elab notes library

EAP 201

INTRODUCTION
TO
CURRICULUM
DEVELOPMENT

Website: maktaba.elab.co.ke WhatsApp: +254 115 219 324 Email: info@elab.co.ke

1.0 INTRODUCTION TO CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Curriculum is a plan of Education. This plan transforms ideas into curriculum which is
related to life, needs, aspirations and problems of people. In this manner, the curriculum
becomes a powerful and dynamic instrument of social, economic and cultural
transformation of the society.

1.1 Definition and Meaning of Curriculum

By curriculum, Bishop (1985) is the sum total of all the experiences a pupil undergoes.
There are many meanings attached to the word “curriculum” sometimes it is referred to
as “syllabus or list of subjects or course of study or topics or terms of knowledge to be
covered or content or organization of teaching and learning or method or time table etc.
Curriculum is much wider than syllabus, where a syllabus is only part of the total
curriculum. So, curriculum is concerned not so much with prescribing the knowledge to
be acquired as with the area of learning experiences to be organized by teachers, both
within and outside the school to enable pupils to adopt a positive attitude to learning, but
also to acquire and apply knowledge and skills to develop pupils’ tastes and a balanced
sense of values.

Education on the other hand is life process to provide the pupil with knowledge, desirable
attitudes and skills. Hilda Taba (1962) sees education as a process of preservation and
transmission of cultural heritage. Education is life-long and is a continuos process.

1.2.0 Course Objectives

The course aims at equiping the Bachelor of Education Degree students with basic
knowledge, describe attitudes and practical professional skills. Specifically, students
should be able to do the following:
1.2.1 Explain common concepts, principles and terms as applied in the course of
curriculum development.
1.2.2 Assess the role of various agencies, institutions, and personnel involved in
curriculum development process.
1.2.3 Apply the theoretical knowledge attitudes and skills acquired to plan, develop,
implement and evaluate school curriculum in individual subject areas.

1.2.4 Evaluate educational practices, experiences in the process of curriculum

evaluation.

1.3.0 Course Content

The content of this course is based on the stated objectives with specific emphasis on
application of curriculum.

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1.3.1 The school curriculum: This will address areas such as: definitions of education,
school curriculum and elements of curriculum. Dimensions of Education.
Curriculum Documents and Curriculum Questions.
1.3.2 Foundations of Curriculum: These are sources of curriculum. They include:
Philosophical, Historical, Psychological, Sociological and Professional
Foundations. The main concern in these foundations of curriculum will be to
study what they are and how they influence curriculum practices.
1.3.3 Aims, Goals and Objectives of Education. This topic will require the student to
know definitions of Aims, Goals and Objectives of Curriculum Selections and
Classification of School Objectives. Interpretation of National Goals into the
Teaching and Learning of Stated Objectives at School Level.
1.3.4 Curriculum Development Process: The student will be required to learn how a
curriculum blue-print is developed from Situational Analysis to Maintenance of
curriculum.
1.3.5 Curriculum Design. The topic will address: Definition of Curriculum Design.
Theories of Curriculum Design, Patterns of Curriculum Design, Principles of
Selection and Organization of Design.
1.3.6 Curriculum Implementation. The student will be required to learn: Importance of
Curriculum Implementation. Agents of Curriculum Implementation. The Process
of Curriculum Implementation and Teacher Education Cycle in Kenya.
1.3.7 Curriculum Evaluation: The topic will be concerned with: Definitions, types of
Evaluation and their Role in Curriculum. Role of Formative and Summative
Evaluation. Agents of Curriculum Evaluation.

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2.0 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

A process is the flow of an activity from the initial stage to the end stage without
repetition. Curriculum process undergoes systematic stages of development.

2.1 Purpose of Education and Curriculum

The main purpose of education is to socialize an individual among peer groups. Without
a community and group, life and socialization of an individual would have very little
meaning. From the beginning of human society, the main objective of education has
been that of transmitting to the child the accumulated experiences of his people and their
culture as well as of training him to fit into the membership of the group. It was through
this background that the society has managed to survive and gain increasing knowledge
over all forms of human institutions: governance, rituals, survival etc.

Curriculum on the other hand was prompted during the World Wars, especially the 1st
World War (1918) when Franklin Bobbat published a book called “the Curriculum” to
provide a course of operations on the war and its derived out comes. This period was
marked by industrial and technological development. There was need to design
programmes of activity or events which had profound effect on the social, economic and
political life of people. Curriculum as seen now is to create a situation of social activity-
based on development of the people.

2.2 Functions of Education and Curriculum

 Education provides knowledge, desired attitudes and practical skills to individuals.

 Education matures an individual for a sense of responsibility, accountability and
service to the society.
 Education trains an individual for self-discipline, self appraisal and sense of humour
for self-reliance.
 Education provides ways and means of recognizing the environment and its
ecological content for use in survival trends.
 Education also leads to corporate efforts at societal, national and global levels of
human existence
 Curriculum is a blue print of education in systematically stated terms
 Curriculum offers guidance, knowledge, attitude and skill content for schooling and
training
 Curriculum directs the society through a school system to identify values, knowledge
and life instruments for survival.
 Curriculum organizes man into patterns of life type as organization fraternities and
expressions

2.3 Objectives of Curriculum Development Process

At the end of this unit you should be able to:

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 Explain the meaning of curriculum
 Describe the curriculum development process
 Identify the stages of curriculum development process
 Describe reasons that govern curriculum in a given society or nation
 Describe factors that prompt changes in curriculum

2.4 Curriculum Development Process

This is the process of choosing and refining the contents of an education system which
may later on be implemented in schools. It is in nature an improvement or modification
or change on the existing, educational programme. Curriculum improvement or
curriculum development cannot be made in a neat series of steps; it involves a lot of
work.
There are several component processes that should be considered in the curriculum
development process.
Let us consider them one by one.
 Situational Analysis
This is a type of information gathering which reveals both the need and feasibility of the
curriculum development intended. The main issues of concern here are: What
information? From whom? Who should gather it? From whom should it be gathered?
Who should collect it? What information should be used for?

Much information related to the curriculum development is gathered from curriculum

experts, educators, government, non-organizations employers, industrialists, agricultural
sector etc. The reasons are that much information is revealed concerning needs, problems
and interests of learners and society.

From information gathered, curriculum workers (e.g. in KIE) will come to know whether
or not there is need to improve the existing curriculum.

Activity 1
Write down what you consider to be important when planning curriculum.
Does your school curriculum bit your findings? From these considerations you now have a
bettter picture of needs and feasibility of the curriculum intended.

The information gathered will reveal the feasibility of improvement, the information may
reveal current social economic and political philosophies of the society. Also vital to
know is the employment chances and the aspirations of parents, children and society.

 Formulation of Objectives
They are justifications for the need of providing education or various aspects of the
school curriculum and indeed a slogan support for education.
They help to guide the educational process. For example, we cannot decide appropriately
what to teach or how to teach it until we know why we are doing it.

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Objectives attempt to improve the practice of education by first obtaining clarity about
educational ends.
Objectives are a test to be applied to the educative process. They provide a precise basis
for evaluation, determining the extent to which the educational or instructional
programme is useful

To help you in formulation of objectives, consider Tyler’s (1949) four significant

questions.
(i) What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
(ii) What educational experiences or content should be effectively organized or
ordered or sequenced?
(iii) How can it be determined whether the purposes formulated in (i) above are being
attained?
(iv) How can these Educational Experiences or Content be selectively organized?

Where do objectives come from?

To answer these questions think of Tyler’s (1949) suggestion of objective sources.
Source (i) The study of nature, needs and problems of contemporary society
Source (ii) The study of the needs, interests and problems of learners themselves.
Source (iii) Suggestions from subject specialists and the nature of subject matter
Source (iv) The nature of social values (philosophy)
Source (v) The nature of learning theories (psychology)

In Kenya, curriculum development is done at the K.I.E with selected panels whose
members are drawn from school teachers and other similar educational spheres.
The membership of the project teams include classroom teachers, university lecturers,
members of religious organizations, publishers, educational administrators, school
inspectors, curriculum developers, personnel of the Kenya National Examinations
Council, teacher trainers and representatives of several other organizations.

The team of the project will have been briefed, trained and presented with aims, goals
and objectives of education and other necessary facilities to help them in their duties.
They should be well trained as team members and given terms of references.

Activity 2
Try to think and write down other relevant factors that this team should deal with a country
of diverse cultural and geographical aspects like Kenya.

 Programme Building
This is also referred to as the stage of curriculum designing and is actually the main task
of the project team selected:
The team tackles the questions such as these:
- What are we going to teach in schools to various grades of pupils?
- From what subject matters shall the content be selected?

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- How shall learning opportunities be identified and used or applied to deal with
learning activities within the programme building stage?

In the programme there must opportunities, experience and a conducive atmosphere that
will make learning easy and possible so as to achieve the set objectives. In essence, the
teaching and learning process require content or subject matter, methods, teachers
learners, materials and facilities all of which must be selected and organized for proper
learning theories and principles.

 Criteria for Selection of Curriculum Content

Validity: they (content or experiences) must be authentic or consistent with development

in the subject or knowledge area. All the materials must be up to date, therefore teachers
must be given constant in-service courses and self education in order to keep a breast in
their disciplines.

Learnability: The learning experiences must be adjusted to the abilities of the learners.
It must be appropriate to learners. The knowledge of the students is important to ensure
that their background, present attainment, mental age and set up makes it possible for
learners to behave as implied in the objectives.
Significance: Learning experiences or learning activities must be meaningful. They
should be emphasized that any content, learning activities of learning resources are
meaningful only when they contribute to the process or learning. Significance refers to
the essentials of content to be learned. It requires that the content to be learned subscribe
to the basic ideas, concepts, principles and generalizations.

(i) Significance is related to the issue of breath and depth (scope) of curriculum
content. Significance also pertains to how the content or experience contributes to
the development of particular learning abilities, skills and attitudes formation.
(ii) Taba (1962) argued that one should not just select content based on the cognitive
aspect of learners but also on the affective dimensions of the learner.
(iii) The importance of content also concerns the issue of durability. Significant
content will last over a period of time before becoming obsolete. Content relevant
to current times, but unlikely to be interest in five or 50 years is said to be of
limited durability, significance loses the meaning if there is too much emphasis on
courage of content because learners are likely to make little sense out of the bulky
contents and many learning activities.

 Criteria for Organizing Content

(i) Balance: A balanced curriculum implies structure, its scope and sequence leading
to the achievement of educational objectives (ends).
The problem of balance has two dimensions.

There is the balance sought in the curriculum provided by the school i.e. the subjects to
be taught or offered as required in the programs of study to be recommended, time

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allotments for various subjects and activities, the use of books and other educational
materials, the respective amounts of general and specialized education to be provided.
Dimension of balance is the part of the curriculum actually selected by and/or
experienced by each individual child. Ideally, balance is attained in the individual’s own
curriculum as he or she develops an optimal level for competence in each of the areas
where provision is made in the curriculum.
(ii) Integration Bloom (1958) defines an integrative thread as “any idea, problem,
method or device by which two or more separate learning experiences are
related”. It is evident that the concept of integration is used by persons engaged
in designing curriculum according to broad field and correlated designs. The
concept is closely related to articulation, but frequency in integrating content; the
content areas lose their separate identities e.g. teaching Geography, History and
Civics in Kenya. Those confronted with designing curricula hopefully realize that
learning is more effective when content from one field is related meaningfully to
content in another field.

Integration, sometimes seen as emphasizing horizontal relationships among various

curricular areas, attempts to interrelate content themes, ideas, and facts in order to ensure
students perceiving a unity of knowledge. Thus what is learned in language study may be
related to study with a social studies unit on communication in modern times, what is
learned in science be further interpreted within the realm of Mathematics (Taba, 1962).

(iii) Community
Community refers to the continuousness with which individuals will experience content
at various levels with an educational system. However community and sequence are
considered in Tandern (one behind the other)

It can also be considered as a horizontal concept if one thinks of the continuousness of

particular topics or experiences at any particular time, for instance during a certain day or
days. Curricularists often extend theme vertically throughout an entire curriculum. The
spiral curriculum organization exemplifies continuity in that the key concepts are
experienced successively by students throughout the curriculum, for example, “persons’
basic needs” can be a theme that might extend through 13 years of a school curriculum.

Continuity deals with the continued presence of curriculum elements (content topics or
concepts or issues) and relates very closely with the concept of articulation.

(iv) Sequence: (Content selected must be arranged in time)

Sequence addresses the problem of ordering the curricular offering so as to optimize
students’ learning’ and, questions posed by sequence.
 What content and experiences are to follow what content and experience?
 How can curricula be placed in time?

Piaget’s (1960) research has provided a framework for sequencing content and activities
and relating expectations to what we know and about how individuals function at various
cognitive levels.

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Frequently, curricularists faced with sequencing content have drawn some fairly well
accepted principles. Smith, Stanely and Shores (1957) introduced four such principles
(a) Simple to complex (b) Prerequisite learnings (c) Whole to part (d) Chronology

The first simple-to complex indicates that content is optimally organized in a sequence
going from simple subordinate components or elements to complex components
depicting interrelatedness of components. It draws on the idea that optimal learning can
proceed to the more difficult material, often abstract.

(v) Scope: This is common to selecting and organizing criteria. The scope of
curriculum content is regulated in part by goals and objectives generated during
the diagnosis stage in curriculum planning. It is the breadth and depth of content.
Activity 3
Answer this question: Why should the curriculum content be carefully selected.

 Try out/Piloting
The curriculum materials and equipment should be tried out, in sample schools, feedback
obtained and used to revise the curriculum materials during equipment.
By trying out curriculum it is easy to identify and correct major defects before
implementation. The try out must be done using real learners, real teachers in actual
schools.

At this stage, it is necessary to identify major problems that would arise during the
implementation, and work out solutions to them before the new curriculum is
implemented or the new materials go into schools. These problems are: distribution,
storage and general follow up.

By so doing a method could be determined as to how they could be solved once a big
number of pupils teachers and schools are involved. Another reason for trying out is that
some mistakes could have been unnoticed during development and planning which could
be easily detected and corrected through try out.

The try out should not begin until the planning is complete and the whole range of
curriculum materials and equipment prepared and produced in trial forms.
The fairest try out would be one on which the students use the new curriculum and
materials through a complete educational cycle or phase so that the curriculum workers
can be able to see the cohort of children using new curriculum systematically through a
complete educational cycle.

Curriculum development process takes a long time to come to fruition.

In summary form; there are six sub-processes of the try out process that may be
identified.
1. Selection of schools and colleges. (2) Briefing of educators and general public. (3)
Preparation of school teachers and heads for try out. (4) Supply of materials and

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 equipment to the try out schools. (5) Conducting try out in schools. (6) Gathering and
analyzing feedback (7) Use of feedback for the modification.
Improving the new programme in light of data gathered during the try out is the next step.
As the piloting goes on, some modification also is made on the programme based on the
feedback but at certain point piloting stops to allow for major revision and consolidation
of the programme in order to address more effectively the needs of the learners and other
requirements of the programme.

During the stage try-out the suggestions from the piloting personnel are used to modify
the programme in order to make it appropriate to: the real school and instructional
situation, the number of students with diverse backgrounds; teachers and the general
educational environment.

Modifications at this stage must address deficiencies discovered during the fieldwork and
modified on the basis of field data including reactions form the lay public.
No curriculum planner should assume and implement the new curriculum without careful
revision of the curriculum being tried. Several piloting programmes can be done
especially when the feedback from the tryout reveals many problems within the
programme. It is more professional and even economical to subject the project to several
tests than to implement what is not understood because it may be problematic.

Activity 4

Why should curriculum be tried out or piloted before being used? Give a full discussion.

 Implementation

This is the stage at which the planned curriculum is introduced into the schools and
colleges. It is the stage in which the newly developed and tried curriculum is made
publicly available. This is the logical process to undertake after the tryout of the
curriculum.

Implementation of new curriculum should only be attempted by the institutions (schools)

in which the right conditions prevail. These are the schools and colleges for which
satisfactory arrangements can be made for inservicing of teachers, purchase of adequate
materials, teaching and learning resource for which the necessary physical facilities can
be provided.
Implementation can hardly take place uniformly across the country or geographical area
concerned. The schools should be grouped together according to their degree of
readiness and implement the curriculum accordingly.

