More Than Mere Motivation Learning Specific Content Through Multimodal Narratives

Literacy Research and Instruction
ISSN: 1938-8071 (Print) 1938-8063 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ulri20
More Than Mere Motivation: Learning Specific

Content Through Multimodal Narratives
Kristy A. Brugar, Kathryn L Roberts, Laura M. Jiménez & Carla K Meyer
To cite this article: Kristy A. Brugar, Kathryn L Roberts, Laura M. Jiménez & Carla K Meyer (2018)
More Than Mere Motivation: Learning Specific Content Through Multimodal Narratives, Literacy
Research and Instruction, 57:2, 183-208, DOI: 10.1080/19388071.2017.1351586
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/19388071.2017.1351586
Published online: 31 Jul 2017.
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LITERACY RESEARCH AND INSTRUCTION
2018, VOL. 57, NO. 2, 183–208
https://doi.org/10.1080/19388071.2017.1351586
More Than Mere Motivation: Learning Specific Content Through

Multimodal Narratives
Kristy A. Brugara, Kathryn L Robertsb, Laura M. Jiménezc and Carla K Meyerd
a
Jeannine Rainbolt College of Education, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma; bCollege of Education,
Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan; cSchool of Education, Language and Literacy Program, Boston
University, Boston, Massachusetts; dSchool of Education, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
This study explores the possibilities for learning content that might Graphic novels; historical
accompany the use of an historically accurate graphic novel as part of fiction; history; literacy
a language arts instructional unit. During a 6-day unit, 16 sixth grade
students engaged in graphic novels in ways that support compre-
hension, both in the context of a graphic novel text set and a specific
novel, One Dead Spy. Through qualitative and quantitative analysis,
we evaluated student learning of content related to the topic of the
American Revolution. Results indicate that engaging students in
instruction around the novel built the background knowledge on
the topic, as well as increasing their understanding of the topic as
measured by a free-recall assessment. In addition, the unit posttest
indicated significant learning around conceptual ideas.
In recent years, there has been an increased focus on reading in the content areas (e.g.,
Brozo, Moorman, & Meyer, 2013; Council of Chief State School Officers and the National
Governors Association, 2010; National Council for the Social Studies [NCSS], 2013) and
disciplinary literacy (e. g., Fang & Coatsman, 2013; Moje, 2007; Shanahan & Shanahan;
2008). The research is clear that the demands of reading vary with content area and so too
must the skills and strategies used to do so (Moje, 2007; Shanahan & Shanahan, 2008;
Wineburg, Martin, & Monte-Sano, 2011). Without a doubt, targeted literacy skills can
help students to better learn, retain, and express content knowledge. However, the amount
that students learn is also constrained by the amount of time spent on task, and in today’s
climate of accountability, subjects that are less likely to be the focus of high-stakes tests
receive considerably less instructional time in most schools (Fitchett & Heafner, 2010;
Levine, Lopez, & Marcelo, 2008; Segall, 2006). Content-area literacy instruction, or
instruction on the particular skills and knowledge needed to comprehend and create
texts within a specific content area, can only take students so far when there is increasingly
less time in which to enact it and for students to employ their learning. Thus, it is
important to think creatively about the integration of content knowledge into other
opportunities for literacy instruction.
Although manifested in different ways, literacy is a primary focus across all grade levels
and allocated a large portion of the instructional day. A wide variety of reasons exist for this
CONTACT Kristy A. Brugar Kristy.a.brugar@ou.edu University of Oklahoma, Jeannine Rainbolt College of

Education, 820 Van Vleet Oval #114, Norman, OK 73019.
Color versions of one or more of the figures in the article can be found online at www.tandfonline.com/ulri.
© 2017 Association of Literacy Educators and Researchers
184 K. A. BRUGAR ET AL.
trend, but most relate to the high-stakes nature of literacy learning. Literacy skills are essential
for success in other academic subjects as well as in life. In addition, children’s performances
on assessments of their literacy skills and knowledge typically play a key role in student,
teacher, school, and district evaluations. The pressure is tremendous from both practical and
accountability standpoints. As students transition to middle school, literacy continues to be a
strong focus in content standards and expectations for instructional practice across disci-
plines. Reading, writing, listening, speaking, viewing, and creating (i.e., the core components
of literacy) do not exist in a vacuum. There is always a “text,” broadly defined, upon which
these components are enacted; if you are going to read, you have to read something. The
implication of this is that content-area reading and instruction can be mutually beneficial,
increasing both literacy skills and, by virtue of the fact that the text contains content-area
information, content-area knowledge. The focus of the research presented in this article
stemmed from our wondering about the possibilities for content-area learning, in this case
history, when students read historically accurate graphic novels during literacy instruction.
In the pages that follow, we describe an intervention in which we, as researcher-
practitioners, taught a unit in a sixth grade English language arts classroom on reading
graphic novels. In this unit, the touchstone text that the students read was a historically
situated, factually accurate graphic novel about the American Revolution, One Dead Spy
by Nathan Hale (2012).
Literature review
The use of graphic novels in the classroom is relatively novel, and we were only able to
identify a small number of research articles that looked at the potential of graphic novels
to improve learning of content. Literature and research abounds related to graphic novels,
particularly in relation to motivation, engagement, and readability. This, in combination
with research on the potential benefits to comprehension of multimodal texts, form the
research base on which this study was built. McCloud (1994), comics artist and scholar,
writes that, “The art form—the medium—known as comics is a vessel which can hold any
number of ideas and images,” but the medium is not restricted to any particular set of
“trends, genres, styles, subject matter and themes” (p. 6). Instead, McCloud defines comics
as “juxtaposed pictorial and other images in deliberate sequence, intended to convey
information and/or to produce an aesthetic response in the viewer” (p. 20). Thus comics,
as a medium, include many forms such as single panel comics, three and four panel
newspaper comics, comic books, Manga, and graphic novels. The focus for this study is
graphic novels, which are comics written as a single narrative arc, regardless of the
number of pages or size of the page (Eisner, 1978; McCloud, 1994).
The New London Group (1996) asserted that reading is more than simply decoding
traditional print texts and advocated for educators to recognize different modes that
convey meaning rather than solely relying on the linguistic mode (i.e., visual, audio,
gestural, spatial, and multimodal). Multimodal is the most consequential in today’s
world because a larger percentage of communication depends on combinations of
modes to convey a singular message (Cope & Kalanztis, 2009; Kress, 2009). Multimodal
texts require literacies whose scope moves beyond physical, print-dominated books to
include the visual, spatial, and can suggest aural, olfactory, and even tactile modes. Since
LITERACY RESEARCH AND INSTRUCTION 185
graphic novels require the reader to make meaning from visual, spatial, and linguistic
cues, they are a form of multimodal text.
Although there has been a significant amount of research on the comprehension
and creation of multimodal text in general (e.g., Coiro, 2003; Coiro & Doebler, 2007;
Kress & Van Leeuwen, 1996; Rowsell, Kress, Pahl, & Street, 2013), and the creation of
multimodal texts as graphic novels (Pantaleo, 2011), there has been very little research
on the specific skills needed to make meaning of graphic novels. The literary merit of
graphic novels can hardly be ignored. Maus Book I and II were awarded a special
Pulitzer in 1992, American Born Chinese (Yang, 2006), Stitches (Small, 2009), Boxers
and Saints (Yang, 2013), Nimona (Stevenson, 2015), and most recently March: Book
Three (Lewis, Aydin, & Powell, 2016) were all National Book Award finalists. Although
the literary merit of these texts is becoming more evident, there is still relatively little
research on the requisite skills needed for reading graphic novels and how those skills
might differ from reading traditional print-texts (e.g., a novel) in and out of the
classroom.
As there has been an increased push for multimodal conceptualizations of literacy,
there has also been an increase in the availability and popularity of multimodal
reading options, including an increase in the popularity of graphic novels (Brozo
et al., 2013). Whether this relationship is directional or the two covary remains to
be determined. However, although the research base is small, there is research that
shows that teachers are beginning to see the promise of graphic novels, particularly in
upper elementary through high school classrooms as an alternative for print-dominant
novels, most often for reluctant or struggling readers (Brenna, 2013; Frey & Fisher,
2004; Gavigan, 2010; Monnin, 2010). In a recent study, two 11th grade classes read
March: Book Two by John Lewis, Andrew Aydin, and Nate Powell (2015). Hawkins,
Lopez, and Hughes (2016) “found that struggling readers needed more time to read
the graphic novel as they spent additional time on the novel’s images” (p. 156). In
addition, students in both classes demonstrated growth. “A majority of students
provided more detailed answers than the vague information of the pre-assessment”
(p. 156). These results indicate that teaching students to read content-rich graphic
novels has potential to improve learning outcomes associated with content area
learning.
Moreover, the importance of multimodal literature, including graphic novels, for
today’s students has been a refrain in education in both researcher and practitioner
communities. Proponents of comics, including graphic novels, argue that students
need to critically engage with texts to develop multimodal literacy skills and reading
comics has the advantage of both isolating and building those skills (e.g., Carter,
2007a; Tabachnick, 2009; Thompson, 2008). In addition, broadening the texts used in
classrooms to be inclusive of multimodal literature broadens the range of opportu-
nities for diverse groups to students to critically engage with complex ideas (The
New London Group, 1996). In regard to the practical concerns that in part guide
curricular choices, this shift has also been called for by the National Council of
Teachers of English (2005) and the authors of the Common Core State Standards for
English Language Arts (CCSS-ELA, Council of Chief State School Officers and the
National Governors Association, 2010), the latter of which name graphic novels,
explicitly.
Graphic novels as merely motivating texts

