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LA Lect 9 10 (Vspace) 2023
LA Lect 9 10 (Vspace) 2023
Department of Mathematics
IIT Guwahati
March-June 2023
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Vector spaces
Topics:
Vector Spaces and Subspaces
Linear Independence
Basis and Dimension
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Fields
A field is a set F with two binary operations called addition, denoted by +, and
multiplication, denoted by ·, satisfying the following field axioms:
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Fields
A field is a set F with two binary operations called addition, denoted by +, and
multiplication, denoted by ·, satisfying the following field axioms:
1 Closure: For all α, β ∈ F, the sum α + β ∈ F and the product α · β ∈ F.
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Fields
A field is a set F with two binary operations called addition, denoted by +, and
multiplication, denoted by ·, satisfying the following field axioms:
1 Closure: For all α, β ∈ F, the sum α + β ∈ F and the product α · β ∈ F.
2 Commutative: For all α, β ∈ F, α + β = β + α and α · β = β · α.
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Fields
A field is a set F with two binary operations called addition, denoted by +, and
multiplication, denoted by ·, satisfying the following field axioms:
1 Closure: For all α, β ∈ F, the sum α + β ∈ F and the product α · β ∈ F.
2 Commutative: For all α, β ∈ F, α + β = β + α and α · β = β · α.
3 Associative: For all α, β, γ, (α + β) + γ = α + (β + γ) and (α · β) · γ = α · (β · γ).
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Fields
A field is a set F with two binary operations called addition, denoted by +, and
multiplication, denoted by ·, satisfying the following field axioms:
1 Closure: For all α, β ∈ F, the sum α + β ∈ F and the product α · β ∈ F.
2 Commutative: For all α, β ∈ F, α + β = β + α and α · β = β · α.
3 Associative: For all α, β, γ, (α + β) + γ = α + (β + γ) and (α · β) · γ = α · (β · γ).
4 Identity: There exist 0 ∈ F and 1 ∈ F such that α + 0 = α and 1 · α = α for all
α ∈ F.
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Fields
A field is a set F with two binary operations called addition, denoted by +, and
multiplication, denoted by ·, satisfying the following field axioms:
1 Closure: For all α, β ∈ F, the sum α + β ∈ F and the product α · β ∈ F.
2 Commutative: For all α, β ∈ F, α + β = β + α and α · β = β · α.
3 Associative: For all α, β, γ, (α + β) + γ = α + (β + γ) and (α · β) · γ = α · (β · γ).
4 Identity: There exist 0 ∈ F and 1 ∈ F such that α + 0 = α and 1 · α = α for all
α ∈ F.
5 Inverse: For α ∈ F, there exist β, γ ∈ F such that α + β = 0, and α · γ = 1 when
α 6= 0.
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Fields
A field is a set F with two binary operations called addition, denoted by +, and
multiplication, denoted by ·, satisfying the following field axioms:
1 Closure: For all α, β ∈ F, the sum α + β ∈ F and the product α · β ∈ F.
2 Commutative: For all α, β ∈ F, α + β = β + α and α · β = β · α.
3 Associative: For all α, β, γ, (α + β) + γ = α + (β + γ) and (α · β) · γ = α · (β · γ).
4 Identity: There exist 0 ∈ F and 1 ∈ F such that α + 0 = α and 1 · α = α for all
α ∈ F.
5 Inverse: For α ∈ F, there exist β, γ ∈ F such that α + β = 0, and α · γ = 1 when
α 6= 0. β is denoted by −α and γ by α−1 or 1/α.
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Fields
A field is a set F with two binary operations called addition, denoted by +, and
multiplication, denoted by ·, satisfying the following field axioms:
1 Closure: For all α, β ∈ F, the sum α + β ∈ F and the product α · β ∈ F.
2 Commutative: For all α, β ∈ F, α + β = β + α and α · β = β · α.
3 Associative: For all α, β, γ, (α + β) + γ = α + (β + γ) and (α · β) · γ = α · (β · γ).
4 Identity: There exist 0 ∈ F and 1 ∈ F such that α + 0 = α and 1 · α = α for all
α ∈ F.
5 Inverse: For α ∈ F, there exist β, γ ∈ F such that α + β = 0, and α · γ = 1 when
α 6= 0. β is denoted by −α and γ by α−1 or 1/α.
6 Distributive: For all α, β, γ ∈ F, α · (β + γ) = (α · β) + (α · γ).
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Fields
A field is a set F with two binary operations called addition, denoted by +, and
multiplication, denoted by ·, satisfying the following field axioms:
1 Closure: For all α, β ∈ F, the sum α + β ∈ F and the product α · β ∈ F.
2 Commutative: For all α, β ∈ F, α + β = β + α and α · β = β · α.
3 Associative: For all α, β, γ, (α + β) + γ = α + (β + γ) and (α · β) · γ = α · (β · γ).
4 Identity: There exist 0 ∈ F and 1 ∈ F such that α + 0 = α and 1 · α = α for all
α ∈ F.
5 Inverse: For α ∈ F, there exist β, γ ∈ F such that α + β = 0, and α · γ = 1 when
α 6= 0. β is denoted by −α and γ by α−1 or 1/α.
6 Distributive: For all α, β, γ ∈ F, α · (β + γ) = (α · β) + (α · γ).
Remark: Elements of F are referred to as scalars. For vector spaces, the real field R
can be replaced with any field F.
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Examples
The sets of real, complex and rational numbers R, C and Q, respectively, are fields
with usual addition and multiplication.
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Examples
The sets of real, complex and rational numbers R, C and Q, respectively, are fields
with usual addition and multiplication.
What about Z?
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Examples
The sets of real, complex and rational numbers R, C and Q, respectively, are fields
with usual addition and multiplication.
What about Z? For instance, 2 does not have a multiplicative inverse. Hence Z is
NOT a field.
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Examples
The sets of real, complex and rational numbers R, C and Q, respectively, are fields
with usual addition and multiplication.
What about Z? For instance, 2 does not have a multiplicative inverse. Hence Z is
NOT a field.
Consider Z5 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}, and define
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Examples
The sets of real, complex and rational numbers R, C and Q, respectively, are fields
with usual addition and multiplication.
What about Z? For instance, 2 does not have a multiplicative inverse. Hence Z is
NOT a field.
Consider Z5 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}, and define a + b := (a + b) mod 5 and a · b := (ab)
mod 5.
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Examples
The sets of real, complex and rational numbers R, C and Q, respectively, are fields
with usual addition and multiplication.
What about Z? For instance, 2 does not have a multiplicative inverse. Hence Z is
NOT a field.
Consider Z5 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}, and define a + b := (a + b) mod 5 and a · b := (ab)
mod 5. Then Z5 is a field.
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Examples
The sets of real, complex and rational numbers R, C and Q, respectively, are fields
with usual addition and multiplication.
What about Z? For instance, 2 does not have a multiplicative inverse. Hence Z is
NOT a field.
Consider Z5 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}, and define a + b := (a + b) mod 5 and a · b := (ab)
mod 5. Then Z5 is a field. Here 3 + 4 = 2, 4 · 2 = 3, etc.
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Examples
The sets of real, complex and rational numbers R, C and Q, respectively, are fields
with usual addition and multiplication.
What about Z? For instance, 2 does not have a multiplicative inverse. Hence Z is
NOT a field.
Consider Z5 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}, and define a + b := (a + b) mod 5 and a · b := (ab)
mod 5. Then Z5 is a field. Here 3 + 4 = 2, 4 · 2 = 3, etc.
" #
1 2
Consider A = over Z5 . Then A is invertible and the inverse is given by
2 1
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Examples
The sets of real, complex and rational numbers R, C and Q, respectively, are fields
with usual addition and multiplication.
What about Z? For instance, 2 does not have a multiplicative inverse. Hence Z is
NOT a field.