In summary form there are nine sub processes of implementation stages to be followed;
(Oluoch, 1982).
 Persuading a variety of people to accept the new curriculum.
 Keeping the general public informed.

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 Educating the teachers.
 Educating the teacher educators.
 Provision of necessary facilities.
 Supply of materials and equipment.
 The actual presentation of the new curriculum
 Institutionalization of appropriate student assessment procedures.
 Provision of continuous support for the teachers.
 Project evaluation.

Activity 5
(a) Discuss reasons why general public should be informed.
(b) How should actual presentation of curriculum be conducted and where?

 Project Evaluation
It is vital that curriculum development projects be evaluated as they are planned and as
they are executed (formative) and after they are completed (summative).

Some steps of evaluation are:

Specification of what exactly is to be evaluated and why.
Finding out how the objectives and processes to be evaluated can be observed and
measured.
Selecting or developing the necessary observation and measurement techniques or
instruments.
Collecting, analyzing and using data to make decisions.
Curriculum development project evaluation may be defined as the process of gathering
and preparing needed information for making decision on the planning, execution,
completion and worth of the projects. It is the process of gathering and using information
to detect problems or modify the project.

Purposes of Evaluation are:

To know the state of the project.
To take corrective measures if necessary or to continue with the project as it is if there is
nothing requiring adjustment.
To find out how the project has worked if it has already come to an end.
Evaluating curriculum development is a must if the project is to achieve its objectives.
There are some things requiring modifications in a project and it would not be possible to
know them unless an evaluation programme is built into the project.
Formative evaluation is important in the project.
It is always important to know how the project has been when it is completed so that if
nothing else, the knowledge can be used when planning the executing of another project.
It is therefore mandatory to carry out summative evaluation in order to know the situation
of the project. Summative evaluation is performed at the end of the project
implementation.

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The scope of evaluation will be determined by the resources available both human and
materials for the purpose.
Scriven (1967) coined two time arcented concepts used to describe curriculum evaluation
Namely: formative and summative evaluation in order to avoid confusion which might
arise in understanding the process of curriculum evaluation.

 Maintenance
Curriculum maintenance refers to activities and procedures that allow the operation of the
programme to continue. It involves several tactics whose prime purpose is to monitor all
curriculum elements and the roles of persons supporting this element, as it is people-
oriented.
This stage attends to actions and reactions of students, teachers, parents, administrators
and others in response to the on-going programme.
In maintaining the programme, the curriculum leaders strive to stabilize it and keep
operational the content; experiences and environments. The maintenance requires a
steady flow of accurate data or information in order to assess continual programme
performance. It means managing the curriculum and support systems.

The major curriculum elements to monitor include: objectives, content, environments,

educational personnel, school organization, students, school community, parents and the
programmers’s budget in order to ensure that they relate positively all through the
curriculum process to ensure positive results. The following principles are basic to the
guidance of curriculum maintenance.
Monitors must understand the total curriculum process that occurred and the place of
maintenance in the whole process.
A firm co-operation network must be established between all the staff concerned with the
curriculum.
The communication network needs to identify data from students’ and teachers’
behaviour and performance to be communicated to those administering and implementing
the programme.
There should be an established communication network to allow for the quick detection
of programme deficiencies and rapid relay of such information to the relevant people.
The monitoring process itself needs to be re-examined from time to time for relevance
and effectives and eventually make the necessary re-adjustments.
The procedures used in monitoring must be in line with the overall educational or school
philosophy, initially determined during curriculum conceptualization.

Activity 6
Should evaluation tools be followed to dominate the curriculum?
Should teachers put emphasis on only teaching to pass national examinations?

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3.0 FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM

This section provides studies on foundations of curriculum. The cordinal principle in

foundations of curriculum is that in a democratic society such as Kenya, education should
develop in an individual knowledge, attitudes, skills and powers whereby the individual
would find his place in the society and be able to use the foundations to shape both
himself and the society for noble ends.

You will find in this, statements of the aims of education with specific objectives based
on a set of beliefs of society.

Objectives of Foundation of Curriculum

At the end of lectures on foundations of curriculum, you should be able to:
 Define major terminologies used in foundations of curriculum
 Name major foundations of curriculum in development
 Discuss how foundations of curriculum influence Kenyan’s decision-making and
policy on education.
 Identify various ways in which foundations of curriculum are used in Kenya.
 Suggest ways and means of how to develop and utilize Kenyan’s resources in
curriculum development
 Identify strengths and weakness of the Kenyas 8:4:4 system of education in line with
foundations of curriculum.

3.1 Purposes of Foundations of Curriculum

According to Bishop (1985), the main purposes of foundations of curriculum are to:-
 Preserve Cultural Heritage
 Control Direction and Size of Education
 Assist in Designing Curriculum
 Use for Selecting Curriculum Aims, Goals and Objectives
 Use for Identify Curriculum Implementation Strategies
 Guide in the Development of Evaluation Instruments
 Used for identifying Innovation Needs
 Used for Cultivating Desired Attitudes, Knowledge and Skills
 Used in policy and Decision Making
3.2 Types of Foundations of Curriculum

 Philosophical Foundation of Curriculum

 What is Philosophical Foundation of Curriculum?

 How does this foundation influence curriculum practice?
 In what way is philosophical foundation of curriculum the main curriculum
source?
 What is the meaning of the following terms as used in philosophical foundation of
curriculum: Realism, Pragmatism, Idealism, Existentialism, Axiology,
Perennialism, Essentialism, Progressivism and Reconstructionalism?

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 Activity 7
How can schools promote the ideas of equality and Excellence at the same time?

Philosophical foundation of curriculum refers to the nature of man in respect to his policy
to select, design and formulate objectives to develop and evaluate his objectives and
evaluate his knowledge, attitudes and skills of man in decision making for situational,
society’s and learning needs.

Man also derives his methods of presentation, expression, skills to develop and formation
of desirable attitudes from philosophical foundation of curriculum.

Objectives of the lecture on philosophical foundation of curriculum are to:

 Identify major philosophies of education in ancient and modern periods
 Discuss how the major philosophies of education influence curriculum decision
making
 Establish the fact that philosophical foundation of curriculum is the centre of all
educational activities.

Activity 8
Identify areas in which philosophical foundation of curriculum has contributed to Kenyans
Education systems since Independence

Decisions are made on: communities, societies and learner’s needs. Methods of
presentation, skills to be developed and desirable attitudes to be formed, require correct
decision making derived from philosophy and policy of a country.
Philosophy has entered into every sphere of decision making about curriculum and
teaching. This view caters for approaches to:
 Formation of education purpose
 Selection of knowledge
 Organization of knowledge, attitudes and skills
 Formation of basic procedures in education and curriculum
 Selection of education resources such as personnel, materials and equipment
 Identification, selection and development of assessment instruments.

Tyler’s (1949) view of philosophy in relation to school purposes is based on five criteria
for selecting educational purposes

We shall examine four major schools of philosophy, which have guided the writing,
organizing and designing of school curriculum. Some of these philosophies are known

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by names. We shall refer to them as reconstructionism, progressivism, essentialism and
perennialism. Reconstructionism is the most liberal of the four philosophies and
prennialism as the most conservative. Most educational practitioners have used a
combination of essentialism and progressivism in curriculum planning construction.

Pragmatism: this philosophy is sometimes referred as experimentalism, which is based

on change process and relativity while idealism and realism philosophies emphasize
subject matter, disciplines and content or ideas, pragmatism construes knowledge as
progress in which reality is constantly changing. Learning goes on as the student engages
in problem solving. The idea of problem solving, is however transferable to a wide
variety of subjects and situations, knowing is considered a transaction between the
student and environment and are constantly changing.
To a pragmatist nothing can be viewed intelligently except in relation to a pattern.
 Idealism:
In considering the influence of philosophie thought on curriculum, several classification
schemes are possible. The cluster of ideas as organized in idealism, are those that often
evolve during curriculum development. Plato is the father of idealist/ philosophy.
Idealism emphasizes moral and spiritual development reality as the drier explanation of
the world. Truth and values are seen as absolute, timeless and universal. The world of
mind and ideas is permanent, regular and orderly, it represents a perfect order. The
idealist educator prefers the order and pattern or subject matter curriculum that relates
ideas and concepts to each other.

Realism: Aristotle is often linked to the development of realism, which is another school
of thought in philosophical foundation of curriculum. The realism views the world in
terms of objects and matter. People come to know the world through their senses and
reason. Everything is derived from nature and is subject to its laws. When behavior is
relational, it conforms to the laws of nature and is governed by physical and social laws.

Like the idealist, the realist stresses a curriculum consisting of organized, separate subject
matter, content and knowledge that classifies objectives. The realist locates the most
general and abstract subjects at the top of the curriculum literally and gives particular and
transitory subjects a lower order of priority.

They believe that the main aim of education is the disciplining of the mind, the
development of the ability of reason and pursuit of truth. Therefore, curriculum should
emphasize grammar, rhetoric, logic, classical and modern languages, mathematics and
the great books of the truth, which is the same today as it was then and always, shall be.
These thinkers add to the curriculum the study of the Bible and Theological writings.

Perennialism can afford education, which is suitable to a small percentage of students

who possess high verbal and academic aptitude. The ideal education is not directed to
immediate needs, specialization but it is education calculated to develop the mind.

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 Activity 9

Identify some of the beliefs concerning values that are held by educators who belong to the
school of perenialists.

Reconstructionism
Reconstructionism is a philosophical school of thought that broke off from the
progressive movement because of unresolved problems of democracy when they wanted
to rebuild the social order. They see education as a powerful instrument for effecting
planned social changes in given society. It is most likely to be favoured in times of
economic, political and technological turbulence such as has been experienced recently
by the newly independent countries of Africa. They believe that new education can make
new and better men and women therefore the school should transmit cultural heritage.
Also the school is seen as an agent of solving political and social problems.
These schools of thought can be regrouped into two big schools.
(a) Progressivism (Reconstuctionism)
(b) Traditionalism (Perennialism and Essentialism)
However, progressivists and traditionalists disagree on many points concerning subject
matter which is to be included in the curriculum, such as:
- Which knowledge is most worthy?
- Should we emphasize process or information?
- Should a curriculum be fixed or flexible, constant or differentiated,
practical or liberal?
To a large extent one’s answers to these questions depends upon one’s system of values.

Perennialism
The school of perennialist teaches subjects in their customary separate forms, history as
history, geography as geography etc. rather than in the combination as general (social)
studies.
The teachers and patrons of this school are sure that some subject is too trivial to be
included in the curriculum. Only subject matter that is alleged to be hard to learn is
admissible. They do not believe in the feelings and emotions of body movement,
memory and thinking.

Activity 10

Identify some of the beliefs concerning values which are held by educators who belong to
the school of reconstructinists.

Essentialism
Historically, essentialism and progressivism have succeeded in commanding education in
the western world. But essentialism is the more powerful than the progressivism. It was
only in the early 1950’s specifically 1957 the year of sputnic that the progressivism
emerged for a short time as the victor among the world philosophies of education. This

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did not last long. During the 1970’s upto now, essentialism has proven that it was not the
looser but the leader.

Activity 11
Identify some of the beliefs concerning values, which are held by educators who belong to
the school of essentialism

Progressivism
In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Progressivism also known as
pragmatism, swept through the educational structure of America challenging the time-
honoured doctrines of essentialism. This movement was led by John Dewey, Willian H.
Kilpatrick, John Childs, George S. Counts (Faculty Members at Teachers College,
Columbia University). Boyd Bodode the progressivist maintained that it was time to
subordinate subject matter to the learner. Borrowing from time European philosophers
like Rousseau who advocated rearing a child in a relaxed environment without forcing
learning, the progressivists created the child – centered school. John Dewey formulated
progressive beliefs in a series of publications that included among others Democracy
and Education, Experiences and Education. How we think and My pedagogic Creed
progressivists captured the attention of educators when they insisted that the needs and
interests of learners bring their bodies, needs and interests or learners bring their bodies,
emotions and spirits to school with their minds.

Progressivists view education not as a product to be learned (e.g. facts, and motor skills)
but as a process that continues as long as one lives. To their way of thinking a child
learns best when actively absorbing presented content. If experiences in school are
designed to meet the needs and interests of individual learners, it follows that no single
pattern of subject matter can be appropriate to all learners.

At the heart of progressivism thinking is an abiding faith in democracy. Hence the

progressivists see little place of authoritarian practices in the classroom and the school.
Teachers who are influenced by progressive thinking see themselves as counselors to
pupils and facilitators of learning rather than expounders of the subject matter.
Cooperation is fostered in the classroom rather than competition.
Individual growth in relationship to one’s ability is considered more important than
growth in comparison to others.

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 Diagram 1 Ancient Education Philosophers

Philosophy Area Knowledge Curriculum Content

Idealism Rethinking latent Knowledge based humanities

(spiritual concepts)
Realism Natural laws scientific Humanistic and science-based subject
Inquiry sensations abstraction
Pragmatism Experience-based scientific Problem solving subjects preparation
Inquiry change in knowledge for change
Environmental knowledge.
Existentialism Attitude-based Ego-centrism Affective subject matter emotion
Subject knowledge personal Aesthetics value judgment
Choice
Epistemology Originality Truth Nature of Truth
Axiology goodness worth, interest Learner centered subject matter
Motivation
Logic Reason Deductive and Inductive forms
Order of Inquiry
Axious

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 Diagram 2 Modern Education Philosophers

Philosophical Area Knowledge Curriculum Content

Perennialism Past and permanent studies Classical subjects literary analysis

Mastery of concepts and
Principles of subject matter
Essentialism essential skills mastery of
Concepts principles of
subject matter
Progressivism Growth and development
Living and learning process
and relevant learning.
Reconstruction skills and subjects for
change. Problem solving
and focus on Education.
You should note that philosophy is a basis for curriculum decisions.
Constant curriculum
Essential skills such language
matter
Student-based Interdisciplinary
Subject matter methods of
instruction.
Emphasis on social sciences,
Research methods problems and
issues.

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A concern for the many unresolved problems of democracy led to a split in the
progressive movement with a group calling itself, “Reconstructionists” advocating that
schools become the instrument for building a new social order.

It has been mentioned that the perenialist considers truth to be absolute, enduring, and
found in the wisdom of the past; the essentialist regards truth as relative, changing and in
many cases as yet to be discovered. Education for the pragmatist is continuing search for
the truth utilizing whatever sources are needed to discover that truth.

Activity 12

Identify some of the beliefs concerning values, which are held by educators who belong to
the school of progressivists.

Historical Foundation of Curriculum

This topic deals with past events, which have led to present trends of education. By
analyzing past periods of curriculum, it is possible to view and review the needed
curriculum in terms of current and future education needs.

In this topic, historical foundation is addressed with the Republic of Kenya’s perspective.
What contributions has foundation Based on to our education systems and practices?
Sourcs of this contribution are listed as:
 Foreign influence, especially in communication
 Contradictions between foreign and traditional ideology in education
 Greeks classical period on Kenya’s curriculum subjects
 The reformation period, especially Martin Luther
 Age of reason, known as the scientific world
 Return to nature as a way of reconstruction in modern history of curriculum
 Kenya’s progress in curriculum during pre and post independence.

History repeats itself, you will find interesting views, which have come from far in man’s
thirst for knowledge to where you are as a student of this day.
Historical foundation of curriculum raises some persisting questions in education such as:
 How have foreigners (Europeans, Americans and Asians) influenced
Kenyan’s education in theory and practice?
 How has Kenya emerged between traditional and foreign curricula in her
education system?
 What do we mean by the phrase: Under development through a curriculum
concept?
 Which traditional forms of education have persistent in Kneya’s curriculum
despite modern forms?
 Is there a relevant curriculum in Kenya’s Curriculum in Kenya’s system of
education? If yes, what is it, if none, why not?

In consideration of African Traditional curriculum, such forms of content were

addressed:

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  Rituals and culture patterns
 Discipline and behavior norms
 Leadership training and the potentials of leaders
 Selection and practice of desirable attitudes
 Doctrinal and non-doctrinal forms of religion
 Entertainment concept and the theory of survival skills
 Reliance on group force for unity and collective bargain.