To date, research on graphic novels in education has been predominantly concerned with
examining effects on students’ motivation and engagement when they read these texts in
class. This research indicates that readers often enjoy and are compelled to engage with
graphic novels in ways that they are not compelled to with more traditional texts
(Jennings, Rule, & Vander Zanden, 2014; Lawn, 2012; Moeller, 2013; Sabeti, 2013). This
seems to be particularly true of readers who are traditionally marginalized or viewed as
struggling readers through the lens of formal education (Brenna, 2013; Smetana, Odelson,
Burns, & Grisham, 2009). Research clearly demonstrates, given the plethora of scholarship
on adolescent reading comprehension, that motivation (intrinsic, situational, and extrin-
sic) has a measurable effect on reading comprehension (e.g., Boardman et al., 2008; Flood
& Lapp, 1990; Franzak, 2006; Guthrie et al., 2006; Ivey & Broaddus, 2000; Schiefele, 1991).
Thus, logic would suggest that if marginalized and struggling readers are more motivated
to read graphic novels, and motivation leads to gains in comprehension, then it would be
beneficial to use graphic novels as instructional material with these readers. In addition,
Botzakis (2010) claims that comics are especially useful for struggling readers because the
illustrations provide support for vocabulary, as well as aid in comprehension. More
recently, Wong, Miao, Cheng, and Yip (2016) found in a study of 188 bilingual under-
graduates that most students performed better after reading both traditional-print text and
a graphic novel as compared to traditional-print text alone. This fits with the theoretical
understanding that comprehension benefits from presentation of information in two
forms (Roberts, Norman, & Cocco, 2015; Salmerón, Baccino, Cañas, Madrid, & Fajardo,
2009).
Many scholars (e.g., Cary, 2004; Clark, 2014; Gorman, 2003; McTaggart, 2008) claim
that graphic novels are easier to read than print-dominant texts because there is a lower
text load and therefore a lower cognitive load. Still others claim that this ease of reading,
along with the novelty of reading out-of-school texts in school leads to lower student
anxiety and better reading comprehension. This is an oft-repeated refrain in many articles
and books that connect lower text load with ease of reading comprehension (e.g.,
Connors, 2010; Pantaleo, 2011; Tabachnick, 2009). In short, it is tenable that “there is a
graphic novel for virtually every learner in your English language arts classroom” (Carter,
2007b, p. 1), and thus graphic novels should provide an access point for all students.
While this research provides important theoretical and foundational knowledge, there
is little empirical research investigating whether graphic novels actually are easier to read
than traditional novels. However, there is a small body of research that indicates that
reading graphic novels is not easier but does entail fundamentally different processes
(Jiménez & Meyer, 2016; Pantaleo, 2011). In addition, though assumptions are made that
students’ reading comprehension is higher with graphic novels than traditional novels,
research on the topic is just beginning to emerge. One promising study is Cook’s (2017)
work with high school teachers and students. In his study of students reading Poe’s A Cask
of Amontillado as either a graphic novel, traditional novel, or traditional novel with the
graphic novel as support, results indicated statistically significantly higher comprehension
scores for both groups using the graphic novel version of the story. However, given the
proliferation of graphic novels in and out of classrooms, more research with variation in
participants, texts, intervention content, and measures is certainly merited.
Goldsmith (2010) contends that reading graphic novels is not easier than reading
traditional novels because, “The reader must work with both visual and verbal literacies
with this format” (pp. 2–3). Cohn (2010) similarly argues that teachers must teach
students not only to look at but also to gain meaning from the illustrations when
reading graphic novels. Cohn goes on to explain that much of the meaning in complex
graphic novels, like Moore and Gibbons’ Watchman (1987), is lost on many students
because they lack the vocabulary and knowledge to make sense of the visual elements
of the story.
The idea that reading graphic novels, which are multimodal texts, is complex and can
be difficult to do proficiently is not dissimilar to the results of research on other multi-
modal texts. Thus, instruction must include approaches that address the multiple modes
of communication used to tell the story in graphic novels. Serafini (2012) notes “Learning
to read novels has changed from a singular focus on learning to decode and understand
written language to include the navigating and interpretation of visual images, design
elements, and graphic structures” (p. 30). This change in focus necessitates that readers
understand how to focus their attention in order to navigating language, image, mimicked
sound, and other sensations seen in graphic novels.
Graphic novels as an entry point for content learning

