INVESTIGATORY PROJECT ON

LCR CIRCUIT
SUBMITTED TO

CENTRAL BOARD OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

NEW DELHI

ACADEMIC YEAR 2023-24

BY
ASHOKAN. V
UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

Mr. Arunachalam P.L M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed.,

PHYSICS DEPARTMENT

Senthil Public School, Dharmapuri.

Montessori & CBSE Stream
(Affiliated to CBSE, New Delhi, Affiliation No.: 1930752)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am here overwhelmed in all humbleness and gratefulness to acknowledge

my depth to all those who have helped me to put these ideas well above
the level of simplicity.

I would like to express my special note of gratitude to my teacher

Mr. Arunachalam P.L M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed., for spending many
precious hours in helping me for the quality of this, kindly providing
valuable guidance, motivation and his encouragement.

I would like to thank our Senior Principal Sri. Srinivasan. C M.Sc.,

M.Ed., Dip. in Montessori, and our Principal Sri. Senthil Murugan. P,
M.Sc., B.Ed., G.NIIT., our Vice Principal Sri. Rajkumar. S. M.Sc.,
B.Ed., M. Phil., and our Academic Coordinator Srimathi. Gnana
Kavitha. M. M.Sc., B.Ed., who gave me this golden opportunity to do this
wonderful project. It also helped me in doing a lot of research and I came
to know about many new things. I am really thankful to my lab in charge
Ms. Deepa R M.Sc.,

I would like to thank my parents who helped me a lot in gathering

information, collecting data and guiding me from time to time in making
this project, despite of their busy schedule. They gave me different ideas in
making this project unique.
-ASHOKAN.V
 CONTENTS

SNO TOPIC PAGE

NO
1 INTRODUCTION 4

2 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF LCR CIRCUIT 5

3 ANALYSIS OF LCR CIRCUIT 7

4 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF 9

LCR CIRCUIT
5 L.C.R METER 11

6 L.C.R CIRCUIT IN OUR DAILY LIFE 12

7 TYPES OF L.C.R CIRCUIT 14

8 EXPERIMENT 16

9 DISCUSSION 21

10 BIBLIOGRAPHY 22

[3]
L.C.R CIRCUIT
INTRODUCTION:
Electricity has become an essential part of our daily lives, powering everything
from our homes to our workplaces. Alternating Current (AC) is one of the most
commonly used forms of electrical power, and is fundamental to the operation
of many electronic devices. In this project, we will explore the basics of AC
current, including its properties, applications, and engineering considerations.
The objective of this project is to provide a comprehensive overview of AC
current, and to help readers understand its principles and applications. We will
begin by defining AC current and its fundamental properties, including the
waveform, frequency, amplitude, voltage, phase, and power. We will then delve
into the practical applications of AC current, including its use in power
transmission and distribution, electric motors and generators, and electronic
devices.
In addition to exploring the basic principles of AC current, we will also
consider some of the engineering challenges associated with AC power systems.
These challenges include voltage regulation, power factor correction, and
harmonic distortion. We will discuss how these issues are addressed in practice,
and explore some of the technologies and techniques used to optimize AC
power systems.
Finally, we will examine some of the future trends and developments in AC
current technology, including the increasing use of renewable energy sources,
the development of smart grids, and the adoption of advanced control and
monitoring systems. By the end of this project, readers will have a solid
understanding of AC current and its importance in modern engineering and
technology.