To bring Africa where we are, foreign influence has meandered into African society both
directly and indirectly, by periods. These are:
 Ancient Times: which address individual naturity (Indians), moral values
(Chinnese), practical knowledge and civilization of man (Egyptians) and
livelihood as an aspect of self-reliance
 Classical Period: which belonged to the Greeks and passed on knowledge on:
self- improvement, education as a continuos process, emphasis on practical
experience, national unity concept, introduction of mathematics and science.
Liberal arts education which people like: Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Rousseau
and Pythagoras pioneered in knowledge areas.
Architecture, design, sports, music leisure and laws are also subjects of this
period. Worth wisdom service and symposia also appeared.
 Roman Empire Period: The Romans colonized the Greeks. Greek
contributions, formal school system, language for sciences (Latin), literature
and humanities were introduced in education. Christianity, the recognition of
wisdom, home improvement, generosity and other values of mankind were set
up.
Education was home, school and community – centred and self-control led by all
was emphasized in this period of the Roman Empire.

Christian Period: During the Roman period two religious forces emerged by Jews
and Arabs.
 Christianity which introduced the Bible and catechism for spiritual education,
Christianity also paid tribute to the teaching of Jesus Christ and emphasized:
moral behavior, ethical God, teacher-based instruction, discipleship, the
concept of church, doctrine ship and informal theories of education. Medical
doctors and the spread of Christianity were the main contributions.
 Islamic Period: Arabs mainly based in Egypt introduced the islamic religion,
mathematics (algebra) science (chemistry and medicine). This period also
brought in Arabic language, science of astronomy and business. Architecture
(urban planning) was introduced. Morality and behavior were emphasized.
Mohamed as a counter part of Jesus Christ disappeared in Mecca. Arabs
Moslem University in Cairo (Al-Ashar) is evidence of the Moslem
contribution in education.
 Martin Lurther and Ignatius of Loyola reformation introduced the idea of
constitution, sacred scriptures, uniform instruction and student teaching
practice.

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  Age of Reason: popularly known as the scientific world saw the introduction
of solar system (Nicholars Copernicus). Sir Francis Bacon introduced
scientific methods, authority of the church, analytic methods, the four
introduced the idea of physic based Sir Isaac Newton introduced the idea of
physics based on gravitational theory. Amos Comenius introduced the idea of
child development and natural methods of teaching (Experience-centered
design).
 Return to nature introduced a child’s stages of development (Piagets Studies)
free play with objectives, specially the cognitive stages of human
development:
 Infancy (upto 5 years)
 Childhood (from 5-12years)
 Youth (from 12-15years)
 Maturity (from 15-20 years)

Some outstanding scholars emerged and addressed the following areas of education:
 Society needs, child-centered education, order of nature, doctrine of unity and
Fredrick Froebel introduced sense of perception. He also addressed the
concept of cooperation, manual training and kindergarten education.
 Immanuel Kent introduced virtues of man to include: obedience, goodness
and justice. Johan Pestalozzi introduced physical laws of nature while
Montessori introduced the idea of individual instruction, special education of
mentally retarded children and sensory training.
 John Loske (1959 – 1952), a British educationist founded the idea of studying
the role of school, society and community. He introduced the study of
individual differences for instruction, democratization, occupational
education, moral education and the art of teaching as a profession.

The reflection of these historical events moved into Africa and thereafter to East Africa
and then in Kenya. For curriculum development purposes, the lessons on historical
foundation of curriculum are numerous.
 Pre-colonial discovers (Christopher Columbus) witnessing the reduction,
which split religion into Protestant and Catholic.
 Events which led to castle schools abolition of slave trade, coming of
Christian missionaries with missionary education, training in basic skills
the curriculum of 3 R’s (Arithmetic, writing and reading, hospitals and
Christian secretariat.

Diagram 3 Events in Kenya

Year Event Product

1920 The Indian Question Legco Representation
1923 White paper Kenya Colonized
1924 Phelps Stoke Commission Practical Education
1925 Advisory Commission

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1926 Alliance of Missionaries
(African Inland Mission Church
Missionary Society and United Birth of Alliance School Kikuyu.
Methodist Church)
1939 World War II (the turning point) Founding of Catholic Secretariat for
for secondary or Technical Education
1944 British Education Act Establishment of Kagumo
1948 Training Expansion Soriba Teacher’s College at Maseno
1949 Beacher Commission Establishment of District Education
Boards
1955 Higher Education Founding of Royal Technical College
in Nairobi.
1963 Kenya’s Independence Focus on National Education
1964/65 Ominde commission National Unity and Medium of
Instruction to be English language
1965 Sessional paper No.10 African socialism
1966 Kericho Conference Integration of Education
1972 The International Labour Office Education for Employment study of
Kenya’s Education Curriculum
1972 Bassey Commission
1976 Gachathi Commission Education Curriculum to be practical
education for all.
1981 Mackay Commission The 8:4:4 System of Education.
Education for self reliance.
1988 Kamunge Commission Education for Beyond – a vision
and a mission in curriculum
1998 Koech Commission Search for More relevant Education

Many other events took place, but those listed are across section of curriculum
progression in Kenya.

Issues for awareness in Kenya’s history of education are:

 Medium of instruction, national language, official business language, sustainable
economy for survival, multipatism and change process, emphasis quality or quantity
of education products, search for relevant curriculum and literacy and reading culture.

In the colonial period especially for Kenya and other parts of Africa, Europeans moved in
and shared Africa (scramble for Africa). You can read Nyerere’s Book “Education for
Self-reliance’, 1967”. Education development programmes were undertaken:
 Missionary converted Africans into Christianity
 World wars brought in the need for money, medicines and literacy.

The British finally colonized Kenya. Missionaries served both the African and the
Europeans when schools emerged especially after Phelps Stoke Commission (1924). The
educational institutions followed; Alliance (1925), Kabaa and Yala (1939), Kagumo

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Teachers College 91944), Siriba Collge (Maseno University) (1948). Education has
reached university status in Kenya. (Education Commission in Kenya).
Education in Africa moved from colonial to independence perspectives. Missionaries,
colonial governments and world wars introduced: literacy, money and medicines with
religious sects.

 Psychological Foundation of Curriculum

Focus: This unit focuses on:

Definition of terms: Behaviorism, Cognitive Development and Gestalt Theory as learning
theories.

Study how the various steps of psychology are solving, teaching and learning in learning.
How to use the term ‘Creativity” and explain the concept of creative thinking.
What constitutes humanistic learning in Kenya’s schools.
Psychology has significant impact on curriculum. It focuses on learning and teaching
theories through three major theories:
 Behavioral
 Cognitive
 Humanistic
Behavioral psychology is the oldest theory of learning. It is illustrated by such teaching-
learning trends as:
 Micro-Teaching
 Instructional Training Models
 Individual Learning
 Direct Instruction
 Mastery Learning

Most learning theories to-day are cognition –oriented (intellectual). Piaget’s stages of
cognitive development show stages of human development. They are:
 Sensori Motor (0-2 years)
 Pre-operational (2-7 years)
 Concrete (7-12 years)
 Formal (over 12 years)

 Humanistic approach to curriculum is the most recent learning theory. It emphasizes

that curriculum should be based on society’s needs. This approach includes:
 Formation of Desirable Attitudes
 Development of Humane Feelings
 Self Actualization
 Freedom to Learn
 Value Classification
You should note that behaviorist component is needed for planning and developing
curriculum. Cognitive component is for development of the intellect through subject
content and humanist component is for instruction. Each theory of learning is incomplete
by itself, the three theories should be inter-dependent.

24
In behaviorist class, Cogne’ identified these levels of learning:
 Signal (stimulus)
 Motor chains (Linkages)
 Virtual Association (Translation)
 Multi-Discrimination (Different Responses)
 Concepts (Abstract Reactions)
 Rules (Chain Family Relationship)
 Problem – Solving (Use of Rules)

Other theories of learning and teaching include:

 Maslow’s on Human Needs
 Rogers on Freedom to Learn
 Guilford on Structure of Intellect
 Dewey on Reflective Thinking
 Stenberg on Critical Thinking
 Brunner on Structure of Subject and Inquiry / Discovery Methods
 Gestalt Theory on Shape, Form and Configuration (Stimulus Vs
Response).

You should note the influence of psychology on curriculum resources, teaching

strategies, designs and stages of human development.

 Sociological Foundation of Curriculum

Focus: This unit addresses the following areas:

Application of the terms: Curriculum, Education, Schooling and Moral Development
 How do you describe the rate and direction of change in a social setting?
 What knowledge is most worthwhile for students of your level? Why?
 How do curriculum developers organize knowledge?
 What type of knowledge should students learn to better cope with the future?
 In what ways can schools and society change the focus or priorities of
education in Kenya?
 Explain in details how you use sociological foundation of curriculum in
selecting curriculum content.

Social forces have always had a major influence on schools and in terms of curriculum
decisions. Some of these forces originate from the society and others from the local
community. Educators are faced with a choice:
 To accept and mirror the tendencies of times or
 To appraise and improve the times.

The first view represents a permanent notion of education while the second view
represents a reconstructionist notion, which is the way of viewing the choice in terms of
traditional against futuristic way of looking at schools.

25
The latter (futuristic) suggests that the educator can analyze and evaluate the trends
taking shape in society. In doing so, they can decide on appropriate aims of curricula and
can therefore prepare students for the world of tomorrow by providing them with the type
of knowledge, attitudes and skills needed for making wise decisions.

Curriculum workers who merely participate in curriculum decisions play a major role in
accomplishing the nationally stated aims, goals and objectives in curriculum content and
process.

Sociological foundation of curriculum considers curriculum areas such as:

 Home, school and society for corporate curriculum development
 Individual socialization as one of man’s to human rights practice
 Social implication of knowledge change for change changes the changeless
 Aims of education as man’s right and his nature of knowledge, attitudes and
skills
 Various reform strategies in education planning and practice
 Political reforms as a means of fulfilling social change and adjustment

Special considerations for sociological foundation of curriculum are:

 Society and modal personality in that members of society have a lot in
common
 Gender roles and differences
- Special sex roles
- Patrolocalism and Matrolocalism roles
- Gender Parity and Sensitivity
- Opportunity Criteria
- Staffing Criteria
- Gender Sensitivity
Another special consideration in sociological foundation of curriculum is the Human
Task Needs, according to Robert Havighurst, with his six periods of human development:
 Infancy and Early Childhood
 Middle Childhood
 Adolescence
 Early Adulthood
 Middle Age
 Late Maturity
There are moral development norms attached to these human task needs.
 Culture
 Language
 Politics
 Religion
 Interests
 Standards

26
Phenix called these needs, moral traditions for curriculum. He calls for a changing and
continuing curriculum to cater for:
 Human Rights
 Sex and Family Relation Code
 Social Relationship Within Society
 Property Rights and Succession
 Politics and Matters of Justice and Power
 Change and the curriculum
 Society as a Change Agent
 Rate and Direction of Change
 School as a Source of Change
 Education for Diversity (Variety)
 Knowledge as a Source of Change (Worth)
 New Core-Curriculum (Knowledge and Future Learning)
Main features in sociological foundation of curriculum centre on:
 Schools and Society
 Individual Socialization
 Social Implications of Knowledge Change
 Aims of Education
 Various Reform Strategies
 Political Reforms
Education is a sharp instrument in dealing with sociological foundation of curriculum:
 Constructive or Destructive Ends
 Promotion of Human Institutions
 Type of Society Depends on Type of Education
 Transmission of Culture (Education System)
- values
- Beliefs
- Norms
Dewey says that Education is the means of perpetuating and improving society through
organizing of experiences of learners through environmental and cultural influences.

The cultural roots of curriculum also are important for consideration in the context of
curriculum. Experience shows that curriculum is interwoven with the social fabric that
sustains it. Every society distinguishes between the curriculum of:
 Common Education
 Universal Elements of Culture
 Curriculum of Special Education.

These phases of curriculum are coupled with the requirements of special groups within
the society. When a society passes from a class system, the special education for the
upper classes in the earlier phase tends to persist in the later phase, under the guise of
common education. The three aspects of cultural roots of curriculum are:
 Common Education based on cultural universals

27
  Special Education related to the specialties of the culture
 Class Education against common Education.

Which policy does the Kenya society opt for a context of curriculum? How is this done?

Consideration in Social Context:

Society and Modal Personality (According to Ruth Benedict)
No culture yet observed has been able to eradicate the differences on temperament of
the persons who composed it. However, members of a society have much in
common.

 Sex Roles and Sex Differences

 Specialized Sex Roles
 Patrolocalism
 Matrolocalism
 Gender Issue
 Staffing Criteria
 Gender Sensitivity.

 Human Tasks Needs: Robert Havighurst identified six periods in human

development:
 Infancy and Early childhood
 Middle Childhood
 Adolescence
 Early Adulthood
 Middle Age
 Late Maturity

 Needs assessment to fit each period

Moral Development and Sharing of Common Norms:

 Culture
 Language
 Politics
 Religion
 Interest
 Standards.
 Kholberg outlines six developmental types of moral judgements grouped into three
moral levels or stages corresponding to Paiget’s cognitive stages of development:
 Pre-conventional Level:
- Children who do as they are told because they fear punishment
- Children who realize that certain actions bring rewards.
 Conventional Level
- children who seek their parent’s approval by being nice
- children who begin to think in terms of rules

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  Post-conventional
- Children who view morality of contractual obligations legally
- Children who view morality in terms of individual principles of
conscience.

Extentialist educators view morality as something beyond cognitive processes.

 Phenix outlines five basic moral traditions that encompass society:

 Human Rights
 Sex and Family Relations Codes
 Social Relationship with Society
 Economic matters – Property Rights and Distribution of Goods and
Services
 Political Matters Dealing with Justice and Power.

 Change and the Curriculum

 Society as a Source of Change
 Rate and Direction of Change
 School as a Source of Change
 Education for Diversity (Variety)
 Knowledge as a Source of Change (Worth)

 New Core-Curriculum (Knowledge and Future Learning)

 Knowledge should comprise basic tools
 Knowledge should facilitate how to learn
 Knowledge should be applicable to the real world
 Knowledge should improve the learners’
- Self concept
- awareness skills
- Sense of personal integrity
 Knowledge should comprise of many forms and methods
 Knowledge should prepare the individuals for the world of work
 Knowledge prepares individuals for the world of bureaucracy
 Knowledge should permit the individual to retrieve (information
 Knowledge acquisition should be a lifelong process
 Knowledge should be taught in context with values.

 Professional Foundation of Curriculum

Focus: This unit focuses on:

 Professionals Role Models
 Role of Professionals
 Characteristics of Professionals
 Teaching Authority

29
  Teaching Profession and Efficiency
 Teacher as a Researcher
 Roles of a Teacher
 Methods of Teaching and Learning
 Some Selected Methods of Teaching

This Unit addresses various ways in which curriculum products are marketed through
role models, characterization, tripartition and sport-checks on research, teaching and
publication. Professionals are skilled specialists and experts in particular areas of
curriculum subjects’ content: languages, humanities, sciences, technology and
mathematics.

Professionals Normally:
Teach, research and publish materials through workshops, symposia, seminars,
conferences, projects, exchange programmes, excursions etc. Professionals also interpret
curriculum through design, development, implementation, evaluation and innovation.
They use curriculum documents such as the syllabi, circulars, legal acts, reports, journals,
textbooks, minutes, hansards, commission reports, schemes of work and archives among
others.

 Characteristics of Professionals Include

Productive personality, critical attitude, measurable responsibility, accountability,
transparency and development conscience. In all, a professional must be balanced,
mature and upright person. Such a person reads widely and wisely. The person is
mindful of others’ needs and maintains a guiding personality to develop others for
solving and not creating problems.

 The Teacher as Authority in the Profession:

Every time teacher steps into a classroom to teach, they are putting themselves on the
‘firing line’ and students either shoot at them down or claim them. Students continually
assess their teachers informally and the amount of confidence they have in them depends
to a large extent on the perceived level of competence in the subjects they teach.
Students rate very highly their teachers who ‘know their stuff’.