Despite graphic novels’ growing popularity and their multimodal nature, their integration
in content-area classrooms remains fairly unusual. In the past, reading was often taught as
its own subject (Pearson, 2013); however, partially spurred by new standards documents,
teachers are now asked to integrate reading across the curriculum in order to construct
knowledge in the disciplines (Pearson & Hiebert, 2013). Pearson and Hiebert contend that
content learning requires the use of literacy tools, and students should read to gain
knowledge. They encourage the development of literacy skills distinct to each discipline.
For example, Pearson (2013) notes that the texts students encounter in history are quite
different than the texts encountered in mathematics. However, Pearson also cautioned
without adequate prior knowledge, there cannot be text-based comprehension or acquisi-
tion of content. Moreover, according to Pearson and Hiebert (2013) educators must find a
way to scaffold student learning if students are to be successful. If teachers ask students to
read text without providing instructional support, many students will not be able to learn
the information presented in the text. We believe that with careful scaffolding, graphic
novels can help fill this gap by building content knowledge to support later content-area
reading. As mentioned earlier, graphic novels can foster the literacy skills needed to read
multimodal text, and help students access content, in this case historical, which in turn
builds the prior knowledge necessary for students to engage with complex texts.
Theoretical framework
We relied on two theoretical frameworks as we designed and implemented this study:
Bruner’s (1991, 1996) concept of narrative cognition, the recognition that individuals learn
based on previous experience, present and situated expectations, and stated and unstated
goals or purposes, and Cartwright’s (2002; Cartwright et al., 2009) reading specific cogni-
tive flexibility theory, which theorizes that a readers’ ability to shift attention among set
rules or ideas is a critical determinant of higher order cognitive processing and that
encouraging these mindful shifts has positive effects on learning to frame our study.
Narrative cognition
Bruner (1991) asserts that narratives are bound by a sequential distinctiveness thus
requiring people to “grasp the narrative’s configuring plot in order to make sense of its
constituents” (p. 43). But, not all stories have what it takes to become an interesting or
compelling narrative that would engender a reader’s curiosity. Narrative is a form of
discourse that is, at the core, a way to disrupt the silence of the status quo, for if a
narrative is worth recounting it must hold something new, “it [the narrative] tells about
something unexpected, or something that one’s auditor has something to doubt” (Bruner,
1996, p. 121). For Bruner, people are predisposed to understanding the “links between
exceptional and the ordinary” (1991, p. 47), and this predisposition can be used to
motivate students’ curiosity about the unknown (the exceptional). It is this element of
his theory we relied on for our study in which students’ curiosity was piqued by both a
new form and new information, truly manipulating their thirst for the exceptional.
Bruner’s (1991, 1996) concept of learning from stories and building important schema
from stories primarily focuses on narratives provided in a single mode or sign system.
Furthermore, he writes about oral and written traditions of storytelling, which are
registers that rely on language to communicate ideas. But, in graphic novels, images
also carry meaning. Bruner did not address the possible combination of modes (images
and words) and the unique status multimodal texts may play in learning, and so we also
look toward Cartwright’s focus on readers’ shifting between images and language to better
understand meaning making in graphic novels.
Cognitive flexibility theory

Cartwright’s (e.g., 2002; Cartwright et al., 2010) work has shown that a reader’s ability to
simultaneously sort words on graphophonological (letters and their associated sounds)
and semantic (meaning) criteria is a unique and significant predictor of reading compre-
hension. Furthermore, she hypothesized that training readers how to flexibly shift between
and among images and language criteria would improve reading comprehension. Research
with expert graphic novel readers (Jiménez & Meyer, 2016) indicates that they do indeed
engage in domain-specific, cognitively flexible reading style. This requires shifting from
making meaning from illustrations, to making meaning from words, and finally synthesiz-
ing those two discrete areas of understanding.
As such, our study is also informed by the tenets of Cognitive Flexibility Theory (Spiro,
Coulson, Feltovitch, & Anderson, 1988) for learning in complex domains. We assume that
teaching skills in isolation would lead to a “reductive bias” (p. 642) that would undermine
the development of the uniquely flexible mindset that expert graphic novel readers use.
For this reason, our intervention emphasizes complexity at each step and purposely
encourages “multiple interconnectedness along multiple conceptual dimensions” (p.
649). In addition, we extend this theory to explore the possibilities of interconnections
between content areas, scaffolding students to simultaneously think as literary scholars
and historians.
Method
Research suggests that graphic novels abound in classroom and informal settings and that
many readers, including those who are struggling or marginalized, find them engaging.
However, there is little research on comprehension of graphic novels or their potential as a
tool to support knowledge building. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore
the possibilities for history learning that might accompany the use of an historically
accurate graphic novel as a language arts instructional unit. Thus, we asked, to what
degree are students able to learn historical content in a language arts setting when reading a
graphic novel about historical events?
Research design
This study was situated in a sixth grade English language arts class. As such, we taught the
core text, One Dead Spy (Hale, 2012), as a novel although it contained a large amount of
historical content. This graphic novel was selected as the touchtone text for instruction
because it is an example of a narrative that captures the reader’s curiosity and drives the
reader to make sense of the story being told and through that process, the reader either
creates new schema or adds to an existing schema (Bruner, 1991). While many instruc-
tional units have their primary focus on content, form, or strategy use, the instructional
goals of this unit included all of these (see Figure 1 for instructional goals of the unit).
However, because the unit was situated in an English language arts classroom and
accountable for the corresponding standards, we focused on the teaching of strategies to
improve comprehension. In practice, this means that we responded to student questions
Strategies:
Content: Multi-Modal
American Text
Revolution Comprehension
Form: Graphic
Novel Elements
Figure 1. Overlapping instructional goals influencing the design of the study.

and built the necessary background knowledge (content) to understand the events
depicted in the book, but did not use the book as a base for history lessons or assignments.
Similarly, we taught students graphic novel comprehension skills (form) in service of
helping them to better understand the novel. This focus on the form highlighted the ways
readers must attend to both the written language and images, switching attention
(Cartwright, 2002; Cartwright, Marshall, Dandy, & Issac, 2010) between the two modes,
and ultimately synthesizing information from each to construct meaning.
We developed detailed lesson plans for the unit of study that targeted state-level social
studies grade level content expectations (Michigan Department of Education, 2007)
associated with the American Revolution as well as state level standards for English
language arts (Council of Chief State School Officers and the National Governors
Association, 2010) (see Appendix A for social studies and English language arts stan-
dards). In order to measure students’ prior knowledge and learning from the unit, we
employed a repeated measures design, to ascertain background knowledge and free recall
of content knowledge before and after instruction (see Figure 2 for the scope and sequence
of the research process). The relatively short time frame of this study meant that students
were unlikely to learn about the content of the book from sources other than the
intervention, and allowed us to use a repeated measures design with students serving as
their own controls (i.e., each student’s pre-intervention scores were compared to his or her
own post-intervention scores; Field, 2009). This design also removed the threat of intract-
able variation between students influencing learning. Students also completed an end-of-
unit style assessment post-intervention, modeled after typical unit tests in social studies
(see Appendix B for sample questions).
Participants and setting

Parker Middle School (all names are pseudonyms) is a Title I school in a small city in an
upper Midwest state. The school serves over a thousand students (1,114) in grades 6, 7,
and 8. Seventy-one percent of the students are eligible for Free or Reduced Lunch
programs. The student population is demographically diverse (see Table 1). This unit
was taught to a sixth grade class of 19 students, of which 16 students were given parental
Figure 2. Research design.