[4]
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF LCR CIRCUIT

An LCR circuit is a type of electronic circuit that consists of an inductor (L), a

capacitor (C), and a resistor (R) connected in series or parallel. The basic
principles of an LCR circuit can be explained as follows:
1. Inductors and inductance: An inductor is a passive electronic component
that stores energy in a magnetic field when a current flows through it.
Inductors are measured in units of inductance called Henrys (H) and are
denoted by the letter L. In an LCR circuit, the inductor provides
inductance and opposes any changes in the current.
2. Capacitors and capacitance: A capacitor is a passive electronic
component that stores energy in an electric field when a voltage is
applied across its terminals. Capacitors are measured in units of
capacitance called Farads (F) and are denoted by the letter C. In an
LCR circuit, the capacitor provides capacitance and opposes any
changes in the voltage.
3. Resistors and resistance: A resistor is a passive electronic component that
restricts the flow of current in a circuit. Resistors are measured in units of
resistance called Ohms (Ω) and are denoted by the letter R. In an LCR
circuit, the resistor provides resistance and limits the current flowing
through the circuit.
4. Impedance and reactance: The combined effect of the inductor, capacitor,
and resistor in an LCR circuit is called impedance, denoted by the letter
Z. Impedance has two components, resistive and reactive. The resistive
component is due to the resistor, while the reactive component is due to
the inductor and capacitor. The reactance of the inductor is proportional
to the frequency of the current, while the reactance of the capacitor is
inversely proportional to the frequency of the current.
5. AC current and frequency: An LCR circuit is designed to operate with
alternating current (AC), which is a current that periodically changes
direction. The frequency of the AC current determines the reactance of
the inductor and capacitor in the circuit. When the frequency of the AC
current matches the resonant frequency of the circuit, the impedance is
minimized and the circuit becomes highly efficient.

[5]
In summary, an LCR circuit operates based on the fundamental principles of
inductance, capacitance, resistance, and reactance. By controlling the values of
these components, an LCR circuit can be designed to perform a specific function,
such as filtering, tuning, or amplification. Understanding the basic principles of
LCR circuits is essential for anyone interested in electronics and electrical
engineering.

[6]
ANALYSIS OF LCR CIRCUIT:

Analysis of an LCR circuit involves determining its voltage, current,

impedance, power, and other relevant parameters. The analysis can be done
using a variety of techniques, including Ohm's law, Kirchhoff's laws, complex
numbers,phasors, and Laplace transforms.
One of the simplest ways to analyze an LCR circuit is to use Ohm's law and
Kirchhoff's laws. Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is
proportional to the current (I) flowing through it, and the proportionality
constant is the resistance (R). Similarly, the voltage across a capacitor or an
inductor is proportional to the rate of change of the current, and the
proportionality constant is the capacitance (C) or inductance (L), respectively.
Kirchhoff's laws state that the sum of the currents entering a node is equal to
the sum of the currents leaving it, and the sum of the voltages around a loop is
zero. To apply Ohm's law and Kirchhoff's laws to an LCR circuit, we first need
to determine the circuit topology (series or parallel), the values of the
components (R, L, and C), and the frequency of the AC source. We then use
Ohm's law to determine the voltage drop across each component, Kirchhoff's
laws to determine the currents flowing through each component, and the
relationships between voltage, current, and impedance to calculate the overall
impedance and power.

Another approach to analyzing an LCR circuit is to use complex numbers and

phasors. In this approach, we represent the AC voltage and current as complex
numbers with real and imaginary parts, and use the phasor representation to
simplify the calculations. The phasor representation allows us to treat the AC
voltage and current as if they were DC quantities, and use standard DC analysis
techniques to determine the circuit parameters. We can then convert the results
back to the time-domain using inverse phasor transforms.
Yet another approach to analyzing an LCR circuit is to use Laplace transforms.
In this approach, we convert the time-domain equations of the circuit into the
Laplace domain, where the algebraic manipulations are simpler. We then use
the Laplace transforms to solve for the circuit parameters, and convert the
results back to the time-domain using inverse Laplace transforms.

[7]
Overall, the analysis of an LCR circuit can be done using a variety of
techniques, depending on the complexity of the circuit and the desired
accuracy of the results. The choice of technique depends on the specific
requirements of the analysis and the expertise of the analyst.
An LCR circuit is an electronic circuit that consists of an inductor (L), a
capacitor (C), and a resistor (R) connected in series or parallel. The name LCR
comes from the first letter of each component. An LCR circuit can be used for a
variety of applications, such as filtering, tuning, oscillation, and resonance. The
behavior of an LCR circuit is characterized by the interaction between the
inductor, capacitor, and resistor, which determines the circuit's impedance,
resonant frequency, and frequency response. The design and analysis of LCR
circuits are fundamental topics in electrical engineering .An LCR circuit is an
electronic circuit that consists of an inductor (L), a capacitor (C), and a resistor
(R) connected in series or parallel. The name LCR comes from the first letter of
each component. An LCR circuit can be used for a variety of applications, such
as filtering, tuning, oscillation.