Studies have shown that in some cases, teachers fail to perform efficiently because of the
following reasons:
 Lack of adequate preparation
 Poor delivery techniques
 Pitching the lesson above or below academic level of the students
 Insensitivity to the expectations of the students
 Un-called for arrogance in the teacher’s personal qualities as a role model
 A failure in time-management in the teaching process
 Failure to adhere to professional ethics.
 Lack of research experience and interest.

30
In many instances, the ultimate goal of carrying-out research is to publish in learned
documents. Being published constitutes a vital criterion for promotion. Three indicators
of a professional teacher by efficiency are linked to: research, publication and promotion.

 A Professional Teacher is a Consultant

Many members of the public and scholars look upon a professional teacher to:
 Give public lessons on academic topics
 Chair functions organized in the community
 Carry out research on relevant issues
 Participate in the local politics
 Act as role models
 Assist with extension work.

 Roles of a Teacher
Whether teachers are experienced or not, there is general agreement that using the right
methods to teach is important because teaching forms significant part of the noble
profession, so quality learning depends on the effectiveness of the approach used.
Teaching has become complex due to new variables and constraints involved in the
education options.

In a teaching and learning situation, the following areas receive unchallenged attention:
 Teaching environment
 Protracted teaching methods
 Objectives of learning
 Group size and anatomy of students
 Teachers’ like and dislikes in the teaching area.

List of some commonly used Methods of Teaching follow

 Lecture
 Laboratory work
 Tutorial
 Project
 Case study
 Problem-solving in groups
 Simulation
 Excursion.

It is important to note that the degree of student anatomy in learning is increasingly

featuring in the selection of methods for teaching.
Full text of methodologies of teaching and learning are left to the Curriculum
Implementation section of this module.

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 Activity 13
Why are professionals role models?
Which characteristics do professionals portray?
State some important roles of professionalism.
What do you understand by the term: “teaching authority?”
How is efficiency in the professionals established?
Why is a teacher a researcher?
State specific roles of a professional teacher.
List some teaching methods and explain how they affect learning

4.0. AIMS, GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

In some educational literature, the terms educational goals, objectives and aims are used
to mean different things together. Some people view educational goals and objectives as
curriculum objectives for instructional goals. There are also people who use aims of
education to mean instructional goals and objectives.
An agreement has not been reached by most curriculum experts on the correct definitions
of and differences between aims, goals and objectives. Most writers on education use the
three concepts synonymously. Some adequate aims of education with goals. There is
nothing wrong with this. In general terms we use aims, objectives and goals to refer to
purposes, outcomes, and ends.

Objectives
At the end of this lecture you should be able to:
 define aims, goals and objectives as defined in this lecture
 Explain the difference between curriculum goals and objectives.
 Identify several curriculum goals and objectives found in educational literature.
 Write precise curriculum goals and objectives.
 Analyse characteristics and reasons for goals and objectives in curriculum
planning.

 Definition of Aims
We indicated in the previous paragraphs that educational literature uses terms loosely to
signify terminal expectations of education, terms such as ends, purposes, out-comes,
goals, functions, aims and objectives are used by educators alternatively.

Aims should be equated with ends, functions or purposes. Aims are therefore defined as
broad general statements of purposes of education for a given country. The purposes of
aims of education are to give a general direction on education system throughout the
country. Curriculum developers divide aims, and even individual aims. The following
statements found in Gachathi Report (1976), Ominde Report (1965), and Ndegwa
Commission (1971), should be seen as aims of education rather than objectives.

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 Aims of Education in Kenya
 Education must serve the needs of national development
 Education must assist in fostering and promoting national unity
 Education must prepare and equip the youth so that they can play a
leading role in life of the nation
 Education must assist in the promotion of social equality, train in social
obligation and responsibility
 Educational system must foster and develop our rich and varied cultures.

 Global Aims of Education

Sometimes attempts are made to define aims of education on a global scale e.g. UNESCO
attempts to state the aims of education to promote in the world are such areas:
a) Fostering international understanding among all the people of the world
b) Improving the standard of living of people in various countries
c) Solving continuing problems that plague people or humanity, such as wars,
diseases, hunger and unemployment.

 Definition of Goals
Goals and objectives are categorized at two levels. The first is defining goals and
objectives at the curriculum level. The second one is defining them at the instructional
level. Teachers and people involved in the process of curriculum planning and
improvement need to know the difference between the two levels. They also need to
know the level at which each one of them is applicable in the whole process of
curriculum development. You as a teacher should know something about them.
Activity 14
Identify curriculum goals in the 1985, K.C.E syllabus and regulations.

 Curriculum Goals
Curriculum goals are purposes or ends stated in general terms without criteria of
achievement. People who plan a curriculum wish students to achieve them after being
exposed to or taking a section or all of a programme of study. Statements which appear
in the preamble of subjects included in syllabus and regulations for Kenya Certificates of
Education should rightly be seen as curriculum goals. They do not specify criteria of
accomplishment at any level of learning.

Curriculum goals and objectives are usually written by curriculum planners at the Kenya
Institute of Education. (KIE). All schools in the country are expected to implement the
stated goals and objectives. How every school implements them is left entirely to the
teachers to determine. The following are some of the goals of secondary school
curriculum contained in the Secondary Education Project Document 1984. The
secondary school curriculum should enable the students to:
 Understand his physical environment, its potentials, the factors which control
it, and methods of managing and conserving the environment;
 Understand the basic concepts and principles underlying different methods of
utilizing resources for production of goods and services;

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  Become aware of the social environment, its controls, (customs, traditions,
beliefs, moral codes) and the rights, obligations and duties of an individual in
the conservation and commitment of that social environment;
 Discover himself and develop his special abilities by making maximum use of
opportunities for intellectual, social and moral growth;
 Develop the ability to understand, analyze and interpret available data on
issues affecting life and draw valid conclusions;
 Use ideas, concepts and skills acquired in the learning process in diverse ways
in preparation for adaptation to changing social-economic and political
situation in the past, now and in the future.

 Characteristics of Curriculum Goals

The following are some of the characteristics of curriculum goals.
 They relate to educational aims of philosophy
 They are programmes. Although they speak to one or more areas of the
curriculum, they do not delimit specific courses or specific items of content.
 They refer to the accomplishments of a group i.e. all students in general, most
students rather than the achievement of individual students.
 They are always stated in general terms that provide directions for curriculum
development
 They are broad enough that lead to specific curriculum objectives.

 Curriculum Objectives
Curriculum objectives come from curriculum goals. Curriculum objectives are defined as
purpose or end, stated in specific, measurable terms. People who plan curriculum wish
students to achieve certain behavior, knowledge and skills after going through a section
or whole programme. Curriculum objectives provide opportunities for evaluating the
students’ achievements.

 Characteristics of Curriculum Objectives

The following are some of the major characteristics of curriculum objectives.
 They relate to the educational aims and philosophy
 They are practical in nature
 They refer to the achievement of groups and not individual students
 They are stated in specific measurable and behavioural terms
 They are refined statements from curriculum goals

Activity 15
Are Curriculum Objectives Really Necessary?

 Why Do We Need Objectives?

Hilda Taba, identified several reasons or factors which warrant the writing of objectives
in curriculum.

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The first important function of objectives is that of guiding decisions about the selection
of content and learning experiences and also providing criteria on what to teach and how
to teach it.
Secondly, a clear statement of objectives helps to select from vast areas of knowledge in
the various disciplines that which is realistically necessary for some valid out-comes.

Thirdly, objectives serve to clarify the types of powers mental or otherwise which need to
be developed. The definition of these powers and how it is handled in the classrooms.

Fourth, objectives are needed to provide a common consistent focus for the many
activities that go into curriculum. The programme of the schools is managed by many
people; there are many subjects, classes and teachers. Some unity is emphasized; some
common focus is needed to make their efforts coverage on certain common consistent
goals.

Fifth, the objectives serve as a guide for the evaluation of achievement. Discrepancy
between what is taught and what is evaluated is a common fault of school programmes.
This discrepancy is caused by limitations in the available means of measuring a
sufficiently broad range of achievements of information and skills. Sometimes
discrepancy may be due to badly formulated objectives.

 Instructional Goals and Objectives

When curriculum decisions have been made at the national level, teachers in schools,
educational supervisers and administrators are left with the major role of implementation.
Teachers have to decide how they will organize the instruction in their respective schools.
They will be occupied with decisions of methodology. Some of the questions teachers
will ask themselves are:
(i) What are the objectives to be achieved as a result of instruction?
(ii) Which procedures are appropriate for directing the learning
(iii) How will evaluation be carried out?
Teachers in this country face a lot of challenge. They are first and foremost expected to
prepare children at all levels of schooling to pass national examinations. National
examinations in this country include, the Kenya Certificate of Primary Education
(KCPE), and Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE). Secondly, schools are
expected to prepare children to acquire basic skills and knowledge necessary for
functioning in our society.

Objectives

At the end of this lecture you should be able to:

 Define instructional goals and objectives;

 Identify characteristics of instructional goals and objectives;
 Explain the importance of writing instructional objectives;
 Write clear and correct instructional goals and objectives;
 State instructional goals and objectives for the three domains. (Cognitive, Affective and
Psychomotor).

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 Definition of Instructional Goals
An instructional goal is defined as a statement of performance expected of each student in
a class phrased in general terms without criteria of achievement. Sometimes the term
instructional goals is used to refer to general objectives. The writers use tentative general
objectives when they mean instructional goals.

Examples of Instructional Goals

(i) The student will show an understanding of the causes of inflation.
(ii) The student will demonstrate an understanding of the works of great
philosophers.
(iii) The student will demonstrate his ability to read novels without difficulty.

Activity 16

Are instructional objectives to be written at the beginning or end of your lesson plan: Give
your reasons.

 Instructional Objectives
An instructional objective is a statement of performance to be demonstrated by each
student in the class, derived from the instructional goal, phrased, imeasurable and
observable terms.
Instructional objectives are also called
(a) Behavioural objectives
(b) Performance objectives
(c) Competencies

Teachers are always encouraged to state instructional objectives whenever they are
planning instruction.

 Examples of Instructional Objectives

a) The student will be able to identify and name five main parts of a flower, using a
specimen given from the school garden.
b) The student will be able to identify and write correctly the nouns, verbs, adjectives
and adverbs in a given English passage.
c) At the end of the lesson students will be able to name the main sources of revenue for
local government.

Many teachers in our schools find it difficult to plan and state instructional objectives. On
many occasions, they have regarded instructional objectives as very useful. Some of the
uses of instructional objectives as a waste of time and unnecessary. However,
instructional objectives are very useful. Some of the uses of instructional objectives are
specified below:
 Instructional objectives force the teacher to be precise about what to accomplish.
 They enable the teacher to communicate to pupils what they must achieve.
 They make evaluation procedures easy
 They make accountability possible

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 They make sequencing quite easy
 They make the students to be aware of what they are expected to learn in a given
lesson.

Activity 17

Write two instructional objectives of your own and then find out if you followed the
guidelines as stated.

 Taxonomic Levels
Classification of educational objectives was introduced for the first time by an American
Educationist. In his book “Taxonomy of Educational Objective,” Benjamin Bloom
(1956) identified three levels of taxonomies, though the third level is not a taxomy..

(i) Cognitive Taxonomy

Bloom and his colleagues developed taxonomy for classifying educational objectives in
the cognitive domain. Taxonomy of cognitive domain is widely used and followed:
cognitive learning was classified into six major categories by the writers.

Knowledge level: the student will name the three longest rivers of Africa.
Comprehension level: the student will read “things fall apart” by Chinua Achebe

Application Level: the student will demonstrate how to prepare how to prepare
ugali dish using the information given

d) Analysis Level: the student will analyse the function of local government in Kenya.
e) Synthesis Level: the student will write two paragraphs on the strangle for uhuru in
Kenya.
f) Evaluation level: the student will evaluate the role of women in the struggle for uhuru
in Kenya.

(ii) Affective Taxonomy

Bloom and Krathwohl developed taxonomy of objectives in the affective domain. They
categorized them into five levels.

 Receiving: the student will listen while the teacher explains new points.
 Responding: the student will answer a call for volunteers to plant trees
 Valuing: the student will express appreciation for the contribution of other ethnic
groups in the development of this country.
 Organizations: the student will choose nutritious foods over junk food.
 Characteristics the student will be bound by the school rules, at all times.

(iii) Psychomotor Domain

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Taxonomy in the psychomotor domain has not been given prominence to cognitive
domain. The following examples will help to illustrate the levels of objectives in the
psychomotor domain.

Perception: the student will identify a woolen fabric by feel.

Set: the student will demonstrate how to hold a plane when planning a piece of wood.
Guided response: the student will imitate the sound of a lion.
Mechanism: the student mix water and flour to make dough for chapati
Complex over response: the student will operate a 16mm projector.

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5.0 CURRICULUM DESIGN
The concept curriculum design is used in educational literature to refer to the
organization of the components of curriculum element. Some people refer to curriculum
organizations when they are actually talking of curriculum patterns when they mean
curriculum organizations or designs.

Components, which are included in any curriculum design, are aims, goals and
objectives, subject-content, learning activities and evaluation. We usually refer to how
all these components are structured in any curriculum as a design.

How a curriculum is conceptualized, organized, developed and implemented depends on

particular country’s educational objectives and whatever, design a country may adapt
depends also on the country’s philosophy of education.
There are several ways of designing school curriculum.

Objectives:
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
 Explain the organization of subject centered curriculum design
 State the advantages and disadvantages of subject-centred design;
 Describe the meaning of broad fields designs
 Explain the extent broad field curriculum design as applied in Kenya;

 Subject –Centered Design

The organization of curriculum in terms of separate subjects has far been the commonest
all over the world. It is also the oldest school curriculum design in the world. It was
even practised by the ancient Greek educators. The subject centred design was adapated
by African education system from Europe.

For along time content has been arranged in the curriculum by specific subjects
representing a specialized body of common areas of content.
An examination of the subject centred and curriculum design will show that it is used
mainly in the upper-primary sections, secondary school classes and colleges. This is the
commonest organization, which you teachers are familiar with. Frequently, lay people
educators and other professionals who support this design received their own schooling
or professional training in this system. Teachers, for instance, have been trained and
specialized to teach one or two subjects at secondary level in this country. No teachers
are trained to teach as many subjects as possible.

You are quite aware of how subjects are organized in our high school syllabus. The
whole high school curriculum has been organized around subject areas such as – English,
Kiswahili, Geography, History, Christian Education, Economics, Commerce,
Mathematics, Chemistry, Biology, Physics, Computer Science, Home Economics etc.
This type of curriculum organization is still being used in African schools today.

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Let us examine the advantages and disadvantages of this design. We shall be able to see
why some educators advocate for it while others criticize this approach.

Advantages
 It is possible and desirable to determine in advance what all children will learn in
various subjects and grades (classes). For instance syllabus for all schools in Kenya
are prepared and approved centrally at the K.I.E for Ministry of Education Science
and Technology – The Kenya National Examinations Council is also involved. All
the syllabuses are then sent to all the schools in the country irrespective of
geographical position, status, resources, manpower available and cultural variations.
It is expected that teachers prepare students based on the same syllabus. Students in
all the schools cover the same among of content in various subjects sat at the end of
every level of education (primary, secondary levels). Students sit for the same
examination to determine whether they have covered the amount of content expected
of them.
 It is feasible and necessary to determine minimum standards of performance and
achievement for the knowledge specified in the subject area.
 Almost all textbooks and support materials present on the educational market are
organized on subject-by-subject format.
 Also tradition seems to give the design greater support. People have become familiar
and more comfortable with this design and seem to view it as part of the system of the
school and education as whole.
 The subject centred curriculum is better understood by teachers because their training
was based on this method as specialization.
 The advocates of the subject-centred design have argued that intellectual powers of
individual learners can be developed through this approach.
 Curriculum planning is easier and simpler in the subject centred curriculum design.
Imagine the period of planning, developing and implementing the curriculum. Also
imagine what goes in your first staff meeting when every teacher is to be allocated
his/her teaching load for the year and how this should be plotted on the daily school
time-table. It is simply and easily achieved at a short time.