Consider Z5 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}, and define a + b := (a + b) mod 5 and a · b := (ab)
mod 5. Then Z5 is a field. Here 3 + 4 = 2, 4 · 2 = 3, etc.
" #
1 2
Consider A = over Z5 . Then A is invertible and the inverse is given by
2 1
" #
3 4
A−1 = .
4 3
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Examples
The sets of real, complex and rational numbers R, C and Q, respectively, are fields
with usual addition and multiplication.
What about Z? For instance, 2 does not have a multiplicative inverse. Hence Z is
NOT a field.
Consider Z5 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}, and define a + b := (a + b) mod 5 and a · b := (ab)
mod 5. Then Z5 is a field. Here 3 + 4 = 2, 4 · 2 = 3, etc.
" #
1 2
Consider A = over Z5 . Then A is invertible and the inverse is given by
2 1
" # " #−1 " #
3 4 a b d −b
A−1 = . Use the formula = (ad − bc)−1 .
4 3 c d −c a
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Examples
The sets of real, complex and rational numbers R, C and Q, respectively, are fields
with usual addition and multiplication.
What about Z? For instance, 2 does not have a multiplicative inverse. Hence Z is
NOT a field.
Consider Z5 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}, and define a + b := (a + b) mod 5 and a · b := (ab)
mod 5. Then Z5 is a field. Here 3 + 4 = 2, 4 · 2 = 3, etc.
" #
1 2
Consider A = over Z5 . Then A is invertible and the inverse is given by
2 1
" # " #−1 " #
3 4 a b d −b
A−1 = . Use the formula = (ad − bc)−1 .
4 3 c d −c a
The system Ax = [3 4]T has unique solution and is given by x = A−1 [3 4]T = [0 4]T .
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Examples
The sets of real, complex and rational numbers R, C and Q, respectively, are fields
with usual addition and multiplication.
What about Z? For instance, 2 does not have a multiplicative inverse. Hence Z is
NOT a field.
Consider Z5 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}, and define a + b := (a + b) mod 5 and a · b := (ab)
mod 5. Then Z5 is a field. Here 3 + 4 = 2, 4 · 2 = 3, etc.
" #
1 2
Consider A = over Z5 . Then A is invertible and the inverse is given by
2 1
" # " #−1 " #
3 4 a b d −b
A−1 = . Use the formula = (ad − bc)−1 .
4 3 c d −c a
The system Ax = [3 4]T has unique solution and is given by x = A−1 [3 4]T = [0 4]T .
Remark: For any field, usually one writes ab instead of a · b.
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Vector Spaces
A vector space (VS) over a field F is a nonempty set V with two binary operations
called vector addition, denoted by +, and scalar multiplication, denoted by ·, satisfying
the following axioms:
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Vector Spaces
A vector space (VS) over a field F is a nonempty set V with two binary operations
called vector addition, denoted by +, and scalar multiplication, denoted by ·, satisfying
the following axioms: For u, v, w in V and scalars α, β in F
1 Closure: u + v ∈ V and α · u ∈ V
2 Commutativity: u + v = v + u
3 Associativity: (u + v) + w = u + (v + w)
4 Identity: u + 0 = u
5 Inverse: u + (−u) = 0
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Vector Spaces
A vector space (VS) over a field F is a nonempty set V with two binary operations
called vector addition, denoted by +, and scalar multiplication, denoted by ·, satisfying
the following axioms: For u, v, w in V and scalars α, β in F
1 Closure: u + v ∈ V and α · u ∈ V
2 Commutativity: u + v = v + u
3 Associativity: (u + v) + w = u + (v + w)
4 Identity: u + 0 = u
5 Inverse: u + (−u) = 0
6 Distributivity : α(u + v) = αu + αv
7 Distributivity : (α + β)u = αu + βu
8 Associativity: α(βu) = (αβ)u
9 Identity: 1u = u.
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Vector Spaces
A vector space (VS) over a field F is a nonempty set V with two binary operations
called vector addition, denoted by +, and scalar multiplication, denoted by ·, satisfying
the following axioms: For u, v, w in V and scalars α, β in F
1 Closure: u + v ∈ V and α · u ∈ V
2 Commutativity: u + v = v + u
3 Associativity: (u + v) + w = u + (v + w)
4 Identity: u + 0 = u
5 Inverse: u + (−u) = 0
6 Distributivity : α(u + v) = αu + αv
7 Distributivity : (α + β)u = αu + βu
8 Associativity: α(βu) = (αβ)u
9 Identity: 1u = u.
The elements of V are vectors and the elements of F are scalars.
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Examples
Fn over F, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication induced from F.
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Examples
Fn over F, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication induced from F.
Cn over R, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual addition and scalar
multiplication.
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Examples
Fn over F, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication induced from F.
Cn over R, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual addition and scalar
multiplication.
Rn over Q, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication.
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Examples
Fn over F, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication induced from F.
Cn over R, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual addition and scalar
multiplication.
Rn over Q, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication.
Fm×n := {[aij ]m×n : aij ∈ F} is a vector space over F under matrix addition and
scalar-matrix multiplication.
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Examples
Fn over F, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication induced from F.
Cn over R, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual addition and scalar
multiplication.
Rn over Q, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication.
Fm×n := {[aij ]m×n : aij ∈ F} is a vector space over F under matrix addition and
scalar-matrix multiplication.
Exercise: Check whether the following are vector spaces (under the usual operations).
(a) All n × n symmetric matrices?
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Examples
Fn over F, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication induced from F.
Cn over R, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual addition and scalar
multiplication.
Rn over Q, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication.
Fm×n := {[aij ]m×n : aij ∈ F} is a vector space over F under matrix addition and
scalar-matrix multiplication.
Exercise: Check whether the following are vector spaces (under the usual operations).
(a) All n × n symmetric matrices? (b) All n × n skew symmetric matrices?
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Examples
Fn over F, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication induced from F.
Cn over R, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual addition and scalar
multiplication.
Rn over Q, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication.
Fm×n := {[aij ]m×n : aij ∈ F} is a vector space over F under matrix addition and
scalar-matrix multiplication.
Exercise: Check whether the following are vector spaces (under the usual operations).
(a) All n × n symmetric matrices? (b) All n × n skew symmetric matrices? (c) All
m × n upper-triangular matrices?
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Examples
Fn over F, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication induced from F.
Cn over R, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual addition and scalar
multiplication.
Rn over Q, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication.
Fm×n := {[aij ]m×n : aij ∈ F} is a vector space over F under matrix addition and
scalar-matrix multiplication.
Exercise: Check whether the following are vector spaces (under the usual operations).
(a) All n × n symmetric matrices? (b) All n × n skew symmetric matrices? (c) All
m × n upper-triangular matrices? (d) All m × n matrices with a11 = 0?
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Examples
Fn over F, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication induced from F.
Cn over R, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual addition and scalar
multiplication.
Rn over Q, for n ≥ 1, is a vector space w.r.t. usual operations of addition and
scalar multiplication.
Fm×n := {[aij ]m×n : aij ∈ F} is a vector space over F under matrix addition and
scalar-matrix multiplication.
Exercise: Check whether the following are vector spaces (under the usual operations).
(a) All n × n symmetric matrices? (b) All n × n skew symmetric matrices? (c) All
m × n upper-triangular matrices? (d) All m × n matrices with a11 = 0? (e) All n × n
matrices A such that A2 = A?
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Vector spaces
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Vector spaces
Remark: A vector space V over R is called a real vector space. A vector space V over
C is called a complex vector space.
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Vector spaces
Remark: A vector space V over R is called a real vector space. A vector space V over
C is called a complex vector space. We mostly consider real and complex vector spaces.