Table 1. School demographics.

Parker Middle School (N = 1,114) State
Free and Reduced Lunch Eligibility (FARL) 71% (792) 46.10%
American Indian/Alaskan >1% (3) .1%
Asian/Pacific Islander 1.8% (20) 3%
Black 40.75% (454) 18%
Hispanic 6.55% (73) 7%
White 47.13% (525) 68%
Two or more races 3.5% (39) 3%
Source. National Center for Educational Statistics (2011). Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/ccd/schoolsearch/school_detail.
asp?ID=261962005631
consent to participate and assented to the study. We elected to study sixth graders because
the grade fell within the age range addressed by the extant research. In addition, the unit
specifically addressed CCSS-ELA standard RI.6.7: “Integrate information presented in a
different media or format (e.g., visually, quantitatively) as well as words to develop a
coherent understanding of a topic or issues” (Council of Chief State School Officers and
the National Governors Association, 2010). In terms of history/social studies experiences,
fifth grade state standards identify units of study on the American Revolution, indicating
this content is appropriate for sixth graders.
Materials
For the first two lessons on design features of graphic novels we were not yet working with
the focal novel, but rather were focused on helping students to understand the features
often included in graphic novels (i.e., line, panels, hue, color) as they related to compre-
hension. Led by two members of our research team who are experts in the areas of
representation in children’s and young adult literature and graphic novels, we curated a
set of graphic novels for the students to explore and from which we could draw exemplars
of each feature (see Appendix C for titles). The initial suggested book set was created using
the following criterion: developmentally appropriate for the grade level; representative of a
wide array of genres to capture the majority of readers’ aesthetic; and inclusive of a range
of color pallets and style from black and white to full color, highly abstract to photo-
realistic. In addition, graphic novels that focused on mis- or underrepresented commu-
nities (based on gender, race, culture, and sexual orientation) were screened for authentic
representations of those communities.
We then reviewed this initial text set to include additional texts that depicted
historical content or historical fiction (human interest narratives with historical events
as a backdrop). Next, we reviewed and vetted the list with attention to inclusion of
books with an array of text (decoding) levels. As a last step, we added middle school–
level graphic novels of general interest (e.g., Smile, Foiled). The final set included 32
unique titles and approximately 50 books total (Appendix C), so as to allow each
student choice in which book or books they elected to explore. This careful curatorial
work was done in order to make it more likely that every student would be able to find
something to like about at least one book, and by extension would be able to apply
what we were teaching about graphic novels to a graphic novel they actually wanted to
understand.
The full text set was used in the initial phase of the instructional cycle, in which we
introduced and worked with students to use text features common to most graphic novels
as they read novels of their choice. In the next phase of the instructional cycle, we began
reading One Dead Spy (Hale, 2012) as a class. One Dead Spy is the first in the series of
graphics novels, Nathan Hale’s Hazardous Tales, in which the American Revolutionary
spy, Nathan Hale (yes, the author is named Nathan Hale, just like the spy) narrates various
stories of U.S. history including the Donner Party, The Alamo, and ironclad ships of the
Civil War.
We selected this text for three reasons. First, books in this series have been identified as
“notable” on the National Council for the Social Studies/Children’s Book Council lists,
which “emphasize human relations, represent a diversity of groups and are sensitive to a
broad range of cultural experiences, present an original theme or a fresh slant on a
traditional topic, are easily readable and of high literary quality, have pleasing format,
and, where appropriate, include illustrations that enrich the text” (NCSS & Children’s
Book Council, 1997) One Dead Spy focuses on Hale’s story (the spy, not the author) from
his childhood, to Yale, and then his life and death as an American officer during the
American Revolution. This is a fresh slant on traditionally presented content of the
American Revolution. Second, based on the state content expectations for fifth grade
social studies, sixth grade students should have had some experiences learning about the
American Revolution. This means that the students were likely to have some schema on
the topic on which to build. Introducing a completely unfamiliar topic well by building
historical content knowledge was not possible within the confines of an English language
arts classroom. Additionally, students will re-visit the topic of the American Revolution
according to the state grade level content expectations for eighth grade (MI Department of
Education, 2007). Third, the classroom teacher who allowed us to work with her students
approved of the text for her students as appropriate for her students in terms of difficulty,
interest, and acceptable content.
Historical fiction, of which One Dead Spy (Hale, 2012) is an example, provides space for
students to connect with characters in a time and place different from their own, thus
enabling students to further inquire about people and events in the past. It is essential that
students work with historically accurate text selections when reading for this purpose. To
explain the historical accuracy in his graphic novels, Hale provides readers with a
bibliography of sources. In our own vetting of the text for historical accuracy, we noted
that he presented historically accurate representations of place, as well as widely accepted,
accurate historical information that can be corroborated by many sources. some of which
are accessible to middle school students (e.g., The History of US: From Colonies to Country,
Hakim, 2007). In addition, Hale provides readers additional accurate information in the
form of short biographies. For example, Hale includes a biography of Crispus Attucks, one
of five Americans killed during the Boston Massacre, in the back matter of the book.
Intervention procedures
Our work in the classroom spanned seven instructional days, bookended by partial class
sessions spent on assessment before and after the instruction.
Quick-write
Both pre- and post-intervention, students were given a “quick write” to measure their
knowledge of the American Revolution. For this assessment, which was administered first
at each time point, they were given a blank piece of paper and directed to “write anything
you know or think you know about the American Revolution, which is sometimes called
the Revolutionary War.” They were given 10 minutes to write down any ideas they had as
single words, bulleted points, or in sentence form. Stahl (2008, pp. 383–84, citing
Gambrell, Koskinen, & Kapinus, 1991 and Narvaez, 2002) addresses the primary benefits
of this type of free-recall approach, writing that it, “allows the reader to reconstruct the
text in a way that demonstrates each reader’s integration of the text with prior knowledge,
what is valued as important, and even socio-cultural influences.” Thus, it allowed us to
build a more nuanced understanding of students’ prior knowledge and learning by
allowing us to see not only what students knew (or thought they knew), but also what
they viewed as most important or worthy of focus without the interference of value-laden
prompts.
To analyze these data, two members of the research team separated out the idea units.
Following the identification of the idea units, the other two members of the research team
assigned each idea unit a score: 0 for incorrect or unrelated information (e.g., “I think
Gettysburg had something to do with it”; “from starvation”) as well as factually true, but
vague information (e.g., “a lot of people died in the revolutionary war”); and 1 for correct,
factual information (e.g., “na-than hale [sic] also stole supplies from the British to
survive”). The two members scored 33% (13 of 39) students’ quick-writes in order to
establish interrater reliability. Among the 13 quick-writes there were a total of 50 idea
units ranging from two students providing seven idea units each to two students providing
one idea unit each. Two team members independently scored these 50 idea units for
accuracy and initially agreed on 94% of the responses. Each disagreement was discussed
and resolved. Then the remaining quick-writes were divided between the two researchers
to score independently. Raw scores were computed for each individual and group mean
scores compared from pre- to post-intervention.
Vocabulary Recognition Task (VRT; adapted from Stahl, 2008)