[8]
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF LCR
CIRCUIT:

Designing and constructing an LCR circuit involves several steps, including

selecting the values of the components, determining the circuit topology
(series or parallel), calculating the parameters of the circuit, and building the
circuit using appropriate components.
1. Component Selection: The first step in designing an LCR circuit is to
select the appropriate values for the inductor, capacitor, and resistor.
The values depend on the specific application of the circuit, such as
filtering, tuning, or oscillation. The values of the components can be
calculated using equations that relate them to the desired circuit
parameters, such as the resonant frequency, impedance, or Q factor.
2. Circuit Topology: The second step is to determine the circuit topology,
which can be either series or parallel. In a series LCR circuit, the
components are connected in a single line, and the same current flows
through all of them. In a parallel LCR circuit, the components are
connected in multiple branches, and the same voltage is applied across
all of them.
3. Parameter Calculation: The third step is to calculate the parameters of the
circuit, such as the impedance, resonant frequency, and Q factor. These
parameters depend on the values of the components, the circuit topology,
and the frequency of the AC source. The impedance of an LCR circuit is
the total opposition that the circuit presents to the flow of AC current and
is determined by the resistance, inductance, and capacitance values. The
resonant frequency is the frequency at which the circuit's reactance is
zero, and the circuit's impedance is minimum. The Q factor is a measure
of the sharpness of the circuit's resonance and is calculated as the ratio of
the energy stored in the circuit to the energy dissipated by the circuit.
4. Circuit Construction: The final step is to build the circuit using
appropriate components and wiring. The components can be mounted on
a printed circuit board (PCB) or breadboard, and the wiring should be
done in a way that minimizes parasitic effects such as resistance,
capacitance, and inductance. Careful attention should be paid to the
placement and orientation of the components to minimize interference
and maximize performance.

[9]
Overall, the design and construction of an LCR circuit requires careful
consideration of the circuit parameters, component selection, and wiring
techniques. The circuit's performance can be verified using measurement and
testing equipment such as oscilloscopes, signal generators, and multimeters.

[10]
LC.R METER:

An LCR meter is a specialized piece of equipment used to measure the values

of inductance (L), capacitance (C), and resistance (R) of an LCR circuit. LCR
Meters are used in a wide range of applications, including electronics, electrical
engineering, physics, and material science.
LCR meters are capable of measuring a wide range of values for inductance,
capacitance, and resistance, typically ranging from a few Pico farads to several
millifarads for capacitance, from a few nanohenries to several henries for
inductance, and from a few milliohms to several megaohms for resistance. LCR
meters typically use a variety of test signals, such as sinusoidal, square, or pulse
waveforms, and measure the circuit's response, such as the voltage, current, or
impedance.
LCR meters typically use a variety of measurement techniques, such as bridge
circuits, impedance analyzers, and vector network analyzers. Bridge circuits are
based on the principle of balancing the circuit under test with a reference
circuit, and measuring the imbalance voltage.

In conclusion, LCR meters are specialized instruments used to measure the

values of inductance, capacitance, and resistance of an LCR circuit. LCR
meters are essential tools in electronics, electrical engineering, physics, and
material science, and are available in a variety of types and measurement
techniques to suit different applications and requirements.

[11]
L.C.R CIRCUIT IN OUR DAILY LIFE:

LCR circuits have several applications in our daily life, including:

1. Electronic Devices: LCR circuits are commonly used in electronic
devices, such as radios, televisions, and computers, to tune filter signals.
For example, an LCR circuit can be used as a resonant circuit in a radio
to select a specific frequency band, or as a filter circuit in a computer to
remove unwanted signals.