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Vector spaces
Remark: A vector space V over R is called a real vector space. A vector space V over
C is called a complex vector space. We mostly consider real and complex vector spaces.
Remark: Notice that the definition of a vector space neither specifies what the set V
consists of
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Vector spaces
Remark: A vector space V over R is called a real vector space. A vector space V over
C is called a complex vector space. We mostly consider real and complex vector spaces.
Remark: Notice that the definition of a vector space neither specifies what the set V
consists of nor does it specify what the operations on V called vector addition and
scalar multiplication look like.
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Vector spaces
Remark: A vector space V over R is called a real vector space. A vector space V over
C is called a complex vector space. We mostly consider real and complex vector spaces.
Remark: Notice that the definition of a vector space neither specifies what the set V
consists of nor does it specify what the operations on V called vector addition and
scalar multiplication look like. Often, they will be familiar, but they need not be.
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Vector spaces
Remark: A vector space V over R is called a real vector space. A vector space V over
C is called a complex vector space. We mostly consider real and complex vector spaces.
Remark: Notice that the definition of a vector space neither specifies what the set V
consists of nor does it specify what the operations on V called vector addition and
scalar multiplication look like. Often, they will be familiar, but they need not be.
Remark: The vector addition + and the scalar multiplication · are actually functions
and they should not be confused with addition and multiplication of real or complex
numbers.
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An exotic example
Let V := {u ∈ R : u > 0}. For u, v ∈ V and α ∈ R, define vector addition and scalar
multiplication on V by
u + v := uv and α · v := vα .
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An exotic example
Let V := {u ∈ R : u > 0}. For u, v ∈ V and α ∈ R, define vector addition and scalar
multiplication on V by
u + v := uv and α · v := vα .
Note that 1 + 1 = 1 and 2 · 1 = 12 = 1 - strange indeed.
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An exotic example
Let V := {u ∈ R : u > 0}. For u, v ∈ V and α ∈ R, define vector addition and scalar
multiplication on V by
u + v := uv and α · v := vα .
Note that 1 + 1 = 1 and 2 · 1 = 12 = 1 - strange indeed. Nevertheless, V is a vector
space over R (check).
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An exotic example
Let V := {u ∈ R : u > 0}. For u, v ∈ V and α ∈ R, define vector addition and scalar
multiplication on V by
u + v := uv and α · v := vα .
Note that 1 + 1 = 1 and 2 · 1 = 12 = 1 - strange indeed. Nevertheless, V is a vector
space over R (check). What is the zero vector?
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An exotic example
Let V := {u ∈ R : u > 0}. For u, v ∈ V and α ∈ R, define vector addition and scalar
multiplication on V by
u + v := uv and α · v := vα .
Note that 1 + 1 = 1 and 2 · 1 = 12 = 1 - strange indeed. Nevertheless, V is a vector
space over R (check). What is the zero vector? Since u + 1 = u and u + u1 = 1,
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An exotic example
Let V := {u ∈ R : u > 0}. For u, v ∈ V and α ∈ R, define vector addition and scalar
multiplication on V by
u + v := uv and α · v := vα .
Note that 1 + 1 = 1 and 2 · 1 = 12 = 1 - strange indeed. Nevertheless, V is a vector
space over R (check). What is the zero vector? Since u + 1 = u and u + u1 = 1, it
follows that 1 is the zero vector
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An exotic example
Let V := {u ∈ R : u > 0}. For u, v ∈ V and α ∈ R, define vector addition and scalar
multiplication on V by
u + v := uv and α · v := vα .
Note that 1 + 1 = 1 and 2 · 1 = 12 = 1 - strange indeed. Nevertheless, V is a vector
space over R (check). What is the zero vector? Since u + 1 = u and u + u1 = 1, it
follows that 1 is the zero vector and 1/u is the additive inverse −u of u in V.
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An exotic example
Let V := {u ∈ R : u > 0}. For u, v ∈ V and α ∈ R, define vector addition and scalar
multiplication on V by
u + v := uv and α · v := vα .
Note that 1 + 1 = 1 and 2 · 1 = 12 = 1 - strange indeed. Nevertheless, V is a vector
space over R (check). What is the zero vector? Since u + 1 = u and u + u1 = 1, it
follows that 1 is the zero vector and 1/u is the additive inverse −u of u in V.
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An exotic example
Let V := {u ∈ R : u > 0}. For u, v ∈ V and α ∈ R, define vector addition and scalar
multiplication on V by
u + v := uv and α · v := vα .
Note that 1 + 1 = 1 and 2 · 1 = 12 = 1 - strange indeed. Nevertheless, V is a vector
space over R (check). What is the zero vector? Since u + 1 = u and u + u1 = 1, it
follows that 1 is the zero vector and 1/u is the additive inverse −u of u in V.
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Properties of vectors
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Properties of vectors
0u + 0u = (0 + 0)u = 0u
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Properties of vectors
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Properties of vectors
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Properties of vectors
2 α0 = 0 for all α ∈ F.
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Properties of vectors
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Properties of vectors
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Properties of vectors
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Properties of vectors
u + (−1)u = 1u + (−1)u
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Properties of vectors
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Properties of vectors
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Properties of vectors
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Properties of vectors
4 If αu = 0 then either α = 0 or u = 0.
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Properties of vectors
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Vector space of polynomials
The vector space Pn : Let Pn denote the set of all polynomials of degree at most n. For
p, q ∈ Pn and α ∈ R, define
The zero vector is the zero polynomial. Then Pn is a vector space over R.
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Vector space of polynomials
The vector space Pn : Let Pn denote the set of all polynomials of degree at most n. For
p, q ∈ Pn and α ∈ R, define
The zero vector is the zero polynomial. Then Pn is a vector space over R.
The vector space R[x] : Let R[x] denote the set of all polynomials in x with real
coefficients. For p, q ∈ R[x] and α ∈ R, define
The zero vector is the zero polynomial. Then R[x] is a vector space over R.
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Vector space of polynomials
The vector space Pn : Let Pn denote the set of all polynomials of degree at most n. For
p, q ∈ Pn and α ∈ R, define
The zero vector is the zero polynomial. Then Pn is a vector space over R.
The vector space R[x] : Let R[x] denote the set of all polynomials in x with real
coefficients. For p, q ∈ R[x] and α ∈ R, define
The zero vector is the zero polynomial. Then R[x] is a vector space over R.
Vector space of polynomials over the field Q, C and F is defined similarly.
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Function spaces
The vector space C [a, b] : Let C [a, b] denote the set of all continuous functions
f : [a, b] −→ R. For f , g ∈ C [a, b] and α ∈ R, define
The zero vector is the zero function. Then C [a, b] is a vector space over R.
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Function spaces
The vector space C [a, b] : Let C [a, b] denote the set of all continuous functions
f : [a, b] −→ R. For f , g ∈ C [a, b] and α ∈ R, define
The zero vector is the zero function. Then C [a, b] is a vector space over R.
The vector space C m [a, b] : Let C m [a, b] denote the set of all m times continuously
differentiable functions f : [a, b] −→ R. For f , g ∈ C [a, b] and α ∈ R, define
The zero vector is the zero function. Then C m [a, b] is a vector space over R.
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Function spaces
The vector space C [a, b] : Let C [a, b] denote the set of all continuous functions
f : [a, b] −→ R. For f , g ∈ C [a, b] and α ∈ R, define
The zero vector is the zero function. Then C [a, b] is a vector space over R.
The vector space C m [a, b] : Let C m [a, b] denote the set of all m times continuously
differentiable functions f : [a, b] −→ R. For f , g ∈ C [a, b] and α ∈ R, define
The zero vector is the zero function. Then C m [a, b] is a vector space over R.
The set V := {f : (a, b) → R | f 00 − 3f 0 + 7f = 0} is a vector space over R.