 Criticisms of Subject Centered Design

Critics of subject-centred curriculum design have strongly advocated from it. These
criticisms are based on the following arguments:
 Subject-centered curriculum tends to bring about a high degree of fragmentation.
They argue that with the current increase in knowledge more subjects are created and
added to the school curriculum as areas of study.
 Subject-centered curriculum lacks integration of content. Learning in most cases
tends to be compartmentalized. Subjects or knowledge are broken down into smaller
seemingly unrelated bits of information to be learned.
 There has always been an assumption that information learned through subject
matter-curriculum will be transferred for use in everyday life situations. This
assumption of claim has been doubted by many schools of thought that argue that
automatic transfer of the information already learned is not possible.

40
 The design stresses content and tends to neglect the needs, interests and experience of
the students. It is examination oriented.

Activity 18

Why can’t subject-centred curriculum design function at the lower-primary level.

 Broad Fields Curriculum Design

Broad-fields curriculum design is generally considered to be expanded version of the idea
of fusion. In this approach, two, three or more subjects are unified into one broad-course
of study. This organization is actually a system of combining and regrouping subjects
that are related in the curriculum into separate broad fields of study.

The broad-fields approach attempts to develop some kind of synthesis or unity for the
entire branch of knowledge. It may even involve synthesizing two or more branches of
knowledge into new fields. Good examples would be
(i) Ecology
(ii) Environment Education
(iii) Family Life Education

Activity 19

Which are the related subjects that form separate groupings in the present secondary school
syllabus?
No doubt, you are familiar with some of the following groupings that have been
attempted in recent years. The present 8:4:4 curriculum contains enough examples of
broad-fields organization. You will need to get a copy and just go through it to be
familiar
 Language Arts – (both at primary and secondary school levels). Reading, writing,
grammar, literature, speech etc. Kiswahili and foreign languages.
 Social Science fields – (high school and colleges) history, political science,
government, economics anthropology sociology etc.
 Social Studies – (primary school level)
a) History, Geography and Civics
b) Social Education E could also fall under these broad fields
 General Science – to include natural and physical sciences.
a) Physics, Chemistry, Geography, Astronomy Physical Geographical
b) Zoology, Botany, Biology and Physiology
 Humanities – (both primary and secondary school levels) Art, Music, Design,
Literature.
 Industrial Education –
a) All vocational courses may be included – Commerce, Typing, Book Keeping,
Accounts, Office Practice.
b) All industrial and technical courses may be included – Carpentry, Masonry,
Plumbing, Metal Work, Engineering etc.
 Physical education – Health and Safety Education.

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 General mathematics – to be included in this group are – Arithmetic, Algebra,
Geometry Trigonometry and Calculus.
 Home Science – all courses which are taken care of in this group may be included –
Needlework, Cookery, Nutrition, Home Management, Clothing and Textiles etc.

Advocates of broad fields design believe that the approach would bring about unification
and integration of knowledge. However, looking at the trend of events in curriculum
practice in this country, this has not materialized. Several reasons could be given for this
drawback. Three of them will be discussed here with reference to the present situation in
Kenya.

First, teachers trained at the university, and diploma teachers colleges are expected to
specialize in two or three subjects taught in secondary schools. A teacher who specialized
in history, geography or any other subject finds it difficult to teach in an integrated
curriculum.

Good example can be drawn from the teaching of social studies in our schools. Most
teachers would be comfortable to teach history and geography as separate subjects on the
school timetable. The same problems are experienced in the teaching of general science.
Secondly, universities and diploma colleges in this country still return their subject-
centred curriculum. Before 1985, candidates for admission to universities and diploma
colleges in this country are expected to have studies three or four subjects at form 5 and
6. Aggregate points obtained in the final advanced level examination were then used for
selection into university.

Students tended to specialize in their later years of secondary education. Thirdly, the
Kenya National Examination Council has in 1985 come up with a unified syllabus to be
adapted for integrated studies in schools. All national examinations are still set on subject
basis.

 Advantage of Broad Fields Design

The advocates of broad-fields design argue that;
 It is based on separate subjects, so it provides for an orderly and systematic exposure
to the cultural heritage.
 It integrates separate subjects into a single course. This enables learners to see the
relationship among various elements in the curriculum.
 It saves time on the school timetable.
 Prepares a student for self-reliance and survival skills.

 Criticisms of Broad fields Design

Opponents of broad-fields curriculum design claim that;
(i) It lacks depth and cultivates shallowness.
(ii) It provides only bits and pieces of information from a variety of subjects.
(iii) It does not account for psychological organization by which learning takes place

 Learner Centred Design

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The curriculum designs, which come under the name learner-centered, may take various
forms. Some curriculum experts refer to them as child-centered or individualized
approaches. It is the curriculum planners who decide how the design should be
organized.

This design puts great emphasis upon individual development. The curriculum is
therefore organized around needs, interests and purposes of students who attend to
particular subject matter. Advocates of the design believe that while developing the
curriculum, great attention should be paid to what is known about human growth,
development and learning. But due to the nature of human beings, planning any
curriculum of this type in detail before the students arrive should be avoided. When
students have arrived, an attempt can be made to identify their varied concerns, interests,
and priorities and then develop appropriate topics to address meaningful issues.

However, this type of curriculum design has not been popular in developing parts of the
world for various reasons, which we shall identify in the following paragraphs. Only in
well-developed nations has this design been practised to some extent because they have
enough manpower and resources.

 Advantages of Learner-Centred Design

People learn only what they experience and that learning which is related to active
purposes and is rooted in experience translated itself into behaviour changes. Children
like best those things that are attached to solving actual problems that help in meeting
real needs or that connect with some active interest. Learning in its true sense is an active
transaction.
Some of the advantages given by the advocates of the learner-centered design are as
follows:
 The needs and interests of students are considered in the section and organization of
content.
 Since the needs and interests of students are considered in the planning of students
work for whatever will be applicable to the outside world.

 Criticism of Learner Centred Design

There are disadvantages of the learner-centered design. Those who challenge this type of
curriculum design argue that, the needs and interests of students may not be valid or long
lasting.
 The interests and needs of students may not reflect specific areas of knowledge that
could be essential for successful functioning in the society in general. Quite often, it
has been observed that the needs and interests of students are not those that are
important for society in general.
 Interests and needs of students are usually short-lived, change with time and are
influenced by the available conditions. Students may develop new needs and
interests based on external influences within the society.
 Another limitation of this design is that we may not be in a better position or
assumption to know enough about human growth, development and learning to be
able to plan for individual students as stated above. The nature of our education

43
 system and the Kenyan society for whom the system is intended may not permit
learner-centred curriculum design to be implemented effectively.
 Another important limitation of this design is that is expensive to produce materials to
satisfy the needs and interests, of individual students in a school. Imagine what
would happen in our school if we were to implement this type of curriculum design.

 Core Curriculum Design

The concept core-curriculum is used to refer to areas of study in the school curriculum
that are required by all students. The core-curriculum provides students with “common
learnings” or general education – that will be necessary. Therefore the core-curriculum
constitutes the segments of the curriculum that teache common concepts, skills and
attitudes needed by all individuals in order to function effectively within the society.

Two definitions of core-curriculum design will be adapted for use in this section:
 The core-curriculum is a way of organizing some important common learning in the
high school or college using a problem solving approach as its procedure, having
social and personal significance to youth “as its content, and the development of the
behaviours needed in a democratic society as its purpose”
 In modern education, the term core has come to be that part of the curriculum which
is concerned with those types of experiences thought to be necessary to all learners in
order to develop certain behaviour competencies considered necessary for effective
living in our democratic society.

 Characteristics of Core Curriculum Design

The core-curriculum design constitutes the following features:
 They constitute a section of the curriculum that all students are required to take.
 They unify or fuse subject matter, especially in subjects such as English, Social
Studies, etc.
 Their content is planned around problems that cut across the disciplines. In this
approach, the basic methods of learning is problem solving using all applicable
subject matter.
 They are organized into blocks of time. Two or three periods under a core teacher
may be organized. Other teachers may be utilized where it is possible.
 They encourage teachers to plan with students in advance
 They provide pupils with the necessary guidance

 Types of Core Curriculum Design

Many types of core-curriculum design are recognized in the literature on education. Most
of these designs tend to appear like the other designs discussed elsewhere in this
literature. If you can look back at the characteristics of core-curriculum design, it will
help you to perceive the great differences that exist between the pure-curriculum design
and other curriculum designs discussed.

The following types of core-curriculum design are commonly found in our schools and
college curriculum in Kenya.

44
Type One: Separate subjects may be taught separately with little or no effort to relate
them to each other e.g. Mathematics, Science Languages, Humanities, may be taught as
unrelated core-subjects in high schools.

Type Two: Two or more subjects may be correlated. For instance topics in History,
Geography and Economics may be able to see their relationship e.g. a topic on energy
can easily be taught in this way.

History: Discovery and use of oil as a form of energy. Discovery and use of oil as a form
of energy by man.
Other forms of energy that have been used in the past.
Geography Forms of Energy.
(i) Use and conservation of energy by man
(ii) Where oil is mined in the world
(iii) Importance of oil in world trade
(iv) Production of cheap forms of energy for man’s use
(v) Linkage of oil production to a nation’s development

 Type Three
The fused-core is based on the overall integration of or more subjects:
(1) History, Geography, Economics, Sociology and Anthropology may be combined and
taught as social studies.
(2) Physics, Chemistry, Botany and Zoology may be taught as general science
(3) Environmental Education Studies – some colleges in other parts of Africa have
introduced this core-curriculum as a component of the entire curriculum.

Activity 20
(1) In your own words, state what the concept core-curriculum means.
(2) State three characteristics of a core-curriculum design
(3) Write three examples of core-curriculum designs. If you can, give examples from the
school where you teach.

 Activity-Experienced Design
This type of design is one form of the learner-centred design. It originated in eighteenth-
century in Europe. The design became popular in American public schools during the
progressive movement in the 1920’s and 1930’s. It was basically organized in the
elementary schools in America. The design is included in our study to provide us with an
opportunity to examine another attempt to improve learning with others; you are advised
to go back to the previous discussions on learner-centred curriculum design. Read Hilda
Taba (1962).
The activity-experienced design is organized around the need and interests of learners.
These must be the immediately felt needs and interests of students, and not what the
adults feel and ought to be the case.

45
First, there are roles for the teacher in this design, if the curriculum is to be implemented
appropriately. First, the teacher who is implementing this design should discover what the
interests of his students are; secondly, he must help them select the most significant
interests for study. This is not a simple task as you can see, the role of the teacher is made
harder when the students genuine needs and interests have to be distinguished.
To do this effectively the teacher is expected to have a thorough knowledge of his
students. Knowledge of child and adolescent growth and development is necessary in the
planning of activity/experience curriculum.

The second feature of the activity/experience design comes from the first. Since students
interests and needs determine the structure of this design, the curriculum cannot be
planned in advance. Advance planning is possible in subject-centred and related
curriculum designs.

Teachers and students plan together the goals to be pursued, the procedures for
assessment to be followed by cooperative planning. However, advance planning does not
mean that the teacher will not carry out any preparation. The teacher still has many
responsibilities which require a lot of planning. He is responsible for discovering for
student’s interests, guiding students in the selection of interests, helping individuals and
groups to plan and appraise their experience. From this description, the teacher must
prepare in advance to help learners to carry out the required activities in every stage of
learning.

The third feature of the activity/experience design in its focus on problem-solving

approach which to learning. While pursuing their interests, student’s come across specific
problems must be overcome. Such problems pose challenges that students eagerly accept.
In the course of finding out solutions to these problems, students achieve results that
reflect major values among the goals of this curriculum significance, immediacy, vitality
and the relevance of activity and experience.

Three main advantages of the activity/experience design school activities are based on
students needs to be externally induced. Facts, concepts, skills and processes are learned
because they are important for students, not because they are needed for college or
because the teacher will be testing them.

Learning should be real and meaningful it if has to be relevant. The second advantage of
the activity/experience curriculum design is that it provides for the individual differences
between students. For instance, students may join a class or group if its interests are
unique. Thirdly, the problem-solving approach emphasized in this design provides
students with the process skills such as reading, writing and numeracy they will need
inorder to cope with life outside school.

Critics of the activity/experience design have grave reservations concerning its

effectiveness as a process of educating students. They argue that a curriculum strictly
based on students needs and interests cannot possibly provide an adequate preparation for
life. This is so because many areas of knowledge necessary for effective functioning in

46
the modern society would be omitted if students were allowed to exclude from their
curriculum anything that does not immediately interest them. It is also argued that this
design neglects critical social goals of education, which all students must acquire.
Important among these is cultural heritage, which should be provided to all students in
the school.

Critics also point out that activity/experience design lacks a balance and structure. It also
lacks continuity or sequence.

Activity 21
1. Name features of activity/experience design
2. What are the advantages of this design?

6.0 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION

Curriculum implementation is the systematic process of ensuring that the new curriculum
reach the intended consumers; learners and teachers, parents AND society without delay
or deviation. It also involves making the new curriculum and the accompanying
materials and resources generally available to all schools and colleges within the
jurisdiction of the curriculum development project.

Implementation is the making real which has been planned. It is the time of truth. It
means the open use of a programme throughout an entire school system. In most schools
or educational institutions, implementation is managed by the curriculum staff in the
central office with staff at other levels throughout the system. This is the centrally
coordinated model of curriculum. Kenya’s Education System is centrally controlled. In
centralized education system, a programme may either become compulsory for all
schools of a certain type, or be among a list of authorized alternative programme from
which each school chooses the most suitable for its needs.

In both cases, implementation entails certain changes within the system.

 First, teacher-training programmes must be adjusted to the requirements of the new
programme. This implies modification in both pre-service and in-service training
activities.
Occasionally, teachers themselves are in need of further instruction in the content area of
the new programme. New teaching methods, strategies, or class management practices
may also contribute the focus of a retraining course. Almost always teachers should be
trained to monitor the programme to identify flaw defects and to diagnose learning
difficulties.

 A second implementation problem is that of obtaining the support and cooperation of

the supervisory staff. Without their cooperation one can hardly expect successful
implementation of the programme (Lewry 1977).

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 A third problem is in making the appropriate changes in the national examination
system, if it exists. If programmes are changed but national examinations remain
unaltered, teachers may not have the motivation for the focus on their educational
work. At this stage of development, the formative evaluators role is to examine the
efficiency of changes and adjustments made. This may be made through observation
of the teacher-training programme, through analytical examination of both teacher
programmes and the judgements and opinions of educational experts.

It must be emphasized that implementation is a process that the project staff and
educational authorities always look forward to with a lot of eagerness. Sometimes the
participants are so eager that they are attempted to get to it before the pre-requisite
processes such as try out have been completed. This temptation should be resisted at all
costs.

 It cannot be over-emphasized that implementation of new curriculum should only be

attempted by the institution in which the right conditions prevail. There will be the
school and colleges for which satisfactory arrangements can be made for in servicing
of teachers and learning materials, and equipment for which the necessary physical
facilities can be provided.

This means that implementation can hardly take place uniformly across the country or
geographical areas concerned. Some schools will be ready while others will not. The fact
that implementation cannot be uniform throughout an educational system is another
problem which the project staff and educational authorities find bitter to accept. The
former wants to score success quickly overhear; and the latter, in addition to being
anxious about uniform success, they are uncomfortable about the thought that different
administrative and other arrangements such as those connected with students assessment
procedure will have to be made for different groups of institutions.

Not all schools and colleges will have the necessary pre-requisite in the same extent and
at the same time. Therefore, the best that can be done is to group the schools according to
their degree of readiness and implement the curriculum accordingly hoping that the
schools involved will be many so that the whole school system can be covered quickly.

Oluoch (1982) cited some nine sub-processes in the implementation of a new curriculum
that may be identified in preparation. These are:
 Persuading a variety of people to accept the new curriculum.
 Keeping the general public informed.
 Educating the teachers
 Educating the teacher-educators
 Provision of necessary facilities supply of materials and equipment
 Actual presentation of the new curriculum
 Institution of appropriate student assessment procedures
 Providing continuous support for the teachers

- Perhaps we should include budgeting for this process

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Bishop (1976) noted some reasons for discrepancy between the intent of curriculum
projects and what actually happens in the classroom between the theory and practice,
between desire and actual achievement, between plan and execution. One of these
reasons is resistance to change springing from tradition.