Pre- and post-intervention, the classroom teacher administered the VRT. The VRT served
as a brief proxy measure of background knowledge. Students were asked to read 25 terms,
19 of which were related to the topic of the American Revolution, six of which were false
alarms, and circle any that they (a) could read, and (b) believed were related to the
American Revolution. We then calculated a ratio of correctly identified to misidentified
terms (“false alarms”) in order to determine whether or how much background knowledge
students likely had or built on the topic.
Daily activities
On the first day of the intervention, we spent one class session (50 minutes) engaging
students in discussion about what graphic novels are, and several features that they
typically include (i.e., hue, saturation, line, gutter, panel). In discussing each of these
features we first introduced the feature, projected an example from a graphic novel, and
modeled interpreting it. We also opened the floor for students to give their interpretations.
Next, we asked students, using a graphic novel of their choice from our text set, to find
examples and create their own interpretations of each feature to share with each other in
pairs or triads. We also invited a few students to project their examples and share their
interpretations with the class. We then used some of these student-identified examples as
the basis for a class-created anchor chart, which included the name, student-friendly
definition, and an example of each feature. The anchor chart was constructed and then
introduced the following day (For the definitions included in this chart see Table 2.)
On the second day, we used the newly created anchor chart as a focal point as we
reviewed the features introduced and explored on day one. In addition, we introduce
two new concepts (i.e., character and written text design) using the same process as
day one of introducing them, having students locate examples, and sharing those
examples with the class. Subsequently, we added student examples of characters and
text to the anchor chart. In addition, we began read chapter one of One Dead Spy
(Hale, 2012) as a class, stopping to discuss and interpret depictions of the characters
and variations in text (size, color, placement, etc.). At the close of the chapter,
students used sticky notes to mark and comment on (in words or pictures) at least
one plot, craft, or structural element in the chapter. (For an example of student
work, see Figure 3.) Students then continued reading chapters two and three inde-
pendently or with a partner, making these types of notations on sticky notes for each
chapter. During this time, the teacher and researchers circulated, ensuring that
students stayed on task (which, for the most part, they did without reminders) and
occasionally asking students about the notes they were writing. At the close of the
session, we spent about five minutes having students volunteer to share what they
found that was interesting, and encouraging them to use the terms on the anchor
chart to describe those things. For sessions 3, 4, and 6, we followed the same pattern;
we reviewed what we had read so far using a structured activity (e.g., graphic
organizer, timeline, oral retelling), read together (stopping once or twice to discuss
a feature in depth) and independently, and discussing the reading.
On the fourth through sixth days of instruction, we spent the majority of our time
reading and responding to the novel. Session five was dedicated entirely to independent
reading. Students continued to use sticky notes to annotate each chapter, however we also
engaged in other instructional activities, primarily Visual Thinking Strategies (VTS,
Yenawine, 2013), in which we guided students to describe what was happening in images
and the evidence that led them to those conclusions, and Reader’s Theater (Rasinski,
2003), in which students read the roles of the narrator and book characters (see Table 3 for
lesson descriptions).
Table 2. Elements of graphic novels.

Element Definition
Characters The physical characteristics and interactions of those involved in the novel
Color and hue The gradation (hue) and saturation (intensity) of color used to convey/communicate meaning
Gutter The space between the panels, usually white space; the reader imagines the actions that links the two
panels
Line A basic building block of illustrations; lines express mood, senses, and/or motion
Panel A division of time and or space usually indicated by a line
Text Can include call outs, speech bubbles and text boxes
Table 3. Instructional unit

Lesson number: Title Lesson 0verview Lesson objective
1: Introduction to Graphic Novels I: -Introduce definition of graphic novels Describe and identify examples of the
Hue, Saturation, Line, Gutter, and -Introduce graphic novel features: hue, use of hue, saturate, line, gutter and
Panel saturation, line, gutter, panel panel;
-Prompt students mark with sticky Use these terms to describe and
notes and share examples of these interpret selected images (one as a
features in graphic novels of their class, and then within texts of their
choice choice)
- Add student examples of each feature
to an anchor chart with definitions and
examples of each feature
2: Introduction of Graphic Novels II: -Review features from previous lesson, Identify and describe differences in
Depiction of Characters, Variation in using anchor chart created from characters and how text is presented
Text, and Graphical Devices; student examples (e.g., color, size, speech bubble, text
Introduction to One Dead Spy -Introduce additional graphic novel box) and collaboratively discuss what
features and add to anchor chart: those differences might mean about
characters, text the plot of the book.
-Introduce One Dead Spy, including
time to preview the text
-Share observation from browsing, in
general and as it relates to the graphic
novel features on the anchor chart
-Read chapter 1 as a class, pausing to
identify and discuss text bubbles
- Begin reading chapter 2 (time
permitting)
3: Reading Day - Read independently or in pairs, at Read (individually or in pairs) and
least through chapter 3. Upon discuss the events and craft/structure
completing chapter 3, they could of One Dead Spy
continue reading One Dead Spy, or read
a book from the graphic novels text set.
- Identify and make a note on a sticky
note about something interesting
about the plot, craft, or structure of the
book (one sticky note per chapter)
4: Saturation, Use of Graphical Devices -Review of chapters 1 to 3, using Use particular devices/aspects of the
(i.e., maps) students’ sticky notes to guide text, such as maps, as evidence to
discussion interpret the story being presented
-Engage in Visual Thinking Strategies
(VTS) of opening page spread of
chapter 4 in which students are
encouraged to refer to and use the
anchor chart of graphic novel terms as
they discuss; discussion of the use
background color to indicate past
(white) and present (red) events
-Discussion of the fading saturation of
color as the book slips from present
into past
-VTS of three maps in the chapter,
individually and in comparison to each
other
-Continue reading the rest of chapters
4 to 7 independently or with a partner,
using sticky notes to mark and make a
note about something interesting
about the plot, craft, or structure in
each chapter
(Continued )
Table 3. (Continued).
Lesson number: Title Lesson 0verview Lesson objective
5: Line; Use of Graphical Devices -Read or review chapter 7 (individually) Use particular devices/aspects of the
(table) - Discuss and summarize what text, such as diagrams, as evidence to
happened in the first six chapters interpret the story being presented
(researcher-led)
-Turn and talk about what happened in
chapter 7, and then a few students
share the ideas that their partners had
with the whole group
-Reader’s Theater: Whole-class shared
reading of chapter 8, stopping to VTS
an image showing the strategic
advantage of shooting from Breed’s
and Bunker Hills into the city of Boston,
and reminding students that the line
was included to convey meaning and
that their job is to figure out what that
meaning is.
- Continue reading the rest of chapters
9 to 11 independently or with a
partner, using sticky notes to mark and
make a note about something
interesting about the plot, craft, or
structure in each chapter
-VTS of a table in chapter 12, with a
reminder that it was included to
convey meaning and that their job is to
figure out what that meaning is (whole
group)
-Read through chapter 14 (finished as
homework if necessary)
6: Examining Character Motive and -Review of chapters 8 to 14 as a whole Articulate the relationships between
Causal Relationships group using “somebody, wanted, but, discrete events and characters
so” framework (e.g., Washington
needed canons in Boston, but the
Americans canons were at Fort
Ticonderoga, so Henry Knox brought
them even though the conditions were
challenging)
-Continue reading independently or in
pair through chapter 18, making at
least one sticky note for each chapter.
7: Summarizing the Plot -Finish reading the book this session Use your own notes to reconstruct
-Discuss of plot in chapter 19, using and summarize the events in the
student sticky notes as discussion book; create a comic panel preview of
starter the book for another reader, utilizing
-Remove all sticky notes from books design elements of graphic novels to
and student organize them in convey meaning.
chronological order in order to review
the content of the full book
-Create a 2 to 3 panel comic
previewing the book for next year’s
students using both their
understanding of the plot and the
design elements of graphic novels on
the anchor chart. As students work,
researchers circulate and discuss their
use of design elements and
understanding of the plot.
-Students who completed this task read
and discussed the back matter of the
book
Figure 3. Example of students’ identification and marking of points of interest as they read One Dead
Spy (Hale, 2012, pp. 30–31).
Content assessment
Following the full intervention, students were given a content assessment associated with
the historical information presented in One Dead Spy (Hale, 2012) to gauge social studies
learning. This assessment was not given as a pre–post measure because doing so posed a
risk of influencing the information to which students attended as they read. For the
purpose of ecological validity, the assessment was modeled on state assessments and
mass-produced assessments commonly administered at the end of chapter or unit in
social studies classes (Field, 2009, p. 12). The assessment included multiple choice ques-
tions, chronologies, and comparison tables (see Appendix B for sample items).
Data analysis procedures