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Function spaces
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Function spaces
The vector space F(R): Let F(R) denote the set of all functions f : R −→ R. For
f , g ∈ F(R) and α ∈ R, define
The zero vector is the zero function. Then F(R) is a vector space over R.
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Function spaces
The vector space F(R): Let F(R) denote the set of all functions f : R −→ R. For
f , g ∈ F(R) and α ∈ R, define
The zero vector is the zero function. Then F(R) is a vector space over R.
Even functions: Let Fe (R) := {f ∈ F(R) : f (−x) = f (x)} be the set of all even
functions. Then Fe (R) is a vector space over R
13 / 30
Function spaces
The vector space F(R): Let F(R) denote the set of all functions f : R −→ R. For
f , g ∈ F(R) and α ∈ R, define
The zero vector is the zero function. Then F(R) is a vector space over R.
Even functions: Let Fe (R) := {f ∈ F(R) : f (−x) = f (x)} be the set of all even
functions. Then Fe (R) is a vector space over R
Odd functions: Let Fo (R) := {f ∈ F(R) : f (−x) = −f (x)} be the set of all odd
functions. Then Fo (R) is a vector spaces over R.
13 / 30
Subspace
14 / 30
Subspace
14 / 30
Subspace
14 / 30
Subspace
14 / 30
Subspace
14 / 30
Subspace
14 / 30
Examples
(" # )
a −b
Let W := : a, b ∈ R . Then W is a subspace of R2×2 .
b a
15 / 30
Examples
(" # )
a −b
Let W := : a, b ∈ R . Then W is a subspace of R2×2 .
b a
The set Sn of all symmetric matrices in Cn×n is a subspace of Cn×n .
15 / 30
Examples
(" # )
a −b
Let W := : a, b ∈ R . Then W is a subspace of R2×2 .
b a
The set Sn of all symmetric matrices in Cn×n is a subspace of Cn×n .
The vector space Pn is a subspace of R[x].
15 / 30
Examples
(" # )
a −b
Let W := : a, b ∈ R . Then W is a subspace of R2×2 .
b a
The set Sn of all symmetric matrices in Cn×n is a subspace of Cn×n .
The vector space Pn is a subspace of R[x].
The vector space C m [a, b] is a subspace of C [a, b].
15 / 30
Examples
(" # )
a −b
Let W := : a, b ∈ R . Then W is a subspace of R2×2 .
b a
The set Sn of all symmetric matrices in Cn×n is a subspace of Cn×n .
The vector space Pn is a subspace of R[x].
The vector space C m [a, b] is a subspace of C [a, b].
The vector spaces Fe (R) and Fo (R) are subspaces of F(R).
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Linear combination and span
Definition: Let v1 , . . . , v` be vectors in V and c1 , . . . , c` be scalars in F. Then
v = c1 v1 + . . . + c` v` is called a linear combination of the vectors v1 , . . . , v` .
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Linear combination and span
Definition: Let v1 , . . . , v` be vectors in V and c1 , . . . , c` be scalars in F. Then
v = c1 v1 + . . . + c` v` is called a linear combination of the vectors v1 , . . . , v` .
The collection of all linear combinations of the vectors v1 , . . . , v` is called the span of
v1 , . . . , v` and is denoted by span(v1 , . . . , v` ).
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Linear combination and span
Definition: Let v1 , . . . , v` be vectors in V and c1 , . . . , c` be scalars in F. Then
v = c1 v1 + . . . + c` v` is called a linear combination of the vectors v1 , . . . , v` .
The collection of all linear combinations of the vectors v1 , . . . , v` is called the span of
v1 , . . . , v` and is denoted by span(v1 , . . . , v` ).
Let S ⊆ V. Then the span of S is defined by
16 / 30
Linear combination and span
Definition: Let v1 , . . . , v` be vectors in V and c1 , . . . , c` be scalars in F. Then
v = c1 v1 + . . . + c` v` is called a linear combination of the vectors v1 , . . . , v` .
The collection of all linear combinations of the vectors v1 , . . . , v` is called the span of
v1 , . . . , v` and is denoted by span(v1 , . . . , v` ).
Let S ⊆ V. Then the span of S is defined by
16 / 30
Linear combination and span
Definition: Let v1 , . . . , v` be vectors in V and c1 , . . . , c` be scalars in F. Then
v = c1 v1 + . . . + c` v` is called a linear combination of the vectors v1 , . . . , v` .
The collection of all linear combinations of the vectors v1 , . . . , v` is called the span of
v1 , . . . , v` and is denoted by span(v1 , . . . , v` ).
Let S ⊆ V. Then the span of S is defined by
P2 = span(1, x, x 2 ) = span(1 + x, 1 − x, 1 + x + x 2 ).
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Examples
P2 = span(1, x, x 2 ) = span(1 + x, 1 − x, 1 + x + x 2 ).
R[x] = span({x n−1 : n ∈ N}).
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Examples
P2 = span(1, x, x 2 ) = span(1 + x, 1 − x, 1 + x + x 2 ).
R[x] = span({x n−1 : n ∈ N}).
R2×3 = span(E11 , E12 , E13 , E21 , E22 , E23 ), where
" # " # " #
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
E11 = , E12 = , E13 =
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
" # " # " #
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
E21 = , E22 = , E23 =
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
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Examples
P2 = span(1, x, x 2 ) = span(1 + x, 1 − x, 1 + x + x 2 ).
R[x] = span({x n−1 : n ∈ N}).
R2×3 = span(E11 , E12 , E13 , E21 , E22 , E23 ), where
" # " # " #
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
E11 = , E12 = , E13 =
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
" # " # " #
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
E21 = , E22 = , E23 =
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
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More on linear combination and span
h i> h i
Let {v1 , . . . , vp } ⊆ V. Let c := c1 · · · cp ∈ Fp .Define B := v1 · · · vp ,
which is an ordered subset (elements are written in a particular order) of V.
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More on linear combination and span
h i> h i
Let {v1 , . . . , vp } ⊆ V. Let c := c1 · · · cp ∈Fp . Define B := v1 · · · vp ,
which is an ordered subset (elements are written in a particular order) of V. We denote
the linear combination c1 v1 + · · · + cp vp by Bc,
18 / 30
More on linear combination and span
h i> h i
Let {v1 , . . . , vp } ⊆ V. Let c := c1 · · · cp ∈ Fp . Define B := v1 · · · vp ,
which is an ordered subset (elements are written in a particular order) of V. We denote
the linear combination c1 v1 + · · · + cp vp by Bc, that is, as in the case of matrix-vector
multiplication, we define
h i
Bc = v1 · · · vp c = c1 v1 + · · · + cp vp .
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More on linear combination and span
h i> h i
Let {v1 , . . . , vp } ⊆ V. Let c := c1 · · · cp ∈ Fp .Define B := v1 · · · vp ,
which is an ordered subset (elements are written in a particular order) of V. We denote
the linear combination c1 v1 + · · · + cp vp by Bc, that is, as in the case of matrix-vector
multiplication, we define
h i
Bc = v1 · · · vp c = c1 v1 + · · · + cp vp .
18 / 30
More on linear combination and span
h i> h i
Let {v1 , . . . , vp } ⊆ V. Let c := c1 · · · cp ∈ Fp . Define B := v1 · · · vp ,
which is an ordered subset (elements are written in a particular order) of V. We denote
the linear combination c1 v1 + · · · + cp vp by Bc, that is, as in the case of matrix-vector
multiplication, we define
h i
Bc = v1 · · · vp c = c1 v1 + · · · + cp vp .