2. Power Transmission: LCR circuits are used in power transmission

systems, such as transformers and power factor correction circuits. In
transformers, LCR circuits are used to regulate the voltage and current
levels, while in power factor correction circuits, they are used to
improve the power factor and reduce energy losses.
3. Medical Equipment: LCR circuits are used in medical equipment, such
as MRI machines and pacemakers. In MRI machines, LCR circuits are
used to generate the magnetic fields and detect the signals, while in
pacemakers, they are used to regulate the timing and voltage levels of
the heart's electrical signals.
4. Audio Equipment: LCR circuits are used in audio equipment, such as
speakers, headphones, and microphones. In speakers and headphones,
LCR circuits are used to filter and amplify signals, while in
microphones, they are used to convert sound waves into electrical
signals.

[12]
5. Communications: LCR circuits are used in communication systems,
such as telephones, cell phones, and wireless networks. In telephones
and cell phones, LCR circuits are used to filter and amplify signals,
while in wireless networks, they are used to transmit and receive signals.

6. Aerospace Industry: LCR circuits are used in the aerospace industry,

such as in avionics and satellite systems. In avionics, LCR circuits are
used to regulate the power supply and control the navigation and
communication systems, while in satellite systems, they are used to
transmit and receive signals.
7. Robotics: LCR circuits are used in robotics, such as in robot control
systems and sensors. In robot control systems, LCR circuits are used to
regulate the voltage and current levels, while in sensors, they are used
to detect and measure physical quantities such as temperature,
pressure, and position.
8. Scientific Instruments: LCR circuits are used in scientific instruments,
such as oscilloscopes and signal generators. In oscilloscopes, LCR
circuits are used to measure and display waveforms, while in signal
generators, they are used to generate and manipulate electrical signals.
9. Automotive Sensors: LCR circuits are used in automotive sensors, such
as airbag sensors and anti-lock brake sensors. In airbag sensors, LCR
circuits are used to detect and measure the acceleration and impact forces,
while in anti-lock brake sensors, they are used to detect and measure the
wheel rotation speed and pressure.

[13]
TYPES OF L.C.R CIRCUIT:

There are different types of LCR circuits based on their configuration and mode
of operation. Here are some common types of LCR circuits:
1. Series LCR Circuit: This circuit consists of a resistor, an inductor, and a
capacitor connected in series. The voltage across each component is the
same, while the current flowing through each component is different.
2. Parallel LCR Circuit: This circuit consists of a resistor, an inductor, and
a capacitor connected in parallel. The current flowing through each
component is the same, while the voltage across each component is
different.
3. Resonant LCR Circuit: This circuit is designed to operate at a specific
frequency, known as the resonant frequency. It consists of an inductor
and a capacitor connected in series or parallel, with a resistor connected in
parallel or series. The resonant frequency can be calculated using the
values of the inductance, capacitance, and resistance.
4. Tuned LCR Circuit: This circuit is similar to the resonant circuit but is
designed to be tuned to a specific frequency range by adjusting the
values of the inductor and capacitor. This circuit is used in radio and
TV receivers to select and amplify the desired frequency signal.
5. Switched LCR Circuit: This circuit is used in switching power supplies
and voltage regulators. It consists of an inductor, a capacitor, and a
switch that turns on and off at a high frequency. The inductor and
capacitor store and release energy to regulate the output voltage.
6. Active LCR Circuit: This circuit uses an active component such as an
operational amplifier (Op-Amp) to amplify or filter the input signal. It
consists of an LCR network connected to an Op-Amp, which provides a
high gain and low output impedance.
7. Balanced LCR Circuit: This circuit is designed to measure the unknown
impedance of a component accurately. It consists of a known LCR
network and an unknown component connected in series. The balanced
condition is achieved when the impedance of the unknown component is
equal to the impedance of the LCR network.