Bishop (1967) has also noted that there is practically complete agreement in theory on the
view that great changes are inevitable, but in practice, every position innovation
encounters the most vigorous opposition. Education is a realm kingdom of tradition, and
resistance to change springs up in the most varied quarters, ranging from the teachers
themselves, the administrators, the parents, the pupils to political professional
confessional religious and cultural circles. Several countries note that socio-psychological
resistance to reform is the major problem, perhaps more stubborn, than financial problem
itself.

6.1 Primary Task of Implementation

 Setting up the major steps in the implementation system (outline of the process).
 Reviewing of existing system and noting the existing networks and places where new
networks are required.
 Allocating budget for various actions of implementation.
 Ensuring that a management plan for this sub stage of curriculum development is
created by personnel in charge.
 Developing means of synchronizing all the support system requisite for successful
piloting and final implementation.
 Preparation of the curriculum for teachers-staff training for all staff who will receive
the field-tested curriculum including special training for those who will pilot before
implementation).
 Identify all staff required for the technical implementation of the field tested
programme.

Bishop (1976) pauses some basic questions regarding the staff to be involved in piloting
and implementation.
 What new staff’s knowledge and skills are necessary for the programme
implementation?
 What are the new roles and responsibilities that the staff will have to assume in both
the piloting and the final implementation?
The level of expertise a staff possesses will influence the answers to these
questions.

At this juncture, the question is not what expertise staff require but where the staff
currently with regard to required expertise come from.

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 1. Agents of Curriculum Implementation
Agents are support resources in order to Implement Curriculum as required. They
include:

Teacher’s Advisory Centres (TACs)

New teaching, new teaching strategies and other changes have been introduced in the
education system. Newly employed teachers may quite often use the Teachers Advisory
Centre for obtaining information on how to handle their teaching assignments.
Particularly the untrained teachers in Kenyan education of system have benefited from
the services of Teachers Advisory Centres Old teachers; also use the centres to update
themselves.

Another role of Teacher’s Advisory Centres is the dissemination of teaching materials

already developed by the Kenya Institute of Education. Teachers may meet at the centre
to discuss how the materials supplied by K.I.E could be beneficially utilized by schools.
Sometimes, material supplied by the Kenya Institute of Education’s curriculum
development panels may appear irrelevant to the local needs of the learners in particular
areas. Teachers use the centres to discuss and make some recommendations to the
curriculum panels on how improvement could be made. This role may be viewed as a
feedback to curriculum developers at the Kenya Institute of Education. The feedback
information from the teachers centres may become a basis for modifying the newly
introduced curriculum in schools.

In well established Teachers Advisory Centres, teachers have organized local curriculum
development panels. Teachers of English, Mathematics, Geography or Science may form
local subject panels. Local subject panels may be to organize teachers to work as a team
to develop materials to support what teachers use in classrooms. The materials developed
are kept in the centre for other teachers who may want to use them. A lot of materials
developed in the Teachers Advisory Centres have been very useful to the Kenya Institute
of Education curriculum panels in developing primary school education curriculum.
Social Studies for instance, is a crucial curriculum which cannot be generalized by the
National Curriculum

 Supportive Personnel and Services

Our further concept we need to consider in the implementation of a curriculum is that of
educational supervision. This is a very important element in the implementation process.
This part of the process is provided by inspectors and filed supervisors. Once one looks at
the task the supervisor can perform in relation to curriculum implementation and the
improvement of quality at local level one realizes how limited the direct influence on
teachers. Field officers and assistance in demonstration of a particular approach to the
classroom teacher is very vital. Their feed back of the running quality of the project will
assist the review of the materials.

These supervisors can arrange for workshops for teachers to help them discuss issues
emerging from the project and also provide suggestions for production of localized
materials for teachers’ use in teaching. However, their indirect influence on teachers as

50
co-ordinators of support system for teacher in the field can be very great indeed. Some of
the roles supervisors would address themselves to are:
 Identification of problem areas in the materials;
 Suggestions as to the necessary modification;
 Advice on the program me of work to be done in the schools;
 Preparation for the workshops, seminars and courses;
 Assistance with displays at the Teachers Advisory Centres where these exist and
encouragement of display in schools;
 Encouragement of regular visits to the centres by teachers and guidance and help to
teachers with regard to source of information and other materials.
Activity 22
Are teachers, inspectors and administrators the only individual needed to implement a
curriculum.

 Voluntary Agencies as Curriculum Implementers

In the African context, the curriculum for basic education can no longer be conceived as
the sole responsibility of professional educators. This is particularly true in the
implementation stage. Voluntary Agencies such as the Church, Women’s Organizations,
Women’s Associations, Boy Scouts, Girl Guides and Entertainment Groups of every
description have a legitimate role to play in implementing some aspects of the
curriculum, particularly in the affective domain. Cultural activities which are initiated by
the school may be extended and refined in the community around the school. The
integrated primary school staff should be afforded every opportunity to each voluntary
agency to contribute positively to the advancement of their local community socially,
economically, culturally, and intellectually.

 Parents as Curriculum Implementors

It has been assumed for too long that the unschooled (African) parents have no role to
play in curriculum implementation. On the contrary, their role is crucial in the continuing
process of value-orientation and attitude formation. Being the natural and immediate
“reference group” for their children, the parents’ influence in cultural value is often
unchallenged. It is in the home that the children learn effectively such important social
and cultural values as personal relationships, hospitality, generosity, comparison,
personal hygiene, etiquette, love, thriftiness etc.

The current search for cultural identity should emphasize respect for education received
through instructional materials. One of the final products of each curriculum project is
the production of several types of instructional materials. If the teacher develops his own
curriculum, materials he is likely to utilize products easily available in his environment
for the preparation of the learning materials. If the curriculum is developed by the central
institute like Kenya Institute of Education (K.I.E) to serve a large population, items of
various types will be assembled in a package or kit for easy dissemination. What does
curriculum kit contain? The most simple form of instruction materials produced by the
curriculum team is a teachers’ guide, composed of suggestions and instructions for the
teacher on what to do in the classroom. This is a very important item because it is

51
necessary to inform the teacher of the programmes goals so that they can make use of the
programme adequately. Generally, the programme kit will also contain individual study
materials in the form of textbooks, worksheets and supplementary materials, such as
demonstration charts, slides, and equipment; which are also included. Finally a
programme may also have components which are deposited in regional centres to be
borrowed by schools for classroom use.

 The Community
Curriculum implementation is most effectively implemented when the community
understands and supports it when facilities are available for desirable school organization
and learning activities. There is also need for appropriate materials and supportive
personnel to assist teachers. Two key factors are necessary to the implementation of the
curriculum.
Financial support and other physical facilities
Community’s theoretical support for change.

The financial aspect of curriculum implementation is dealt with as a priority of the

community. The community’s support creates a healthy climate of understanding and
encouragement prevailing in the community. Most important here are the attitudes held
by parents because such attitudes towards the programme are easily transmitted to the
child for whom the changes are intended.

School community communication needs to go beyond mere information which includes

the maintenance of a continuous dialogue that enables the community to understand the
rationale behind such a change; to understand the educational problems and procedures
involved, and in many instances to provide direct assistance for curriculum
implementation in the form of resource persons, school volunteers, and any other
personal forms of contributions to the effort of the school.

Preparation of parents and the community is therefore seen as an important element even
at the planning stage. Also during the needs assessment stage, parents and the
community or what may be referred to as the lay person will have been involved
extensively in assessing their needs as far as the school curriculum is concerned.
Whatever needs are identified and written in the form of objectives for the new
curriculum, should be discussed with lay people if for nothing else to keep them in touch
with what is happening. This exercise is what Kenya Institute of Education refers to as
familiarization.

The main objectives of this exercise is:

 To explain how the new curriculum sets out to achieve in relation to
national development goals;
 To explain how the new curriculum provides greater individual
benefits than its predecessor;
 To describe changes in organization and structure of the new
educational system;

52
  At specific levels, to explain why pupils course offerings, say in
secondary schools, differ for various groups of students;
 To gain the co-operation of parents and the public.

Undertaking the familiarization exercise is often necessary to use all means possible to
reach as many people as possible. This may be done through weekly radio programmes
explaining the new curriculum in the simplest terms possible and outlining its new
objectives, where showing visual examples of the new curriculum in use. Documentary
films should be produced for use with mobile cinemas. The local news papers in as many
languages as possible, should be utilized to provide information on the new curriculum.
In some cases personal contact may be necessary.

Activity 23

Why do you think that the community which provides and operates the school in which you
are teaching needs to be aware of the curriculum being taught in this school? Choose a few
parents and discuss with them on how they can help in the implementation of a new
programme such as the 8-4-4 in Kenya.

7.0 TEACHER EDUCATION

In this lecture we shall also discuss the origin of professional teachers. Finally we shall
examine some of the important qualities which are expected of a good teacher. These
qualities are not exhaustive, you can think of your own experience as a teacher, and what
the public may accept as good and bad qualities of certain teachers in our schools.

Objectives
After studying this lecture you should be able to:
1. Define the term teacher and teaching
2. Explain the origin of the terms the teacher, teaching and professional teachers
3. Identify some important qualities of a good teacher.

 Defining Teaching
The terms teacher and teaching have been with us for a very long time. We have used
them to refer to specialized activities in our societies. Generally, all societies, including
yours, refer to teaching when they mean the process of providing information, knowledge
or skills to others. “Teacher” then strictly refers to the person who is involved in the
process of providing information, knowledge or skills to other people etc.

Activity 24

Who then is a teacher?

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Anybody who can facilitate learning or directly provide knowledge or required skills is a
teacher. For instance, a carpenter teaching his own son how to use a hammer and saw is
a teacher; a house mother who instructs her daughter how to prepare a fish-dish or ugali
or cleaning the house, is a teacher, a herbalist who trains his son on the use of certain
herbs found in the forest and how to identify those that contain medicinal value is a
teacher. Our ancestors used informal teaching to passover skills and knowledge that were
essential to our society. Many of the roles of informal teaching have been taken over by
schools. The modern professional teachers are found in schools and other related
institutions.

 Professional Teachers
Let us briefly examine how professional teachers came about. First, lets answer the
question:

Activity 25

Who is a professional teacher?

Professionals are the trained people in the art of teaching. They are paid a salary or wage
for the service they render to their customers. Terms of employment for these
professional teachers may vary from place to place. In Kenya we may categorize
professional teachers by place of employment. There are teachers employed by private or
non-governmental agencies with different terms of service. The majority of professional
teachers in this country are employed by the Teacher Service Commission (TSC) which
is a government agency.
Greek sophists are believed to be the earliest known teachers. They consisted of a group
of well-learned teachers who moved from one place to another teaching. They usually
charged a fee for the services rendered to people. Sophists were prominent in the art of
public speaking or rhetoric. They were able to put doubt or confession in the minds of
the youth. The youth were able to develop a high degree of thinking or reasoning. As a
result, they were able to challenge dogma, word which did not possess meaning and any
form of opinion which did not seem to be knowledgeable. During the time of Socrates,
the Greeks began to discourage charging of fees for teaching. They thought that this
would degrade or lower the value of education. This is why Socrates himself moved
from one market to another teaching without being paid fees for his service.

The meaning of “teacher” became so pronounced at the time of the Romans conquered
Greece and introduced a kind of hierarchy. The Romans introduced two groups of
professional teachers. The first one was, the “Literator” i.e. a teacher in primary school
and the second one was “Ludi Magista or Rhetor” i.e. teachers who taught in the Roman
Grammar Schools.
This period actually marks the beginning when people could see and appreciate the role
of teachers in a society. They began to advocate for teachers salary based on their
services. Plato was among the earliest advocates of salary for teachers. He drew up a
plan of education for the ruling class, the philosophers, kings or guardians of the state.

54
He felt that teachers had a big role in society, which gave them the honour they deserved.
It interesting to note that during this time, Plato felt that the highest officer in the state
should be the Minister of Education and that anybody who should hold that office must
be fifty years of age, married and with his own children.

During the middle ages, schools began to be diversified. This state of affairs made
teaching to become complicated. As a result, the system of pre-service training was
introduced and became compulsory for anybody inspiring to become a teacher.

Activity 26
What qualities do we expect of Professional Teachers?

All of us always think that colleges and universities should produce teachers who are
adequately trained to handle every aspect of school curriculum. Unfortunately, this is not
what colleges and universities do. They merely lay the foundation upon which the young
teacher in the field can build. After three to five years, the young teacher will have
acquired experience. Experience necessary for carrying out curriculum activities can
only be acquired in schools where one is posted to teach.

On the other hand, experience alone may not be sufficient for a good teacher. Some
educators wrote that, the amount of experience we have had is of less importance than
our ability to profit by it. The best teachers are those who have the humility and capacity
to learn by success and failure. Humility, the educators argue, is the capacity to accept
the criticisms of others and to criticize ourselves without feeling too sorry for ourselves.
The points selected and discussed below are only guidelines of what is thought or felt that
teachers should do or be. You can think of many other qualities that will be relevant to
your society. Our society is complex; therefore, their views and values on qualities
teachers should posses, will vary.
First and foremost, all societies expect a teacher to be a person of good moral conduct.
The teacher must be someone who is prepared to respect truth under all circumstances.
Most important, a teacher must have love for people and children in particular. Children
and people in common are the immediate clients of a teacher in school. Teachers are
looked upon in society as people with high integrity and morals whose personal lives set
examples for others to emulate. Youths will be most comfortable in the hands of a
teacher with good character than a bad person. We have heard and read of cases of
teachers interdiction, suspension and even dismissal because of bad behavior in schools.

Secondly, a good teacher will remain a student throughout the period of his teaching
career. This is the only way a teacher will become an educated person. Good teaching
fails as soon as we cease to renew our knowledge through learning. Age and experience
do not alone promote good teaching. The content we learn at school and in college serve
as the starting points for learning. We must remember that knowledge is dynamic. It
increasing daily with new discovery and expansion in areas of study. As a teacher, you
are expected to know far more than the pupils you teach in class. As teachers, we are
forced to improve our methods of teaching in order to cope with the new technology.

55
The students you teach are inquisitive. They acquire new information through all forms
of media. It is therefore, necessary for you to know the pupils you teach as well as the
subject content. This can be achieved by the teacher accepting to continue learning
throughout his life time.

Thirdly, a good teacher must be adaptable. The education you have received should help
you to tackle new types of experiences within your teaching environment. We must
develop personal initiatives and abilities to handle new situations as they come to us in
schools. For instance, our curriculum is changing form time to time with new subjects
being introduced. For example, Social Education and Ethics syllabus, in the 8-4-4
curriculum. Various types of this syllabus, will need personal initiative, common sense
and ability. We must be willing to confront and face new issues and problems as they
come.
Fourthly, courage combined with adaptability is important for a good teacher. You may
be faced with harsh conditions when posted to a new school. Ma be, the school has not
enough buildings or they may be of poor standards, not enough equipment, text books
etc. What do you do? Run away and abandon your students? Many people have faced
similar situations in the past. Bear in mind that, our society is not economically equal.

Summary:

In summary we have been able in this lecture to:

Explain the origin of the terms teacher, teaching and professional teachers. They usually
charged a fee for their services.
The term professional teachers became more pronounced during the period of the Roman
conquest of Greece. The Romans introduced two categories of teachers. The first category of
professional teachers was the Ludi Magista or Rhetor teachers who taught in the Roman
Grammar schools.
Identify some important qualities of good teacher. We put the qualities of a good teacher into
four main categories: moral conduct be a student throughout his life, thirdly, adaptable to
varying circumstances of the teaching for courage combined with adaptability.

7.1 Pre-Service Teacher Education

Primary
Goals of primary teacher education as contained in various government documents are as
follows:
 To develop the basic theoretical and practical knowledge about the teaching
professions so that the teachers’ attitude and ability can be turned towards
professional commitment and competence.