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Example h i h i>
Let {1, x, x 2 } ⊆ P2 . Define B := 1 x x 2 . Then for c := c1 c2 c3 ∈ R3 , we
h i
have Bc = 1 x x 2 c = c1 + c2 x + c3 x 2
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Example h i h i>
Let {1, x, x 2 } ⊆ P2 . Define B := 1 x x 2 . Then for c := c1 c2 c3 ∈ R3 , we
h i
have Bc = 1 x x 2 c = c1 + c2 x + c3 x 2 and P2 = span(1, x, x 2 ) = {Bc : c ∈ R3 }.
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Example h i h i>
Let {1, x, x 2 } ⊆ P2 . Define B := 1 x x 2 . Then for c := c1 c2 c3 ∈ R3 , we
h i
have Bc = 1 x x 2 c = c1 + c2 x + c3 x 2 and P2 = span(1, x, x 2 ) = {Bc : c ∈ R3 }.
h i
Now consider the ordered set 1 + x 1 − x 1 + x + x 2 . Then
h i h i 1 1 1
1 + x 1 − x 1 + x + x 2 = 1 x x 2 1 −1 1 = BM.
0 0 1
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Example h i h i>
Let {1, x, x 2 } ⊆ P2 . Define B := 1 x x 2 . Then for c := c1 c2 c3 ∈ R3 , we
h i
have Bc = 1 x x 2 c = c1 + c2 x + c3 x 2 and P2 = span(1, x, x 2 ) = {Bc : c ∈ R3 }.
h i
Now consider the ordered set 1 + x 1 − x 1 + x + x 2 . Then
h i h i 1 1 1
1 + x 1 − x 1 + x + x 2 = 1 x x 2 1 −1 1 = BM.
0 0 1
h i
More generally, let B := 1 x · · · x m−1 . Then
h i
p(x) ∈ Pm−1 ⇐⇒ p(x) = 1 x · · · x m−1 c = Bc for some c ∈ Rm .
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Example h i h i>
Let {1, x, x 2 } ⊆ P2 . Define B := 1 x x 2 . Then for c := c1 c2 c3 ∈ R3 , we
h i
have Bc = 1 x x 2 c = c1 + c2 x + c3 x 2 and P2 = span(1, x, x 2 ) = {Bc : c ∈ R3 }.
h i
Now consider the ordered set 1 + x 1 − x 1 + x + x 2 . Then
h i h i 1 1 1
1 + x 1 − x 1 + x + x 2 = 1 x x 2 1 −1 1 = BM.
0 0 1
h i
More generally, let B := 1 x · · · x m−1 . Then
h i
p(x) ∈ Pm−1 ⇐⇒ p(x) = 1 x · · · x m−1 c = Bc for some c ∈ Rm .
Thus if {p1 (x), . . . , pn (x)} ⊆ Pm−1 then there exists M ∈ Rm×n such that
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Example h i h i>
Let {1, x, x 2 } ⊆ P2 . Define B := 1 x x 2 . Then for c := c1 c2 c3 ∈ R3 , we
h i
have Bc = 1 x x 2 c = c1 + c2 x + c3 x 2 and P2 = span(1, x, x 2 ) = {Bc : c ∈ R3 }.
h i
Now consider the ordered set 1 + x 1 − x 1 + x + x 2 . Then
h i h i 1 1 1
1 + x 1 − x 1 + x + x 2 = 1 x x 2 1 −1 1 = BM.
0 0 1
h i
More generally, let B := 1 x · · · x m−1 . Then
h i
p(x) ∈ Pm−1 ⇐⇒ p(x) = 1 x · · · x m−1 c = Bc for some c ∈ Rm .
Thus if {p1 (x), .h. . , pn (x)} ⊆ Pm−1 then m×n such that
i hthere exists M ∈ Ri
p1 (x) · · · pn (x) = 1 x · · · x m−1 M = BM.
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Example
20 / 30
Example
20 / 30
Example
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Linear Dependence
c1 v1 + c2 v2 + . . . + cp vp = 0.
21 / 30
Linear Dependence
c1 v1 + c2 v2 + . . . + cp vp = 0.
Example:
Any finite set containing 0 is linearly dependent.
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Linear Dependence
c1 v1 + c2 v2 + . . . + cp vp = 0.
Example:
Any finite set containing 0 is linearly dependent.
The set S := {x 2 , 1 − x 2 , 1 + x 2 } is linearly dependent in P2 .
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Linear Dependence
c1 v1 + c2 v2 + . . . + cp vp = 0.
Example:
Any finite set containing 0 is linearly dependent.
The set S := {x 2 , 1 − x 2 , 1 + x 2 } is linearly dependent in P2 . Indeed,
21 / 30
Linear Dependence
c1 v1 + c2 v2 + . . . + cp vp = 0.
Example:
Any finite set containing 0 is linearly dependent.
The set S := {x 2 , 1 − x 2 , 1 + x 2 } is linearly dependent in P2 . Indeed,
21 / 30
Linear Independence
Definition: A set {v1 , v2 , . . . , vp } of vectors in V is said to be linearly independent (LI)
if it is NOT linearly dependent.
22 / 30
Linear Independence
Definition: A set {v1 , v2 , . . . , vp } of vectors in V is said to be linearly independent (LI)
if it is NOT linearly dependent. Equivalently, {v1 , v2 , . . . , vp } is linearly independent if
c1 v1 + · · · + cp vp = 0 =⇒ c1 = c2 = . . . = cp = 0.
22 / 30
Linear Independence
Definition: A set {v1 , v2 , . . . , vp } of vectors in V is said to be linearly independent (LI)
if it is NOT linearly dependent. Equivalently, {v1 , v2 , . . . , vp } is linearly independent if
c1 v1 + · · · + cp vp = 0 =⇒ c1 = c2 = . . . = cp = 0.
An infinite set S ⊆ V is linearly independent (LI) if every finite subset of S is linearly
independent.
22 / 30
Linear Independence
Definition: A set {v1 , v2 , . . . , vp } of vectors in V is said to be linearly independent (LI)
if it is NOT linearly dependent. Equivalently, {v1 , v2 , . . . , vp } is linearly independent if
c1 v1 + · · · + cp vp = 0 =⇒ c1 = c2 = . . . = cp = 0.
An infinite set S ⊆ V is linearly independent (LI) if every finite subset of S is linearly
independent.
h i
Fact: Let S := {v1 . . . , vm } ⊆ V. Then S is LI ⇐⇒ v1 · · · vm c = 0 =⇒ c = 0.
22 / 30
Linear Independence
Definition: A set {v1 , v2 , . . . , vp } of vectors in V is said to be linearly independent (LI)
if it is NOT linearly dependent. Equivalently, {v1 , v2 , . . . , vp } is linearly independent if
c1 v1 + · · · + cp vp = 0 =⇒ c1 = c2 = . . . = cp = 0.
An infinite set S ⊆ V is linearly independent (LI) if every finite subset of S is linearly
independent.
h i
Fact: Let S := {v1 . . . , vm } ⊆ V. Then S is LI ⇐⇒ v1 · · · vm c = 0 =⇒ c = 0.
m×n
Suppose that
h S is LI and i U h:= {u1 , . . . , uni} ⊆ span(S). Then there exists M ∈ F
such that u1 · · · un = v1 · · · vm M. Further, U is LI ⇐⇒ rank(M) = n.
22 / 30
Linear Independence
Definition: A set {v1 , v2 , . . . , vp } of vectors in V is said to be linearly independent (LI)
if it is NOT linearly dependent. Equivalently, {v1 , v2 , . . . , vp } is linearly independent if
c1 v1 + · · · + cp vp = 0 =⇒ c1 = c2 = . . . = cp = 0.