The data did not meet the assumptions for parametric analysis. Thus, we compared pre-
and post-instruction scores using nonparametric statistics, specifically the Wilcoxon
Signed Ranks Test, to compare two related samples (repeated measures).
Missing data. Attrition is an unfortunate limitation of most site-based studies, particu-

larly those that are time-bound. In this case, if a student missed the school when a pre-
assessment was administered, they were not able to complete the pre-assessment because
the intervention had already started and they would miss part of the instruction if they left
class to complete the measures (an ethical concern). This was the case for two students
pre- and two students post-intervention. In addition, two students were not present when
the posttest was administered, one week before the end of school, and did not return to
finish out the school year.
Results
Results of the VRT, based on Stahl (2008), which were used to gauge prior knowledge
before the instructional intervention indicated that students had very little conceptual
knowledge of the American Revolutionary War (Mdn = 0.53; SD = 0.53) (note that we
expected students to perform relatively better on this measure than quick-write as it
involves receptive, rather than productive knowledge). Following the intervention these
scores (Mdn = 0.88; SD = 0.11), which were proxies for background knowledge on the
topic, increased significantly (z = 2.67, p < .01).
Quick-write scores were significantly higher post graphic novel instruction and reading
(Mdn = 0.71; Sd = 0.36) than before the instructional module (Mdn = .23; SD = 0.52),
z = 2.45, p < .05, with all but one student (whose scores did not change) providing a higher
ratio of accurate to inaccurate responses post-intervention. On the free-write prior to
instruction, student responses included a few accurate responses. For example, “I believe
george washington [sic.] was in it” and “I think the war was about people fighting for
independence.” In addition, many students provided vague responses, such as, “so people
died and killed other men” and inaccurate responses, such as, “it maybe had the dust
bowl.” Following, this language arts unit, student responses included more, detailed
accurate statements, for example, “so the british [sic.] hired 8000 Hessians to fight with
them,” “Nathan Hale also stole supplies from the British to survive,” “independence for
America to be it’s [sic] own country.” The more accurate responses showed evidence of
attention to both words and images, such as specifying 8000 Hessians, information that
appears on a map (p. 69), thus demonstrating attention to the information available in the
images. In addition, students provided fewer vague and inaccurate statements, such as “it
is a war that took place in America.”
The content assessment furthers our understanding of students’ knowledge of the
American Revolution following the instructional unit. There were three types of ques-
tions as part of this assessment: open-ended, multiple choice, and chronology. The
participating students were most successful on the open-ended questions. For the open-
ended questions, students were asked to identify three advantages and disadvantages
for the Americans and the British during the Revolution. These four questions
(American Advantages, American Disadvantages, British Advantages, British
Disadvantages) were scored on a three-point scale (2 points: completed understandings,
all three possible statements accurate; 1 point: partial understanding, 1 or 2 accurate
statements; 0 points: all responses inaccurate or no response). Of the 16 students who
completed the posttest, one (6.25% of the sample) gave a response that demonstrated a
complete understanding of the American advantages during the Revolution; 14 students
(87.5%) gave responses that demonstrated a partial understanding; and one student’s
response (6.25%) showed no evidence of understanding. When asked to identify the
disadvantages the American faced during the Revolution, 2 responses (12.5%) showed a
complete understanding, 10 responses (62.5%) demonstrated a partial understanding,
and 4 responses (25%). Similarly, when students were asked to identify the advantages
for the British during the American Revolution they answered with 5 responses
(31.25%) demonstrating complete understanding, 5 responses (31.25%) demonstrating
partial understanding, and 6 responses (37.5%) demonstrating inaccurate understand-
ing. Ten students (62.5%) were able to demonstrate partial understanding of the
disadvantages of the British during the American Revolution, while six (37.5%) demon-
strated no understanding.
Students were also asked to answer 16 multiple-choice questions. Students’ scores
ranged from one correct response (one student) to 12 correct responses (one student).
Across the sample, students were more successful when asked vocabulary-based, multiple-
choice questions (e.g., loyalists, patriots) as opposed to those items that were more
conceptually based (e.g., selecting ideas associated with the Declaration of
Independence). It is important to note that information to support the meaning of
vocabulary such as loyalist (individuals aligned with British cause), patriot (those aligned
with the American fight for independence), and Hessian (Germans soldiers hired to fight
for other countries) appeared throughout the narrative both as written text and as
distinctive images. Readers’ comprehension of the overall narrative relied on comprehend-
ing these words, and the distinctive images supported readers’ understanding of these
words, echoing the theories of Bruner (1996) and Cartwright (2002). The students were
least successful in accuracy organizing a series of five American Revolution–related events
in chronological order (chronology questions). No students in the sample were able to do
this successfully.
Discussion
“Students establish a base knowledge across a wide range of subject matter by engaging
with works [texts] of quality and substance,” (CCSSO & NGA, 2010a, p. 7). The purpose
of our study was to explore the possibilities for students to learn history content using a
graphic novel unit. In order to explore this, we developed a 7-day instructional cycle
designed to teach sixth grade students to effectively engage with the graphic novel One
Dead Spy (Hale, 2012). In the sections that follow we discuss our findings addressing each
measure in turn.
Vocabulary recognition task