[14]
8. Unbalanced LCR Circuit: This circuit is used in audio equipment to
balance the output signal. It consists of an inductor, a capacitor, and a
resistor connected in series, with the output taken across the resistor.
The values of the components are chosen to achieve the desired
frequency response.
9. Inductive LCR Circuit: This circuit consists of an inductor connected
in series with a resistor and a capacitor. The impedance of the circuit
is mainly determined by the inductor, and the circuit is used to filter
out high-frequency signals.
10.Capacitive LCR Circuit: This circuit consists of a capacitor connected
in series with a resistor and an inductor. The impedance of the circuit is
mainly determined by the capacitor, and the circuit is used to filter out
low-frequency signals.
11.Series Resonant LCR Circuit: This circuit is used in crystal oscillators,
radio receivers, and transmitters. It consists of an inductor and a
capacitor connected in series with a resistor. The resonant frequency is
determined by the values of the inductor and capacitor.
12.Parallel Resonant LCR Circuit: This circuit is used in tuning circuits,
bandpass filters, and impedance matching networks. It consists of an
inductor and a capacitor connected in parallel with a resistor. The
resonant frequency is determined by the values of the inductor and
capacitor.
13.Tank Circuit: This circuit is used in radio frequency (RF) circuits to
generate and tune resonant frequencies. It consists of an inductor and a
capacitor connected in parallel with a series resistor.
14.Notch Filter: This circuit is used to attenuate a specific frequency or
range of frequencies. It consists of an inductor and a capacitor
connected in parallel with a resistor.
15.Bandpass Filter: This circuit is used to pass a specific frequency or range
of frequencies while attenuating others. It consists of an inductor and a
capacitor connected in series or parallel with a resistor.
16.Bandstop Filter: This circuit is used to block a specific frequency or
range of frequencies while passing others. It consists of an inductor and a
capacitor connected in parallel or series with a resistor.

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EXPERIMENT

Aim: - To study the frequency response and to find resonant frequencies of LCR
series and parallel circuits. Also to find the quality factor and band width in LCR
series circuit.

Apparatus: - A variable non-inductive resistor, a variable capacitor, a

variable Inductor, a signal generator, an a.c. milli- ammeter and the connecting
wires.

Formula: -

Description and theory: -

Series L-C-R: - when the resistor R, inductor L and capacitor C are connected in
series with a source of emf E, the circuit is called as the series resonant or series
tuned circuit (figure-1). This is an acceptor circuit that means it allows maximum
current to flow through it at a particular (resonant) frequency and at all other
frequencies it allows less current.

In A.C. circuits the voltage and the current are usually out of phase. Across
the inductor, the current lags behind the voltage by 900, whereas across the
capacitor, the current leads the voltage by 900. But across the resistor the voltage
and current both are in phase.

[16]
Under certain conditions, the voltage and current are in phase, even though the
circuit consists of L, C and R and the circuit behaves as a pure resistor. This
phenomenon is called resonance. This occurs at a single frequency known as
resonant frequency. At this frequency the capacitive reactance ( Xc = 1/ωC) and
the inductive reactance( XL = ωL) are equal and opposite in direction. So they
get cancelled each other and only resistance acts.

At this frequency the current is maximum and this frequency f0 is called

resonant frequency. The circuit has selective properties. To compare selectivity
or sharpness of resonance, a band of frequencies is chosen at which the current
falls to 1/√2 times (half power points) of its maximum value. The frequency
difference (f2 – f1) between the half power points is called the bandwidth.

[17]
L-C-R parallel: - Parallel resonant circuit (figure-2) is one in which one
branch consists of an inductor L with associated resistor R and the other branch
consists of a capacitor C. This is a rejector circuit that means it rejects the
current or allows minimum current to flow through it, at a particular (anti-
resonant) frequency and it allows more current at all other frequencies. So the
circuit is not selective. But it is highly selective when energized from a high
impedance generator.

