent because of the recent economic crisis have harmed African unity. African
countries with abundant oil, uranium, phosphates, and other minerals now have stronger
economic prospects. Countries with huge populations and armies, as well as those more
aligned with the interests of transnational companies, now dominate continental decision-
making in Africa. On the other hand, Africa currently has the most underdeveloped, isolated,
and landlocked countries of any region30.

Africa's continuing economic dependency is due to the inequitable distribution of wealth

rather than a shortage of resources. It is evident that the African continent has economic
28
Robert H. Nelson, Environmental Colonialism: “Saving” Africa from Africans in: The Independent Review, vol
8, nº 1, 2003, pp. 65-86.
29
Ibid.
30
William Beinart, African History and Environmental History, pp. 269-302.
potential, but this depends on ending its fragmentation (there are more than 50 states) and
establishing a continental economy. In the words of William Beinart, “Africa, for instance,
export twice as much food as it imports and yet there has been famine and starvation
throughout the Sahel. Likewise, Africa produces more than sufficient oil for its own
consumption, yet it has been more affected than most regions by the high price and
unreliable supply of oil through the multinationals' distribution network. Africa could be self-
reliant in petroleum products and insulate itself from some of the impacts of the high cost of
energy if it was a more integrated continental economy.” Overall, Africa’s potential to be
self-sufficient has been undermined by reliance on foreign markets, technology, and
finance31.

4.1 Future Prospects

Many African countries appear to not have understood the link between their
underdevelopment and environmental challenges, as well as their position in the global
economy. To solve these issues, it is needed a fundamental shift in their relationship with
industrialized nations, as well as an awareness of environmental challenges.

African nations must reinforce their involvement in global affairs, but this should not be seen
as a one-sided relationship in which only non-African societies profit. Since the end of the
Cold War, Africa has lost much of its global strategic relevance. As a result, foreign funding to
the continent has drastically decreased, and Western investors are more interested in other
rising economies. African nations would have to rely on their own resources for growth
unless they implement political changes that make their economies more attractive and
developed32.

According to Mamadou Gaye, adequate political reform is required not just to facilitate the
flow of aid and assure resource efficiency, but also to build frameworks for peaceful
cohabitation and long-term growth. On the other hand, it is critical to adopt environmental
policies that assist in addressing the lasting consequences of colonialism and in recovering
the environment, for which the local community is more than crucial. Therefore, Africans
must be included in the formulation of these new environmental policies33.

5. CONCLUSIONS

By way of conclusion, the key ideas and the most relevant insights that have been developed
throughout this paper will be outlined. The environmental impact of European colonialism in

31
William Beinart, African History and Environmental History, pp. 269-302.
32
Mamadou Gaye, Western Influences and Activities in Africa in: Journal of Third World Studies, vol XV, nº1,
1989, pp. 65.78.
33
Ibid.
Africa has left deep scars on the continent that extend to the present day. The historical
context of European colonisation, motivated by the exploitation of natural resources and the
quest for territorial domination, was consolidated by the Berlin Conference.

The direct environmental impacts of colonialism were disastrous. The massive exploitation
of natural resources, deforestation, soil depletion and infrastructure construction devastated
African ecosystems. In addition, the introduction of exotic species and unsustainable hunting
led to the loss of biodiversity and the imbalance of ecosystems.

Indirect impacts were equally damaging. Changes in land property rights and access to
natural resources had a lasting impact on African communities and their relationship with
the environment. The lack of sustainability in resource exploitation by the settlers created a
problem for future African generations, who are deprived of a sustainable legacy and face
significant environmental challenges.

The long-term consequences of this environmental impact are evident. Africa has
experienced underdevelopment and economic dependence due to the unbridled
exploitation of its natural resources and lack of control over its own environmental heritage.
In addition, a new environmental colonialism has emerged, with outside interests continuing
to exploit African resources without equitable benefit to local populations.

To overcome these consequences and move towards a more sustainable future, it is crucial
to recognise and address the legacy of colonialism in Africa. This involves promoting
sustainable development practices, fostering the participation and decision-making of local
communities, and ensuring equitable access to and responsible management of natural
resources. In addition, there is a need for greater global awareness of environmental justice
and the need for international collaboration to address environmental challenges in Africa
equitably and sustainably. Only through these joint efforts, Africa can move towards a future
in which the continent can recover and prosper in harmony with its natural environment.
 6. BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Schrijver, Nico. Development without Destruction: The UN and Global Resource

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DECLARATION OF HONOR

I, Claudia Lucendo Guillan, confirm that the work for the following term paper with the title:
“COLONIALISM’S ENVIRONMENTAL FOOTPRINT IN AFRICA” was solely undertaken by myself
and that no help was provided from other sources as those allowed. All sections of the
paper that use quotes or describe an argument or concept developed by another author
have been referenced, including all secondary literature used, to show that this material has
been adopted to support my paper.

Place / Date Signature: Geneva, 17th of May 2023.