56
 To develop in the teacher the ability to communicate effectively.
 Bearing in mind the child as the centre for education, teacher education should
prepare teachers who can:-
(i) Provide suitable learning opportunities
(ii) Develop the child’s communication skills
(iii) Develop individual child’s potential abilities to their maximum
efforts through a variety of creative learning experience
(iv) Develop a child’s sense of citizenship and national attitude
(v) Develop the child’s ability in critical and imaginative thinking,
problem solving and self-expression
(vi) Develop positive attitudes to the moral and religious values of the
community
 To create a national consciousness for educational excellence in every teacher.
 To provide opportunities to develop special interests and skills and to promote
initiative in the teacher.
 To develop in the teacher the ability to adapt to change and new situations.
 To develop an awareness and appreciation of innovation in the field of education and
an ability to utilize them
 To develop an awareness of the principles and use these in their dealings with
children and their community
 To promote national unity, national development and social equality
 To foster in the teacher an appreciation and respect for our rich and varied cultural
heritage.

Primary Teacher Education Curriculum

Teacher education curriculum has undergone a lot of transformation. A brief history may
help us to follow this transformation. Prior to 1974, Primary Teachers Colleges in Kenya
enjoyed some form of autonomy to suit their conditions. The syllabuses were
implemented in respectful colleges subject to approval by the Ministry of Education.
They also prepared their own examinations and assessment devices to be used locally.
The role of the K.I.E and the Inspectorate was to moderate such examinations and
provide panels of examiners to assist assessing students during teaching practices. After
1976, the role of KI.E seemed to be minimized. The Ministry of Education and its
Examination Section in Mitihani House took over and amalgamated all the
responsibilities carried out by the colleges themselves and K.I.E. Professional studies
examinations were now thrown to a public examining body. Explicitly, examinations for
teachers in all the colleges in the country were centralized. These steps were harsh.
What was the impact of these measures to the process the among teachers was killed by
the strength of examinations. Training of teachers became more of an academic exercise
where the best achievers in the final examinations were rewarded with grades and
certificates. Secondly a strong element of competition developed among the colleges.
Thus students were forced to master facts from subjects taught and reproduced them after
two years in one examination. This is typical of what an American educationist, Paul
Freire calls “the banking concept”. Teachers teach and students receive the information.
National teachers examination was good. On the other hand, someone who had

57
completed primary level of education could easily be awarded a P2 teachers certificate if
he passed in the National Teachers Examination at the end of two years training.

 Organization of Teacher Education Curriculum

Activity 27
How was Teacher Education Curriculum Organized in the Period Discussed?

The initial curriculum in primary teacher education is organized around 14 subject areas.
This organization has not changed much in the present period. The following
organization is used:
Professional Studies: the syllabus is divided into four major section areas:
(i) Foundations of Education
(ii) Curriculum Studies
(iii) Educational Administration
(iv) Educational Psychology.
It was compulsory for a student to pass a written examination in all these areas in
addition to practical teaching. Failure in Practical Teaching meant that one had failed the
entire course, even if performance in thirteen other areas was excellent. This rule was
later changed in order to give a student a second chance to be re-assessed up to two times
re-assessment in the Teaching Practice which takes place after the final results have been
announced.
 The Languages: either English of Kiswahili has to be passed in order to be awarded a
certificate
 The Science: this includes general Science and Agriculture. Again a student is
expected to pass in anyone of them for the purpose of certification.
 The Social Science: this area comprises of History, Geography and Christian
Religious Education as well as Islamic Religious Education. Only students who are
Muslims take Islamic Religious Education
 The Creative Arts Area: this area has the largest combination of subjects. It includes
Arts and Crafts, Music, Health Education and Physical Education, Domestic Science.
A pass in this area is also necessary for the purpose of certification.
 Mathematics remaines separate and independent area of study by all students. It is a
compulsory requirement for certification.

7.2 Inservice Teacher Education

In-service education is not a new term in our educational system. The term has been used
in many ways to refer to almost the same things in education. In this lecture we shall
attempt to discuss what the term in-service education entails, its purposes and reasons
why teachers choose to be involved in some forms of in-service education programmes
commonly organized and known to teachers will be examined.

58
 Objectives
By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
Distinguish between various types of in-service Education.
Give reasons why in-service education is an important competent of teacher
education.
Discuss various aspects of in-service education programmes undertaken by Kenya
Government
Analyze the specific roles of teachers in curriculum development.

What is In-Service Education?

A lot of confusion exists in the minds of many educators and the teaching profession in
general, when the term in-service education is defined. There are two stages of teacher
education are in practice at the present time. First, is what we often refer to as pre-
service education and takes place in residence in a college or University before a teacher
is appointed to his first post or employed and registered by the Teachers Service
Commission. Second is the in-service education and may be taken any time while the
teacher is already trained and qualified who are also professionally employed. It may
also be arranged for untrained teachers who have been recruited by T.S.C and registered
to teach in public schools. The present growth of in-service education practice in the
teaching profession is historical. First, is the fact that knowledge continues to expand in
the present world at a much greater rate than before. Days when a teacher could be
contented with a bank of knowledge which he would find adequate to sustain him
throughout his teaching career have ended. Whatever knowledge a teacher acquires
during his initial training may not still be satisfactory in ten or fifteen years later. New
knowledge keeps coming up through research and technology. A teacher faces great
challenges now than what was experienced before. It must be admitted in this lecture that
in-service education is an essential element and condition for all members of the public
employed to teach in schools. This condition should apply to both the pre-service or
trained and the untrained teachers. There are at present more than 30,000 untrained
teachers employed to teach in schools in Kenya.

Activity 28
What are the main purposes of in-service education?

All kinds of in-service education undertaken by teachers reveal various purposes.

Education administrators who organize and provide chances for in-service education are
well aware of the purposes discussed here. The teachers who choose to enroll in various

59
in- service education courses are also made aware of the purposes. Some of the purposes
of In-service education may be found to overlap.

Acquisition of New Knowledge

For many years educational administrators in this country thought that only primary
school teachers needed In-service education because they were not well academically
prepared. Graduate teachers and others involved in teaching secondary schools and
college level were regarded specialists. This view has changed in recent years with new
development taking place in education. We can see this change in view of the following
evidence.
i) programmes of one term or one year duration have been organized by
overseas agencies for experienced serving teachers to attend advanced
courses abroad for the teaching of Science, Mathematics and English etc
Many teachers have benefited from the scheme.
ii) Locally organized in-service programmes of one month or longer have
been organized by the Ministry of Education in conjunction with the
Kenya Institute of Education and the public universities which train
teachers. Graduate teachers attend courses of this nature in subjects of
their specialization. For instance the Social Science Project, Science and
Mathematics, Geography, Kiswahili, etc.
iii) In-service Education programmes for trained teachers of normal children
have been organized in various colleges. Trained teachers of normal
children can obtain specialization and qualifications as teachers of
handicapped children after attending an in-service education course at
High ridge Teachers’ College. For instance, P1 teachers of normal
children are recruited for in-service education course for the handicapped.
iv) Teachers of Art, Music, Drama and P.E. etc can obtain more knowledge
and techniques through organized in-service education programmes. The
introduction of 8.4.4 system of education in Kenya in 1985 prompted the
Ministry of Education Science and Technology to organize P.E and other
subjects in secondary schools. Similar in-service courses were also
organized for other subjects taught in secondary schools.

Familiarization with Curriculum Development

Changes in curriculum are dynamic, particularly with the increase in knowledge in
demand and supply by society or relevancy in curriculum content. To familiarize teachers
with curriculum development, changes, seminars, workshops, and conferences are
organized at the district or national level. In many cases some of the work in curriculum
development changes are channeled through circulars, demonstrations and government
documents from the inspectorate to the schools. Heads of schools are expected to make
such information available to teachers. In well organized schools, seminars or meetings
are organized for members of staff to discuss new changes in curriculum.
Training of examiners and markers for public examinations falls under this category. It is
done by the Kenya National Examinations Council.

 Familiarization with Principles of Organization and Management.

60
Many teachers are appointed to head schools without prior training in organization and
management. Appointments to head schools are usually made on the basis of a teacher’s
academic qualifications and some appointments to headships. A lot of work that is
necessary for school organization and educational management cannot be done during the
pre-service training. It’s after working in the schools for sometime that a teacher gains
insights and familiarity with the basic principles of organization and management. Some
teachers become fortunate when they work in schools where head-teachers may be
assigned roles of departmental heads, deputy head-teachers or guidance and counselors.
To function properly and project educational services, some form of instruction in
organization and management is essential.

In some countries such as the United States of America, a special qualification is required
of all people who aspire to become head-teachers or principals.

The Ministry of Education Science and Technology in Kenya, often organizes seminars,
workshops and meetings to familiarize head-teachers with essential principles of
educational management. Such courses have become popular to teachers who got
appointed to headship with a limited knowledge in educational management.
Activity 29
Why do teachers participate in In-service education?

Teachers participate in in-service education for various reasons. In some countries like
the United States of American teachers can be assured of immediate direct benefits like
salary increase, when they complete participation in in-service education course
successfully. In Kenya, this happens but in a different form. Let us examine some of the
reasons which make teachers to participate in in-service education programmes in Kenya.

Promotion Status
Many teachers in this country have been promoted from one grade to another after under-
going an in-service education programme. For instance, pre-service teachers who were
initially trained as P1 have participated in a one year in-service education course to
prepare them to be qualified to handle the handicapped. After completing the programme
they are awarded an S1 teachers certificate.

Graduates without professional training in education are recruited by T.S.C to teach in

secondary schools. They are basically employed as untrained graduate teachers. The
Ministry of Education requires that after teaching for a short duration, such untrained
graduates should go for a one-year diploma course in education in a university.
After completing the course successfully their status is changed from untrained to
qualified graduates. In addition to change of status, they also get the normal salary scale
and increments given to other qualified graduate teachers.

More than 30,000 teachers are employed to teach in primary schools in Kenya. The
ministry of education has been conducting in-service education programmes by
correspondence to train the untrained teachers. After three years the untrained teachers,

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who complete the course successfully, are awarded certificates to indicate grade levels.
For instance P1, P2 and P3 certificates are awarded. The certificates awarded correspond
to salary scales from other teachers in the profession. Promotions and changes of status
are major reasons why most untrained primary school teachers attend in-service courses.
The second reason would be to secure permanent and pensionable employment status
enjoyed by other qualified teachers employed by T.S.C. after gaining knowledge in
methods of teaching in the primary schools.

Improved Job Performance

Many teachers select to attend shorter courses for one or two weeks for almost the same
purpose. They want to increase, extend or expand their knowledge. This is quite true of
teachers who trained more than ten years ago and are still teaching. Changes in the
teaching profession are common. Most teachers want to improve their performance to
cope with new changes in education. To this group of teachers, promotions or salary are
not reasons for participation. For instance, new subjects such as social Education and
Ethics, Business Education etc. have been introduced in primary school syllabus.
Teachers without initial training of these subjects must participate in short in-service
education courses to become qualified to teach them. Teachers advisory centers are most
appropriate venues for organizing short in-service education courses for the
improvement, increase and expansion of knowledge. This role is well played in districts
with well-organized centres.

Increased Salary
Additional salary is not an incentive for participation in all types of in-service education
courses. Salary in Kenya goes along with certificates and degrees obtained. Any in-
service education programme may not be organized for the purposes of awarding extra or
higher certificates or diplomas. Exceptions to this are the following programmes.
a) One year course for P1 teachers to be qualified as S1 teachers for
handicapped. Promotion from P1 to S1 teachers provides an essential
salary increase.
b) One year full time course for untrained graduate teachers. After
successfully completing the course at a university they are awarded
diplomas in education or (P.G.D.E) with salary increase or some
adjustment.

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8.0 CURRICULUM EVALUATION

Let us start this lecture by defining the term evaluation. We shall then discuss reasons
why evaluation is undertaken. Phases of curriculum evaluation will be examined briefly
since they are covered in details in another lecture. You are advised to go through this
lecture noting carefully all areas which will enable you to follow and grasp a detailed
discussion on evaluation.

Objectives
At the end of this lecture you should be able to:
Define the word evaluation;
Describe the purpose of evaluation;
Distinguish the differences between measurement, testing, assessment and
evaluation.

 What is Evaluation
Evaluation in the content of education is a process used to obtain information from
testing, from direct observation of behaviour, from essays and from other devices to
assess a students overall progress towards some predetermined goals or subjects. It
includes both a qualitative and quantitative description and involves a value judgement of
overall student behavior for decision making.

Evaluation and measurement are not the same, although evaluation involves
measurement. Ifwe assess a student’s knowledge and understanding in a subject by
means of an objective or essay type test, that is measurement. If a teacher puts a value on
the student’s work, talents, attitudes and other characteristics of behaviour that is
evaluation. Evaluation should in part involve testing that is non-subjective on the part of
the teacher, otherwise it is likely to be unreliable.

Assessment is used intechangeably with evaluation. Testing is the process of using an

instrument or test to measure achievement. Measurement and testing are thus ways of
gathering evaluation and assessment data.

Activity 30
Distinguish between evaluation, measurement and testing.
Why do we have to evaluate?

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8.1 Purposes of Curriculum Evaluation
Evaluation has many purposes; it can be used in the following ways.

(i) Evaluation as a basis for school marks or grades by teachers

Educational systems require that teachers occasionally submit marks or grades on
students. These marks or grades can be arrived at through formal examinations, regular
tests, assignments, laboratories reports, observational information or combination of
these.
(ii) Evaluation as a Means of Informing Parents
Parents of schools children have a right to know how their children are progressing in
school. Students evaluation is the most important way of providing them with this
information.

(iii) Evaluation for Promotion to Higher Class

Student evaluation is sometimes used to determine whether a student has made enough
progress to be promoted to a higher class or form in the school.

(iv) Evaluation for Student Motivation

Success in tests and examinations as well as sports and other school activities can give
great encouragement to students. Similarly, failure to do well can make students work
harder or strive to do better. Teachers should try to give their students feedback on the
evaluation of all aspects of their learning and behaviour so that both those who de well
and those who do not will be motivated to improve on their performance.

(v) Evaluation for Guidance and Counselling Purposes

All students need to be advised to help them solve their own personal problems, whether
academic or emotional. The two types of problems are indeed often connected.
Successful students tend to enjoy school more than those who are not so successful. It is
generally those who appear to be failure as indicated by the evaluation of the teaching
staff, who need the most attention and it is to them that the class teacher must direct
herself.

(vi) Evaluation to Assess the Effectiveness of the Teaching Strategy

If a teacher does not in some way assess the students’ improved knowledge,
understanding and higher cognitive skills as well as their attitudes and psychomotor
abilities, will not be able to evaluate the success or otherwise of the teaching strategy she
has employed. A higher failure rate in a course is more often due to poor teaching that to
the lack of intelligence of the students.

(vii) Evaluation for Employment Purposes

Not all students who pass through post-primary schools will proceed to university or
other institutions of higher learning. Some students may decide to join a company or
business. Employers normally require information on potential employees with reference
to academic ability, attitude to work, moral character personality and so on. It therefore
necessary for the teachers to evaluate nearly all aspects of the students’ performance
while they attend the school.

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 Curriculum Evaluation
The primary purpose of curriculum evaluation is, of course, to determine whether the
curriculum goals, and objectives are being carried out. These goals and objectives are to
be evaluated in the first place to determine if they are the right kind of objective. It also
determines whether the curriculum is functioning while in operation, and using the best
materials and the best methods.

Curriculum evaluation also determines whether the products of our schools are successful
in higher education and in jobs, whether they can function in daily life and contribute to
our society. Curriculum evaluation also determines whether educational program is cost-
effective, that is to say whether the people are getting the most of their money.
Activity 31
Are there nay phases of Evaluation

8.2 Phases of Evaluation

There are three phases of evaluation which every teacher needs to know.
 Pre-assessment
 Formative Evaluation
 Summative Evaluation

These terms are technical words to differentiate evaluation that takes place before
instruction (pre-assessment), during instruction (formative), and after instruction
(summative). Pre-assessment evaluation is provided before instruction that takes place
before instruction to determine the starting point on an instructional program. It identifies
need prerequisite skills and causes of learning difficulties and to place students in
learning groups. Formative evaluation consists of those techniques of a formal and
informal nature, including testing, that are used during the period of instruction. Progress
tests are given in the classroom are a good illustration of formative evaluation.