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Procedure:-

1. For LCR series, the circuit is connected as shown in the figure-1.The source
resistance and the series resistance should be small. The output voltage of the
signal generator is adjusted to be around 5V. The frequency of the signal
generator is changed in steps and the corresponding current values are noted from
the a.c. milli- ammeter. The readings are tabulated. The current values increase
with the increase of frequency, up to the resonant frequency, further increase of
frequency causes the decrease of current. The L, C and R values are noted to
calculate the resonant frequency f0 and Q-factor, using the above formulae.
Note: - The experiment may be repeated with a different values of ‘R’. Here the
fo value is unchanged, but Q- factor value is changed.

Graph: - A graph is drawn for current against frequency. The frequency

corresponding to maximum current is noted and it is the resonant frequency f0.
The frequencies f1 and f2 corresponding to half power points is noted and from it
the bandwidth, (f1 – f2) is noted. From the values of f0, f1 and f2, the quality factor,
Q is calculated.

2. For L-C-R parallel, the circuit is connected as shown in the figure-2. The
frequency of the signal generator is changed in steps and the corresponding
current values are noted from the a.c. milli- ammeter. The readings are tabulated.
But here, the current values decrease with the increase of frequency up to the anti-
resonant frequency, further increase of frequency causes the increase of current.
The anti- resonant frequency fo is noted corresponding to the minimum current in
the circuit.

Graph: - A graph is drawn for current against frequency. The frequency

corresponding to minimum current is noted and it is the anti- resonant frequency
f0 .

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 x

Precautions:-

1) The internal resistance of the source and series resistance should be small.
2) Before going to the experiment the resonant frequency should be calculated
from L and C values so that to select the range of frequencies for observation.

[20]
DISCUSSION:
In conclusion, LCR circuits play a crucial role manipulating in a wide range of
electronic systems and applications. By controlling and the flow of electrical
energy through inductors, capacitors, and resistors, LCR circuits can perform a
variety of functions, including signal filtering, power conditioning, oscillation,
and resonance.
Throughout this project, we have explored the basic principles, analysis, design,
and construction of LCR circuits, as well as some of the advanced topics and
applications of these circuits. We have also discussed the simulation of LCR
circuits, which is an important tool for engineers and researchers involved in the
design and development of electronic circuits.
LCR circuits are an essential component in modern electronics, from simple
circuits in household appliances to complex systems in medical devices,
communication systems, and industrial automation. The knowledge gained
from the study of LCR circuits can help engineers to design more efficient and
reliable electronic systems, and to overcome the challenges of emerging
technologies and applications.
In summary, the study of LCR circuits is a fascinating and important field that
continues to evolve and advance. With the rapid pace of technological
innovation, the applications and opportunities for LCR circuits are sure to
expand, making this an exciting area of research and development for years to
come.
1. LCR circuits are widely used in the design and construction of filters
for various applications, such as audio processing, radio transmission,
and power supply regulation. These filters can be designed to
selectively pass or block certain frequencies or harmonics, depending
on the specific needs of the application.
2. LCR circuits are also used in the design and development of resonators,
which are used to generate and amplify specific frequencies etc..,

[21]
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
1. Horowitz, P., & Hill, W. (2015). The Art of Electronics (3rd ed.).
Cambridge University Press.
2. Rizzoni, G. (2011). Principles and Applications of Electrical
Engineering (5th ed.). McGraw Hill Education.
3. Sedra, A. S., & Smith, K. C. (2014). Microelectronic Circuits (7th ed.).
Oxford University Press.
4. Bhowmik, K. (2013). A Comprehensive Textbook of Applied Physics
(2nd ed.). PHI Learning Private Limited.
5. Kuo, F. F. (1995). Network Analysis and Synthesis (2nd ed.). John Wiley
& Sons.
6. Lathi, B. P. (1998). Modern Digital and Analog Communication
Systems (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press.
7. Itoh, T. (2014). Numerical Techniques for Microwave and
Millimeter- Wave Passive Structures (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
8. Sivaramakrishnan, K. (2012). Network Theory: Analysis
and Synthesis (2nd ed.). PHI Learning Private Limited

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