An infinite set S ⊆ V is linearly independent (LI) if every finite subset of S is linearly
independent.
h i
Fact: Let S := {v1 . . . , vm } ⊆ V. Then S is LI ⇐⇒ v1 · · · vm c = 0 =⇒ c = 0.
m×n
Suppose that
h S is LI and i U h:= {u1 , . . . , uni} ⊆ span(S). Then there exists M ∈ F
such that u1 · · · un = v1 · · · vm M. Further, U is LI ⇐⇒ rank(M) = n.
h i
Proof: Set B := v1 · · · vm . Then there exists cj ∈ Rm such that uj = Bcj for
h i h i
j = 1 : n. Set M := c1 · · · cn . Then u1 · · · un = BM.
22 / 30
Linear Independence
Definition: A set {v1 , v2 , . . . , vp } of vectors in V is said to be linearly independent (LI)
if it is NOT linearly dependent. Equivalently, {v1 , v2 , . . . , vp } is linearly independent if
c1 v1 + · · · + cp vp = 0 =⇒ c1 = c2 = . . . = cp = 0.
An infinite set S ⊆ V is linearly independent (LI) if every finite subset of S is linearly
independent.
h i
Fact: Let S := {v1 . . . , vm } ⊆ V. Then S is LI ⇐⇒ v1 · · · vm c = 0 =⇒ c = 0.
m×n
Suppose that
h S is LI and i U h:= {u1 , . . . , uni} ⊆ span(S). Then there exists M ∈ F
such that u1 · · · un = v1 · · · vm M. Further, U is LI ⇐⇒ rank(M) = n.
h i
Proof: Set B := v1 · · · vm . Then there exists cj ∈ Rm such that uj = Bcj for
h i h i
j = 1 : n. Set M := c1 · · · cn . Then u1 · · · un = BM. Now, for c ∈ Rn ,
h i
u1 · · · un c = 0 ⇐⇒ BMc = 0 ⇐⇒ Mc = 0. Hence U is LI ⇐⇒ rank(M) = n.
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Examples
• For n ∈ N, the set S := {1, x, . . . , x n−1 } is LI in R[x].
23 / 30
Examples
• For n ∈ N, the set S := {1, x, . . . , x n−1 } is LI in R[x]. By fundamental theorem of
algebra, if p(x) = c1 + c2 x + · · · + cn x n−1 = 0 for all x ∈ R,
23 / 30
Examples
• For n ∈ N, the set S := {1, x, . . . , x n−1 } is LI in R[x]. By fundamental theorem of
algebra, if p(x) = c1 + c2 x + · · · + cn x n−1 = 0 for all x ∈ R, then p(x) is a zero
polynomial, that is, c1 = c2 = . . . = cn = 0. Hence S is LI in R[x].
23 / 30
Examples
• For n ∈ N, the set S := {1, x, . . . , x n−1 } is LI in R[x]. By fundamental theorem of
algebra, if p(x) = c1 + c2 x + · · · + cn x n−1 = 0 for all x ∈ R, then p(x) is a zero
polynomial, that is, c1 = c2 = . . . = cn = 0. Hence S is LI in R[x].
23 / 30
Examples
• For n ∈ N, the set S := {1, x, . . . , x n−1 } is LI in R[x]. By fundamental theorem of
algebra, if p(x) = c1 + c2 x + · · · + cn x n−1 = 0 for all x ∈ R, then p(x) is a zero
polynomial, that is, c1 = c2 = . . . = cn = 0. Hence S is LI in R[x].
23 / 30
Examples
• For n ∈ N, the set S := {1, x, . . . , x n−1 } is LI in R[x]. By fundamental theorem of
algebra, if p(x) = c1 + c2 x + · · · + cn x n−1 = 0 for all x ∈ R, then p(x) is a zero
polynomial, that is, c1 = c2 = . . . = cn = 0. Hence S is LI in R[x].
0 0 1
23 / 30
Examples
• For n ∈ N, the set S := {1, x, . . . , x n−1 } is LI in R[x]. By fundamental theorem of
algebra, if p(x) = c1 + c2 x + · · · + cn x n−1 = 0 for all x ∈ R, then p(x) is a zero
polynomial, that is, c1 = c2 = . . . = cn = 0. Hence S is LI in R[x].
0 0 1
S is LI in P3 .
23 / 30
Examples
• For n ∈ N, the set S := {1, x, . . . , x n−1 } is LI in R[x]. By fundamental theorem of
algebra, if p(x) = c1 + c2 x + · · · + cn x n−1 = 0 for all x ∈ R, then p(x) is a zero
polynomial, that is, c1 = c2 = . . . = cn = 0. Hence S is LI in R[x].
0 0 1
S is LI in P3 .
(" # " # " #)
1 0 0 −1 0 0
• The set S = , , ⊆ R2×2 is linearly independent.
0 1 0 0 1 0
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Basis
Definition: A subset B of V is said to be a basis for V if span(B) = V and B is linearly
independent.
24 / 30
Basis
Definition: A subset B of V is said to be a basis for V if span(B) = V and B is linearly
independent.
Example
V = Fn over F: the standard basis {e1 , e2 , . . . , en }.
24 / 30
Basis
Definition: A subset B of V is said to be a basis for V if span(B) = V and B is linearly
independent.
Example
V = Fn over F: the standard basis {e1 , e2 , . . . , en }.
V = Pn over R: {1, x, x 2 , . . . , x n }, called the standard basis.
24 / 30
Basis
Definition: A subset B of V is said to be a basis for V if span(B) = V and B is linearly
independent.
Example
V = Fn over F: the standard basis {e1 , e2 , . . . , en }.
V = Pn over R: {1, x, x 2 , . . . , x n }, called the standard basis.
{1 + x, x + x 2 , 1 + x 2 } is a basis of P2 over R. (Check)
24 / 30
Basis
Definition: A subset B of V is said to be a basis for V if span(B) = V and B is linearly
independent.
Example
V = Fn over F: the standard basis {e1 , e2 , . . . , en }.
V = Pn over R: {1, x, x 2 , . . . , x n }, called the standard basis.
{1 + x, x + x 2 , 1 + x 2 } is a basis of P2 over R. (Check)
V = R[x] over R: {1, x, x 2 , . . .} called the standard basis.
24 / 30
Basis
Definition: A subset B of V is said to be a basis for V if span(B) = V and B is linearly
independent.
Example
V = Fn over F: the standard basis {e1 , e2 , . . . , en }.
V = Pn over R: {1, x, x 2 , . . . , x n }, called the standard basis.
{1 + x, x + x 2 , 1 + x 2 } is a basis of P2 over R. (Check)
V = R[x] over R: {1, x, x 2 , . . .} called the standard basis.
V = C over R: {1, i} is a basis.
24 / 30
Basis
Definition: A subset B of V is said to be a basis for V if span(B) = V and B is linearly
independent.
Example
V = Fn over F: the standard basis {e1 , e2 , . . . , en }.
V = Pn over R: {1, x, x 2 , . . . , x n }, called the standard basis.
{1 + x, x + x 2 , 1 + x 2 } is a basis of P2 over R. (Check)
V = R[x] over R: {1, x, x 2 , . . .} called the standard basis.
V = C over R: {1, i} is a basis.
(" # " # " # " #)
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
V = F2×2 over F: , , , called the standard basis.
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
24 / 30
Basis
Definition: A subset B of V is said to be a basis for V if span(B) = V and B is linearly
independent.
Example
V = Fn over F: the standard basis {e1 , e2 , . . . , en }.
V = Pn over R: {1, x, x 2 , . . . , x n }, called the standard basis.
{1 + x, x + x 2 , 1 + x 2 } is a basis of P2 over R. (Check)
V = R[x] over R: {1, x, x 2 , . . .} called the standard basis.
V = C over R: {1, i} is a basis.
(" # " # " # " #)
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
V = F2×2 over F: , , , called the standard basis.
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
25 / 30
Basis
Theorem: Let S = {v1 , . . . , vm } be LI in V and v 6∈ span(S). Then S ∪ {v} is LI.