On the VRT, participants recognized statistically significantly more related vocabulary
terms after reading the graphic novel, indicating the development of new schemata about
the American Revolution that could serve as prior knowledge in subsequent learning
about the topic. In addition, we believe this increased vocabulary knowledge is important
because one of the biggest differences amongst disciplines (Pearson, 2013) and strongest
predictors of informational text comprehension (e.g., Roberts et al., 2015) is vocabulary.
The measurable increase in students’ vocabulary knowledge related to the American
Revolution is a strong indicator that post-intervention, they are positioned to be better
able to make meaning of additional sources on the topic. As Pearson (2013) argues,
knowledge of individual words influences students’ ability to draw on relevant prior

knowledge or schemata and build comprehension. By extension, we posit that an increase
in vocabulary, or knowledge of words, would lead to stronger comprehension. The
findings align with Cognitive Flexibility Theory’s (Spiro, Coulson, Feltovitch &
Anderson, 1988), learning in complex domains. While we focused on the literacy aspects
instruction, our students’ were able to gain historical knowledge.
Quick-write
Data from the quick-write suggested students’ knowledge of the American Revolution
increased; mean scores were significantly higher post graphic novel instruction and read-
ing (Mdn = 0.71; SD = 0.36) than before the instructional module (Mdn = .23; SD = 0.52),
z = 2.45, p < .05, and the ratio of accurate responses increased for all but one student.
Depth of understanding also increased. For example, one student identified “George
Washington” on the pre-reading quick-write and “George Washington was a general”
following the reading. Another student wrote, “lots of people died” (pre-reading) and
“Nathan Hale got hung at 21” (post-reading). While we cannot, based on the results of this
measure, ensure that all students learned the same information about the American
Revolution, we can state with confidence that all students were able to articulate more
about the topic than before reading the novel. These gains are important as they indicate
that content knowledge our participants accrued from reading the graphic novel now is
stored schemata. In the future, when these students attempt to read a more complex text
relating to the American Revolution, the learned words will likely spark their schemata
(newly formed content knowledge) and help them learn new information from the text.
Content assessment
The content assessment was given post-intervention only, as we were aware that asking
pointed questions about the Revolution pre-reading would likely influence what elements
of the text students paid more and less attention. Because pre-intervention measures
indicated very little prior knowledge of the American Revolution, it seems that correct
answers beyond what one would expect by chance would have been unlikely pre-inter-
vention. Post-intervention, we did not expect that students, even those who had read the
text very carefully and understood it well, would be able to correctly respond to all
questions because we had not explicitly taught the historical content beyond what was
necessary to support understanding of the novel. Results indicated that reading the
graphic novel promoted certain content learning but not all. For example, the data
indicate that students performed fairly well on the advantage/disadvantage assessment
items; 15 of 16 students demonstrated a partial or full understanding of the American
advantages, and 12 out of 16 students demonstrated partial or full understanding of the
American disadvantages. Meanwhile students were not at all successful completing the
sequencing portions of the assessment. The degree to which students were successful on
the multiple-choice items varied by child and question content, though there was a trend
toward greater success on items related to vocabulary. The disparity between the students’
ability to respond to the different assessment components suggests that graphic novels
such as One Dead Spy (Hale, 2012) cannot be the sole text used to teach historical content
(VanSledright, 2002), but could serve in a supporting role.
Looking across the data with our question in mind (To what degree are students able to
learn historical content in a language arts setting when reading a graphic novel about historical
events?), we can say with confidence that when the content of the materials used to teach
language arts contain historically accurate information, the facilitation of reading for under-
standing necessarily includes learning of content. Bruner (1996) asserted that students who
were engaged and curious about a story, and are actively engaged in figuring out how the
story unfolds, are more likely to carefully attend to and build schema based on that narrative.
We believe that this particular text captured these readers’ curiosity and attention, which in
turn bolstered comprehension. The results of this study do not indicate that our methods of
instruction are a robust way to teach social studies content. Yet it is notable that students in
this study learned historical content through language arts instruction.
Limitations
A few limitations of this study should be acknowledged. To start, our sample size was small
and our quantitative data analysis called for the use of nonparametric statistics. Because of
sample size, all of our participants received the same treatment, and we opted to compare
pre- and post-instruction scores of our participants in lieu of a comparison of treatment and
control mean. While we would have preferred to use parametric tests, nonparametric tests
provide a more general result if they are powerful enough to reject the null hypothesis, which
we believe is the case for this study. Finally, the design of this study does not allow us to
disaggregate the factors that may have influenced students’ historical knowledge (e.g., the
graphic novel, American Revolution content). These are certainly areas for further research.
Implications for practice and research

One implication of this study, stemming from the VRT data, is that historically accurate graphic
novels can help build vocabulary and prior knowledge needed to scaffold students’ engagement
with historical texts. With careful planning, history and ELA teachers can coordinate instruction
so that both valuable language arts learning and historical learning can occur simultaneously. As
educators, we need to reconsider how we select books. By working collaboratively with content-
area teachers, ELA teachers can identify graphic novels that, like One Dead Spy (Hale, 2012), can
serve several purposes. Historically accurate graphic novels can engage students in graphic
narratives, which may pique the curiosity of the unknown (Bruner, 1991). In addition, the
sequential nature of most novels provides readers with scaffolding to link discrete details and
elements of the story to the larger historical narrative, bolstering understanding (Bruner, 1991).
Results of this study indicate that graphic novels can be used to build and strengthen schema for
historical content. This schema is a necessary framework for students to further their historical
knowledge and understandings as they read other texts (e.g., primary sources, textbooks) used in
more traditional social studies contexts. Graphic novels can also be used to develop cognitive
flexibility and teach the literacies needed to navigate the multimodal texts of today’s world
(Meyer & Jiménez, 2017; Serafini, 2012). Moving forward, we recognize the need to expand the
research on how to effectively use graphic novels to complement historical and other content-
area learning.
Conclusion
The popularity and profusion of graphic novels seems to be increasing by the day. In the
eyes of many, this has created a wonderful opportunity to reach traditionally marginalized
groups of readers because the books are “easier,” “more fun,” or “motivating” (Lawn,
2012; Moeller, 2013; Sabeti, 2013). However, we have little empirical research to support
these claims. In addition, up until now we have had little research investigating student
learning as an outcome measure. This study builds on existing theory and research by
providing empirical evidence that teaching students how to approach graphic novels with
the goal of comprehension can, in fact, bolster their understanding of the text. In addition,
when the content of the text is historically accurate, it can result in increased content
knowledge.
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Appendix A: Standards
Grade Level Content Expectations, Social Studies
5 – U3.1.2 Describe the causes and effects of events such as the Stamp Act, Boston Tea Party, the
Intolerable Acts, and the Boston Massacre.
5 – U3.1.3 Using an event from the Revolutionary era (e.g., Boston Tea Party, quartering of
soldiers, writs of assistance, closing of colonial legislatures), explain how British and colonial
views on authority and the use of power without authority differed (views on representative
government).
5 – U3.1.5 Use the Declaration of Independence to explain why the colonists wanted to separate
from Great Britain and why they believed they had the right to do so. (C)
5 – U3.1.6 Identify the role that key individuals played in leading the colonists to revolution,
including George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, Patrick Henry, Samuel
Adams, John Adams, and Thomas Paine.
5 – U3.2.1 Describe the advantages and disadvantages of each side during the American Revolution
with respect to military leadership, geography, types of resources, and incentives. (National
Geography Standard 4, p. 150, E)
5 – U3.2.2 Describe the importance of Valley Forge, Battle of Saratoga, and Battle of Yorktown in
the American Revolution.
5 – U3.2.3 Compare the role of women, African Americans, American Indians, and France in
helping shape the outcome of the war.
Common Core State Standards, English Language Arts
CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RL.6.1
Cite textual evidence to support analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn
from the text.
CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RL.6.1
Cite textual evidence to support analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn
from the text.
CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RI.6.7
Integrate information presented in different media or formats (e.g., visually, quantitatively) as well
as in words to develop a coherent understanding of a topic or issue
CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RH.6–8.7
Integrate visual information (e.g., in charts, graphs, photographs, videos, or maps) with other
information in print and digital texts.
Appendix B: Content assessment sample questions

Identify three advantages and three disadvantages of the Americans during the American
Revolution.
Advantages Disadvantages
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
Put the following events in chronological order (1 = the earliest event and 5 = the latest event)
___The Battle of Long Island
___Signing of the Declaration of Independence
___Boston Tea Party
___The Quartering Act
___The Battle of Lexington and Concord
The Declaration of Independence outlined

(a) the new U.S. government
(b) the colonial government
(c) grievances against the British
(d) grievances against the Patriots
Which country provided help to the Americans?
(a) Germany
(b) Spain
(c) France
(d) England
Appendix C: Graphic novel text set

Barker, K. (2008). Nat Turner. New York, NY: Harry N. Abrams.
Brown, D. (2015). Drowned city: Hurricane Katrina and New Orleans. New York, NY: Houghton
Mifflin Harcourt.
Brown, D. (2013). The great American dust bowl. New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
Colfer, E., & Donkin, A. (2007). Artemis Fowl: The graphic novel. New York, NY: Hyperion.
Dauvillier, L., Salsedo, G., & Lizano, M. (2014). Hidden: A child’s story of the Holocaust. New York,
NY: First Second.
Deutsch, B. (2010). Hereville: How Mirka got her sword. New York, NY: Amulet Books.***
Faulkner, M. (2014). Gaijin: American prisoner of war. New York, NY: Disney-Hyperion.
Fetter-Vorm, J. (2013). Trinity: A graphic history of the first atomic bomb. New York, NY: Hill and
Wang.
Hale, N. (2012). Big bad ironclad. New York, NY: Abrams.
Hale, N. (2012). One dead spy. New York, NY: Abrams.
Hale, N. (2013). Donner dinner party. New York, NY: Abrams.1
Hale, N. (2014). Treaties, trenches, mud, and blood. New York, NY: Abrams.
Hale, N. (2015). The underground abductor. New York, NY: Abrams.
Hale, N. (2016). Alamo all-stars. New York, NY: Abrams.
Hinds, G. (2013). Romeo and Juliet. Somerville, MA: Candlewick Press.
Keenan, S. (2013) Dogs of war. New York, NY: Scholastic. *****
Kibushi, K. (2008). Amulet book one: The stonekeeper. New York, NY: Scholastic.
Lewis, J., Aydin, A. & Powell, N. (2013). March: Book one. Marietta, GA: Top Shelf Productions.*
Nelson, O. T. (2012). The girl who owned a city. Minneapolis, MN: Graphic Universe.
Phelan, M. (2014). Around the world. Somerville, MA: Candlewick Press.
Phelan, M. (2013) Bluffton. Somerville, MA: Candlewick Press.
Phelan, M. (2009). The storm in the barn. Somerville, MA: Candlewick Press.
Rigano, G. (2007). Artemis fowl: The graphic novel. New York, NY: Hyperion.
Riordan, R. (2014). The lost hero: The heroes of Olympus, book 1. New York, NY: Disney Hyperion.
Speigelman, A. (1993). Maus: A survivor’s tale. 1. My father bleeds history. New York, NY:
Pantheon.
Tan, S. (2007). The arrival. New York, NY: Arthur A. Levine Books.
Telgemeier, R. (2010). Smile. New York, NY: Scholastic.
Telgemeier, R. (2012). Drama. New York, NY: Scholastic.*
Telgemeier, R. (2014). Sisters. New York, NY: Scholastic.
Yang, G. L. (2014). The shadow hero. New York, NY: First Second.
Yolen, J. (2010). Foiled. New York, NY: First Second.****
Zimmerman, J. & McPherson, J.M. (2012). The hammer and anvil: Frederick Douglass, Abraham
Lincoln, and the end of slavery. New York, NY: Hill and Wang.
* exemplar text: hue

**exemplar text: saturation
***exemplar text: line, panel
****exemplar text: Visual Thinking Strategy, Lesson 1
*****exemplar text: gutter

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Literacy Research and Instruction

ISSN: 1938-8071 (Print) 1938-8063 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ulri20

More Than Mere Motivation: Learning Specific

Kristy A. Brugar, Kathryn L Roberts, Laura M. Jiménez & Carla K Meyer

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/19388071.2017.1351586

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More Than Mere Motivation: Learning Speciﬁc Content Through

CONTACT Kristy A. Brugar Kristy.a.brugar@ou.edu University of Oklahoma, Jeannine Rainbolt College of

Graphic novels as merely motivating texts

Graphic novels as an entry point for content learning

Cognitive ﬂexibility theory

Figure 1. Overlapping instructional goals inﬂuencing the design of the study.

Participants and setting

Figure 2. Research design.

Table 1. School demographics.

Vocabulary Recognition Task (VRT; adapted from Stahl, 2008)

Table 2. Elements of graphic novels.

Table 3. Instructional unit

Data analysis procedures

Missing data. Attrition is an unfortunate limitation of most site-based studies, particu-

Vocabulary recognition task

knowledge of individual words inﬂuences students’ ability to draw on relevant prior

Implications for practice and research

Appendix B: Content assessment sample questions

The Declaration of Independence outlined

Appendix C: Graphic novel text set

* exemplar text: hue

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