Proof. Suppose α1 v1 + · · · + αm vm + αv = 0 for some α1 , . . . , αm , α ∈ F.
25 / 30
Basis
Theorem: Let S = {v1 , . . . , vm } be LI in V and v 6∈ span(S). Then S ∪ {v} is LI.
Proof. Suppose α1 v1 + · · · + αm vm + αv = 0 for some α1 , . . . , αm , α ∈ F. If α 6= 0,
then v ∈ span(S) which is not true.
25 / 30
Basis
Theorem: Let S = {v1 , . . . , vm } be LI in V and v 6∈ span(S). Then S ∪ {v} is LI.
Proof. Suppose α1 v1 + · · · + αm vm + αv = 0 for some α1 , . . . , αm , α ∈ F. If α 6= 0,
then v ∈ span(S) which is not true. Thus, α = 0, and α1 v1 + · · · + αm vm = 0.
25 / 30
Basis
Theorem: Let S = {v1 , . . . , vm } be LI in V and v 6∈ span(S). Then S ∪ {v} is LI.
Proof. Suppose α1 v1 + · · · + αm vm + αv = 0 for some α1 , . . . , αm , α ∈ F. If α 6= 0,
then v ∈ span(S) which is not true. Thus, α = 0, and α1 v1 + · · · + αm vm = 0. Since
S is LI, we have α1 = · · · = αm = 0.
25 / 30
Basis
Theorem: Let S = {v1 , . . . , vm } be LI in V and v 6∈ span(S). Then S ∪ {v} is LI.
Proof. Suppose α1 v1 + · · · + αm vm + αv = 0 for some α1 , . . . , αm , α ∈ F. If α 6= 0,
then v ∈ span(S) which is not true. Thus, α = 0, and α1 v1 + · · · + αm vm = 0. Since
S is LI, we have α1 = · · · = αm = 0.
Theorem: Let S = {v1 , . . . , vm } ⊆ V and U = span(S). Then S contains a basis of U.
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Basis
Theorem: Let S = {v1 , . . . , vm } be LI in V and v 6∈ span(S). Then S ∪ {v} is LI.
Proof. Suppose α1 v1 + · · · + αm vm + αv = 0 for some α1 , . . . , αm , α ∈ F. If α 6= 0,
then v ∈ span(S) which is not true. Thus, α = 0, and α1 v1 + · · · + αm vm = 0. Since
S is LI, we have α1 = · · · = αm = 0.
Theorem: Let S = {v1 , . . . , vm } ⊆ V and U = span(S). Then S contains a basis of U.
Proof: Choose a nonzero vector u1 from S. If span(u1 ) = U then {u1 } is a basis.
Otherwise, choose a nonzero u2 ∈ S \ {u1 }. Then {u1 , u2 } is linearly independent.
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Basis
Theorem: Let S = {v1 , . . . , vm } be LI in V and v 6∈ span(S). Then S ∪ {v} is LI.
Proof. Suppose α1 v1 + · · · + αm vm + αv = 0 for some α1 , . . . , αm , α ∈ F. If α 6= 0,
then v ∈ span(S) which is not true. Thus, α = 0, and α1 v1 + · · · + αm vm = 0. Since
S is LI, we have α1 = · · · = αm = 0.
Theorem: Let S = {v1 , . . . , vm } ⊆ V and U = span(S). Then S contains a basis of U.
Proof: Choose a nonzero vector u1 from S. If span(u1 ) = U then {u1 } is a basis.
Otherwise, choose a nonzero u2 ∈ S \ {u1 }. Then {u1 , u2 } is linearly independent. If
span(u1 , u2 ) = U then {u1 , u2 } is a basis
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Basis
Theorem: Let S = {v1 , . . . , vm } be LI in V and v 6∈ span(S). Then S ∪ {v} is LI.
Proof. Suppose α1 v1 + · · · + αm vm + αv = 0 for some α1 , . . . , αm , α ∈ F. If α 6= 0,
then v ∈ span(S) which is not true. Thus, α = 0, and α1 v1 + · · · + αm vm = 0. Since
S is LI, we have α1 = · · · = αm = 0.
Theorem: Let S = {v1 , . . . , vm } ⊆ V and U = span(S). Then S contains a basis of U.
Proof: Choose a nonzero vector u1 from S. If span(u1 ) = U then {u1 } is a basis.
Otherwise, choose a nonzero u2 ∈ S \ {u1 }. Then {u1 , u2 } is linearly independent. If
span(u1 , u2 ) = U then {u1 , u2 } is a basis else choose a nonzero u3 ∈ S \ {u1 , u2 } and
continue the process.
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Basis
Theorem: Let S = {v1 , . . . , vm } be LI in V and v 6∈ span(S). Then S ∪ {v} is LI.
Proof. Suppose α1 v1 + · · · + αm vm + αv = 0 for some α1 , . . . , αm , α ∈ F. If α 6= 0,
then v ∈ span(S) which is not true. Thus, α = 0, and α1 v1 + · · · + αm vm = 0. Since
S is LI, we have α1 = · · · = αm = 0.
Theorem: Let S = {v1 , . . . , vm } ⊆ V and U = span(S). Then S contains a basis of U.
Proof: Choose a nonzero vector u1 from S. If span(u1 ) = U then {u1 } is a basis.
Otherwise, choose a nonzero u2 ∈ S \ {u1 }. Then {u1 , u2 } is linearly independent. If
span(u1 , u2 ) = U then {u1 , u2 } is a basis else choose a nonzero u3 ∈ S \ {u1 , u2 } and
continue the process. Since S is a finite set, the process must end after ` steps with
` ≤ m yielding a basis {u1 , . . . , u` }.
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Basis
Theorem: Let S = {v1 , . . . , vm } be LI in V and v 6∈ span(S). Then S ∪ {v} is LI.
Proof. Suppose α1 v1 + · · · + αm vm + αv = 0 for some α1 , . . . , αm , α ∈ F. If α 6= 0,
then v ∈ span(S) which is not true. Thus, α = 0, and α1 v1 + · · · + αm vm = 0. Since
S is LI, we have α1 = · · · = αm = 0.
Theorem: Let S = {v1 , . . . , vm } ⊆ V and U = span(S). Then S contains a basis of U.
Proof: Choose a nonzero vector u1 from S. If span(u1 ) = U then {u1 } is a basis.
Otherwise, choose a nonzero u2 ∈ S \ {u1 }. Then {u1 , u2 } is linearly independent. If
span(u1 , u2 ) = U then {u1 , u2 } is a basis else choose a nonzero u3 ∈ S \ {u1 , u2 } and
continue the process. Since S is a finite set, the process must end after ` steps with
` ≤ m yielding a basis {u1 , . . . , u` }.
Corollary: Let S := {v1 , . . . , vm } ⊆ V. Then any linearly independent set in span(S)
can be extended to a basis of span(S).
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Basis theorem
Theorem: Let v1 , . . . , vr be vectors in V. Let {u1 , . . . , up } ⊆ span(v1 , . . . , vr ). If p > r
then u1 , . . . , up are linearly dependent.
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Basis theorem
Theorem: Let v1 , . . . , vr be vectors in V. Let {u1 , . . . , up } ⊆ span(v1 , . . . , vr ). If p > r
then u1 , . . . , up are linearly dependent.
h i h i
Proof: There exists M ∈ Fr ×p such that u1 · · · up = v1 · · · vr M.
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Basis theorem
Theorem: Let v1 , . . . , vr be vectors in V. Let {u1 , . . . , up } ⊆ span(v1 , . . . , vr ). If p > r
then u1 , . . . , up are linearly dependent.
h i h i
Proof: There exists M ∈ Fr ×p such that u1 · · · up = v1 · · · vr M.
Since p > r , the columns of M are linearly dependent =⇒ Mc = 0 for some nonzero
h i>
c = c1 · · · cp ∈ Fp .
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Basis theorem
Theorem: Let v1 , . . . , vr be vectors in V. Let {u1 , . . . , up } ⊆ span(v1 , . . . , vr ). If p > r
then u1 , . . . , up are linearly dependent.
h i h i
Proof: There exists M ∈ Fr ×p such that u1 · · · up = v1 · · · vr M.
Since p > r , the columns of M are linearly dependent =⇒ Mc = 0 for some nonzero
h i>
c = c1 · · · cp ∈ Fp . Now
h i h i
c1 u1 + · · · + cp up = u1 · · · up c = v1 · · · vr Mc = 0
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Basis theorem
Theorem: Let v1 , . . . , vr be vectors in V. Let {u1 , . . . , up } ⊆ span(v1 , . . . , vr ). If p > r
then u1 , . . . , up are linearly dependent.
h i h i
Proof: There exists M ∈ Fr ×p such that u1 · · · up = v1 · · · vr M.
Since p > r , the columns of M are linearly dependent =⇒ Mc = 0 for some nonzero
h i>
c = c1 · · · cp ∈ Fp . Now
h i h i
c1 u1 + · · · + cp up = u1 · · · up c = v1 · · · vr Mc = 0
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Basis theorem
Theorem: Let v1 , . . . , vr be vectors in V. Let {u1 , . . . , up } ⊆ span(v1 , . . . , vr ). If p > r
then u1 , . . . , up are linearly dependent.
h i h i
Proof: There exists M ∈ Fr ×p such that u1 · · · up = v1 · · · vr M.
Since p > r , the columns of M are linearly dependent =⇒ Mc = 0 for some nonzero
h i>
c = c1 · · · cp ∈ Fp . Now
h i h i
c1 u1 + · · · + cp up = u1 · · · up c = v1 · · · vr Mc = 0
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Dimension
Definition: If a vector space V over F has a finite basis with n elements, then V is said
to be finite dimensional and n is said to be the dimension of V. We write dim(V) = n.
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Dimension
Definition: If a vector space V over F has a finite basis with n elements, then V is said
to be finite dimensional and n is said to be the dimension of V. We write dim(V) = n.
If V does not have a finite basis, then V is said to be infinite dimensional.
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Dimension
Definition: If a vector space V over F has a finite basis with n elements, then V is said
to be finite dimensional and n is said to be the dimension of V. We write dim(V) = n.
If V does not have a finite basis, then V is said to be infinite dimensional.
Finite dimensional:
The zero space {0} has dimension 0.
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Dimension
Definition: If a vector space V over F has a finite basis with n elements, then V is said
to be finite dimensional and n is said to be the dimension of V. We write dim(V) = n.
If V does not have a finite basis, then V is said to be infinite dimensional.
Finite dimensional:
The zero space {0} has dimension 0.
Fn over F has dimension n.
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Dimension
Definition: If a vector space V over F has a finite basis with n elements, then V is said
to be finite dimensional and n is said to be the dimension of V. We write dim(V) = n.
If V does not have a finite basis, then V is said to be infinite dimensional.
Finite dimensional:
The zero space {0} has dimension 0.
Fn over F has dimension n.
Pn over R has dimension n + 1.
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Dimension
Definition: If a vector space V over F has a finite basis with n elements, then V is said
to be finite dimensional and n is said to be the dimension of V. We write dim(V) = n.
If V does not have a finite basis, then V is said to be infinite dimensional.
Finite dimensional:
The zero space {0} has dimension 0.
Fn over F has dimension n.
Pn over R has dimension n + 1.
C over R has dimension 2.
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Dimension
Definition: If a vector space V over F has a finite basis with n elements, then V is said
to be finite dimensional and n is said to be the dimension of V. We write dim(V) = n.
If V does not have a finite basis, then V is said to be infinite dimensional.
Finite dimensional:
The zero space {0} has dimension 0.
Fn over F has dimension n.
Pn over R has dimension n + 1.
C over R has dimension 2.
Fn×n over F has dimension n2 .
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Dimension
Definition: If a vector space V over F has a finite basis with n elements, then V is said
to be finite dimensional and n is said to be the dimension of V. We write dim(V) = n.
If V does not have a finite basis, then V is said to be infinite dimensional.
Finite dimensional:
The zero space {0} has dimension 0.
Fn over F has dimension n.
Pn over R has dimension n + 1.
C over R has dimension 2.
Fn×n over F has dimension n2 .
Infinite dimensional:
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Dimension
Definition: If a vector space V over F has a finite basis with n elements, then V is said
to be finite dimensional and n is said to be the dimension of V. We write dim(V) = n.
If V does not have a finite basis, then V is said to be infinite dimensional.
Finite dimensional:
The zero space {0} has dimension 0.
Fn over F has dimension n.
Pn over R has dimension n + 1.
C over R has dimension 2.
Fn×n over F has dimension n2 .
Infinite dimensional:
R[x] over R.
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Dimension
Definition: If a vector space V over F has a finite basis with n elements, then V is said
to be finite dimensional and n is said to be the dimension of V. We write dim(V) = n.
If V does not have a finite basis, then V is said to be infinite dimensional.
Finite dimensional:
The zero space {0} has dimension 0.
Fn over F has dimension n.
Pn over R has dimension n + 1.
C over R has dimension 2.
Fn×n over F has dimension n2 .
Infinite dimensional:
R[x] over R. The set {x n−1 : n ∈ N} is a basis.
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Dimension
Definition: If a vector space V over F has a finite basis with n elements, then V is said
to be finite dimensional and n is said to be the dimension of V. We write dim(V) = n.
If V does not have a finite basis, then V is said to be infinite dimensional.
Finite dimensional:
The zero space {0} has dimension 0.
Fn over F has dimension n.
Pn over R has dimension n + 1.
C over R has dimension 2.
Fn×n over F has dimension n2 .
Infinite dimensional:
R[x] over R. The set {x n−1 : n ∈ N} is a basis.
R over Q.
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Dimension
Definition: If a vector space V over F has a finite basis with n elements, then V is said
to be finite dimensional and n is said to be the dimension of V. We write dim(V) = n.
If V does not have a finite basis, then V is said to be infinite dimensional.
Finite dimensional:
The zero space {0} has dimension 0.
Fn over F has dimension n.
Pn over R has dimension n + 1.
C over R has dimension 2.
Fn×n over F has dimension n2 .
Infinite dimensional:
R[x] over R. The set {x n−1 : n ∈ N} is a basis.
R over Q. The {π n : n ∈ N} is LI.
C [0, 1] over R.
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Direct sum of subspaces
Definition: Let U and W be subspaces of V. Then
U + W := {u + v : u ∈ U and v ∈ W}
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Direct sum of subspaces
Definition: Let U and W be subspaces of V. Then
U + W := {u + v : u ∈ U and v ∈ W}
is called the sum of the subspaces U and W. If U ∩ W = {0} then the sum U + W is
called the direct sum of U and W and is denoted by U ⊕ W. Thus
U ⊕ W = U + W and U ∩ W = {0}.
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Direct sum of subspaces
Definition: Let U and W be subspaces of V. Then
U + W := {u + v : u ∈ U and v ∈ W}
is called the sum of the subspaces U and W. If U ∩ W = {0} then the sum U + W is
called the direct sum of U and W and is denoted by U ⊕ W. Thus
U ⊕ W = U + W and U ∩ W = {0}.
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Direct sum of subspaces
Definition: Let U and W be subspaces of V. Then
U + W := {u + v : u ∈ U and v ∈ W}
is called the sum of the subspaces U and W. If U ∩ W = {0} then the sum U + W is
called the direct sum of U and W and is denoted by U ⊕ W. Thus
U ⊕ W = U + W and U ∩ W = {0}.
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Exercise
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