Thorough formative evaluation teachers may diagnose student difficulties and take
remedial action to help them overcome their difficulties before they are confronted with
the terminal (summative) evaluation. Formative evaluation enables teachers to monitor
their instruction so that they may keep it on course. It is also used to provide assessment
of curriculum quality. It is conducted during the curriculum development process for the
additional purpose of providing information that can be used to forma a better finished
product. Thus formative evaluation takes place at a number of intermediate points during
curriculum development process.

Summative evaluation is the assessment that takes place at the end of a course or unit. A
final examination (post-test) means used for the summative evaluation of instruction. It
major purpose is to find out whether the students have mastered the preceding instruction.
A good teacher utilizes results of summative evaluation to revise his or her program and
methodology for subsequent groups.

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8.3 Role of Evaluation in Curriculum
Evaluation entails not a single study but also a series of sub-studies, performed at the
various stages of curriculum development process. The main aim of curriculum
evaluation is to collect descriptive information about an educational programme, which is
then used to modify and improve the program; to compare the program to other
programs, and to make judgement as to the worth of the program or project.

Evaluation generally answers the questions regarding: selection, adoption, adoption,

support change, innovation and worth of an education program. Formative evaluation
helps the curriculum team at the planning stage to formulate a new educational policy, to
discover new needs, to formulate new goals, to clarify in their definition of goals, select
appropriate goals form competing goals, determine complementary goals, number of new
disciplines to be taught, provide empirical evidence on the view of teachers, parents,
learners, employers, professional on what requires change or towards the envisaged
change.

At the project materials development stage, evaluation helps to translate broad

educational goals into curriculum objectives for various subjects, redefine general
objectives into operational objectives, determine appropriate syllabus and textbooks
structure and content; ensure relevance in content scope, sequence, continuity, integration
and balance, identify areas that require in-service for teachers and determine appropriate
evaluation procedures and process.

At the project field-trial (try-out) stage evaluation helps to determine:

 Adequacy of the materials
 Needed revisions, cost of production, quantity
 Nature needed
 Teaching-learning strategies need
 Evaluation procedures – instrument required

Evaluation at the school implementation stage check on arrival of teaching-learning

resources in schools and their use by teachers and students
 Whether teachers have been adequately prepared
 Reaction of teachers, parents and other stakeholders on the new program
 Whether procedures used meet the standard criteria designated by the curriculum
developer
 What is actually being learned – the operational curriculum
 What requires change
 Acceptance of the new program by the beneficiaries

National examinations cater for comparison of schools, districts, pupils, teachers.

Grading selection, placement, certification, school academic records. Evaluation of
examination procedures ensures higher standards of education, detects areas of difficulty;
determiners new methods of teaching and evaluation; problems teachers and learners
have in interpreting course objects.

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Activity 32
Assess the role of evaluation at each stage of curriculum development and
implementation.
Why do educational programs fail?

8.4 Principles of Instructional Evaluation

Instructional Evaluation should be used on the following criteria by which worth is
determined.
 Consistency with Objectives
Evaluation should be used to measure what is indicated in curriculum objectives of a
course programme R. Tyler (1950) observer that educational objectives are the criteria by
which materials are selected, content is outlined, instructional procedure are developed
and tests and examinations are prepared. Evaluation tells us how successful we have been
in this effort. The criteria for evaluation and the results so obtained should be
underscored and accepted by all those concerned. There is need to develop in pupils the
ability to learn further.

 Validity and Reliability

Evaluation instruments are valid if they measure what they are supposed to measure. A
test in CRE, for example, should not be expected to elicit scientific knowledge but
religious education concepts. A valid test shall relate to objectives of the specific course
and appropriate for the level.

Reliability refers to the consistency with which an evaluation instrument measures giving
the same score of results. Two different examiners are able to arrive the same score on
the test candidates who have gone through the same learning process. A test item that has
several answers yet the test constructor required only one correct answer cannot be said
to be reliable. A reliable test will also try to elicit the same abilities, skills from the same
sample of students.

 Continuity
Curriculum evaluation should be an on-going process in order to provide effective
feedback, which will lead to course improvement. It should moreover relate to previous,
present and future learning experiences and follow proper sequencing of the course, from
easy to complex items. The evaluation system begins with curriculum decision, which
results in the identification of the first goals. It continues throughout the planning process
into implementation activities, and cycles back to the planning process.

Instructional evaluation should be a continuous process so that the teacher can adequately
and effectively assess each student needs in order to select appropriate resources, develop
appropriate learning strategies, judge each student merit, and provide effective feedback
and motivation to each student; plan group methods, appropriate activities along specified
learning objectives.

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Through continuous assessment the teacher consistently and systematically provides the
educational experience most suited to the educational needs, interests, readiness and
ability of each student.

 Balance
Balance means that the curriculum developers have weighed the relative importance they
have given to each student need and development tasks. Considerations should be given
to all student needs. Evaluation should assess all skills weighted against the time
allocated to each. Balance also ensure that the various cognitive skills are equally or
reasonably weighted. If the test items dwell on higher or lower cognitive skills only, such
a test will lack balance. Hence, there should be a balance in the following cognitive levels
of skills: knowledge, comprehensive, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation.
There should be also balance theory and practical skills. All subjects have theoretical and
practical aspects.

 Comprehensiveness
Education aims at the development of the whole person. Hence, all the objectives of the
curriculum programme should be evaluated, namely: the cognitive, effective,
psychomotor, spiritual and social relating domains. Evaluation instruments should be
designed to yield accurate information concerning personal, social adjustment, physical
growth, spiritual growth, habits of work, interests and attitudes; special aptitudes, growth
in creative ability, home and community backgrounds must also be available if the school
is to do the best job possible in fostering the wholesome growth of learners and preparing
them for effective citizenship in a democratic multi-part, multi-racial, multi-ethnic, multi-
religious society such as obtains in Kenya. Education should prepare the individual to
face the vicissitudes of life with constancy, persistency, insistence and courage.

Individuals play different roles at different educational experience and stages of life; Pre-
primary, primary, secondary, university; childhood, adolescence, adult middle age,
retirement age and old age. Each stage requires definite knowledge, skills, values and are
subject to evaluation by society. It is not the mere acquisition of knowledge that matters
but how it utilized. Modern evaluation attempt to obtain as complete a picture as possible
of the individual. The evaluation procedure is comprehensive if they utilize a variety of
means and techniques in collection evaluation data.

 Cooperation
An evaluation system is depended upon the adequacy of the planning which resulted in
the selected or creation of curriculum programs, activities, procedures, resources and
other elements to be evaluated. Evaluation systems are also dependent upon the utility
and integrity of the specific data to be gathered, displayed and intepreted (practical skills,
work at primary, secondary, and university exams). What criteria should be met to ensure
validity and reliability?

An adequate evaluations system involves at least two levels of cooperation. The first
concerns the integrity of the relationships established among the planning, implementing
and evaluation phases of program building. Evaluation should be inbuilt in the planning

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and preparation states of curriculum development. The second concerns the
comprehensive involvement of all parties, which have legitimate input or from the
programs activities or its evaluation systems.

The determination of what constitutes success or failure requires the cooperative

involvement of those who implement and are affected by the program and those who
evaluate. There should be cooperation among the KIE curriculum developers, the Kenya
National Examinations Council and the classroom teachers. There should be also
cooperation among the psychologists, sociologists, philosopher, religious leaders,
professors, trade unionists, curriculum developers, employers and teachers; and all other
stakeholders.

Evaluation instruments should be functional, practical understood and acceptable by all

teachers involved. There should be a closer relationship between the examination and the
objectives which school education hopes to achieve, therefore, between the style of the

What is the difference evaluation and measurement?

8.5 Measurement and Evaluation

Confusion usually arises in the use of the terms measurement, testing and evaluation. Let
us define each one of the these terms.

(a) Measurement and Testing

(i) Measurement is the means of determining the degree of achievement of a
particular objective or competency.
(ii) Testing on the other hand, is the use of instruments for measuring
achievement.

Measurement and testing are ways and tools of collecting information for evaluation and
assessment. These are not only ways of gathering evaluation data. There are others that
we shall deal with in the following lectures.
(b) Evaluation is the process of giving value judgement based on the information
gathered through measurement and testing for decision making.
(c) Measurement and evaluation are not the same thing in curriculum development
process.

Whatever judgement we make regarding the degree to which learners have achieved
curriculum objectives will be valid if they are based on empirical data. We can obtain
empirical evidence through measurement.
We use measurement to quantity representations of the degree to which a learner reflects
certain traits or behaviour. Data obtained through measurement is basically descriptive in
nature. It is expressed numerical terms. Elements of value connotations are avoided as
much as possible by measurement.

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 Purpose for Evaluation
Evaluation has a lot of purposes for both schools and public. Some of these purposes are
identified as follows:

Evaluation as a Basis for Student Records by Teachers

Many educational authorities require that teachers submit marks or grade for their
students, at the end of the term or year. The grades or makes are kept as records of
students performance. Marks or grades are arrived at through formal examinations, test,
regular assignments, oral or written reports or observations.

Promotion to Higher Grades

Schools are examination and test results to determine whether students has made enough
progress to be promoted to the next class or form in the school. In many cases a student
whose progress is low, is adviced to repeat the same class for a year before he can move
on to the next one. The class teacher in consultation with the head-teacher will talk to the
parent of the affected student and convince him to see the advantages of the child to
repeat. Fear of failing in the final selection examination is cited as a big reason in many
schools.

Selection and Certification Purpose

Not all students who pass through the primary school systems move automatically to
secondary schools or form one. National examinations are used in Kenya to select those
who have passed with enough points to go to form one. The National examinations are
similarly used to select students to join form five and University. Examinations results
are also as a criterion for certification. Thus students who pass national examinations at
various levels are entitled to being issued with certificates. For instance the Kenya
Certificate of Primary Education (K.C.P.E) and Kenya Certificate of Secondary
Education (K.C.S.E).

Employment Purposes
Students who complete primary and post-primary school education are provided with
certificates which enable employers to make a choice. Some students may want to join a
company or training for a profession in pubic or private sectors. All employers usually
require information on perspective trainees or employees. Such information may include
academic attainment in specific subjects, attitude towards work, moral behaviour,
personality another related data. In many cases, a student’s certificate or school leaving
testimonial will be important for training and employment purposes.

Student Motivation
Good performance by students on tests and examinations has been proved by educators to
be a motivation to them. Failure to do well in examinations may also crease a sense of
competition with students. They will work had to improve performance in future
examinations.
It has been suggested that teachers feedback will assist students to work harder.

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Guidance and Counselling Purposes
Students in all schools need to know their progress in academic performances. The only
way they can judge themselves and be able to solve their personal problems is by seeing
their performance on class tests or examinations. Successful students tend to enjoy school
much more than those who do not perform well. Those who seem to be failures need
greater attention by the teachers. The teacher must direct attention to such demanding
cases in a class.

Assessment of the Effectiveness of Teaching Strategies

Many students fail examinations due to poor teaching methods. Teachers who do not
assess students acquisition of knowledge, skills and understanding in a course may not be
able to judge the effectiveness of the approaches in teaching. Assessment of student
performance will therefore assist the teacher to modify the teaching strategy where
necessary.

Purposes of Informing Parents or Guardians

Parents want to know how their children are performing in class. It is their right to know
the progress of their children. Terminal records of students’ performance are the most
important method of informing parents about the performance of their children in school.
Some parents may use such records to advice their children or recommend to their
teachers what steps should be taken to improve the child’s performance.
Activity 33
What is curriculum Evaluation?
Why should parents/guardians be informed?

Difference Between Instructional and Curriculum Evaluation

Instructional and curriculum evaluation are not the same. Instructional process may be
very effective whereas the curriculum may be out of order. Instructional evaluation may
reveal that the students are achieving the instructional objectives well. If we do not
evaluate and rely through curriculum evaluation that we shall know if we are following
items well but they may not be universally acceptable as being correct.
The earth is flat, illness is caused by the evil eyes and bad spirits, all developing human
beings are corrupt and all children can be doctors and engineers.

The main purposes that curriculum evaluation is undertaken is to determine whether

curriculum goals and objectives are being carried out correctly. The following are other
questions we may need to provide answers for through curriculum evaluation:
 We want to know whether the goals and objectives are the right ones.
 We should be interested to know if the curriculum is functioning while in operation
 We want to know whether the material we are using is the right one.
 We also want to know how our products (graduates) can function in daily life after
school, and whether they are contributing to the development of our society.
 We want to know whether the programme we have launched raw deal for our
investments

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 Activity 34
How do we obtain data for evaluating a curriculum?

8.6 Gathering Evaluation Data

Sources of data for curriculum evaluation are numerous. For the purposes of our study
we shall divide them into two categories.
 Teacher – made-tests and examination’s
 Other informal devices

 Teacher-Made-Tests and Examinations

Established procedures for collecting data for curriculum evaluation are mostly to do with
instructional evaluation. In Kenya, teacher-made test provide the only information that
may be used for determining student progress in school. Tests are predominantly used in
school for evaluation because:
(a) they are expected to be objective
(b) they are economically to use
(c) they are easy to administer
(d) they provide a norm against which individual achievement can be judged

Tests have their limitations too e.g.

 Tests do not test al objectives
 Non-cognitive abilities hardly tested
 Teacher-made-tests tend to ignore individual learners differences.

However, test and examinations do provide data for curriculum evaluation that serves a
useful function in judging the quality of the whole curriculum.

Informal evaluation devices serve as an important source of evaluation data. Some of the
devices used also come under the instructional evaluation. They may include
 All students’ records in school,
 Classroom observation by teachers
 Students’ projects
 Essays and classroom exercises and other assignments

The curriculum document itself will be acceptable to serve as a source of curriculum

evaluation. Curriculum documents consist of all the elements indicated below which
should be useful for providing information for evaluation:-
- Statement of purposes
- Curriculum content
- Learning activities
- Evaluation procedures indicate
Teachers from an inherent source of data for curriculum evaluation. Information needed
for curriculum evaluation should be obtained from the teachers who are involved in the
implementation of the curriculum in schools. Information from teachers can be obtained
by means of:

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 (i) interview
(ii) questionnaires
(iii) oral or written devices

Teachers perception of curriculum content, instructional materials learning activities,

relevance and student performance in general yield valuable information about what goes
on in our schools.

Students are an important source of curriculum evaluation data. Many curriculum

developers forget the fact that students can provide very useful information on the
curriculum. Students will provide information freely when they know what it will not be
used to determine their individual grades. The information obtained from students should
be compared with that obtained from teachers.

Materials used for instructional would serve a useful purposes as a source of evaluation
data.
These materials could include:
- Text books for teaching and references
- Films, slides, periodicals etc.

Some books for instance, may serve no useful purpose as class texts; others may be out-
dated while others may provide undesirable information to the students. They may not
assist the teacher in attaining objectives.
Follow-up studies of graduates will yield good information on how effective the
objectives in the curriculum were achieve. Studies of graduates have been organized and
carried out to determine what the youths who complete primary education in this country
do. These studies have revealed that a lot of youths who graduate from primary schools
cannot be absorbed in employment among the graduates. Crime among youths and lack
of relevant skills would be relevant for making decision on what changes should be taken
by curriculum developers.
Society would be another important source of evaluation data. How do we get curriculum
evaluation data from society whose population consists of people with diverse social and
cultural backgrounds? Information about what goes on in schools could be solicited
through various ways:-

(i) Letters to prominent members of our society will give us what we expect.
(ii) Parents visit’s schools and other local personnel who may express concern
in the welfare of schools would be acceptable
Activity 35
Examine the process of Curriculum Evaluation in Kenya.

In Kenya the task of evaluating the curriculum in schools is carried out into phases:-
 Formative Evaluation Phase
 Summative Evaluation Phase

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In all the two phases different personnel are involved. Let us examine the role of each
personnel in curriculum evaluation. The ministry of education science and technology has
the following branches of personnel who undertake the evaluation tasks in Kenya.

(a) The Inspectorate

(i) Subject inspectors at the headquarters are responsible for every subject that is
included in the curriculum and taught in our schools. There is a team of
subject specialists who inspect and provide information on the effectiveness
or weakness of subject-content, methodology and material used for
instruction
(ii) Subject Inspectors at the headquarters co-ordinate activities pertaining to
particular subjects for all schools, i.e. secondary, colleges and primary
schools.
(iii) Subject-Inspectors at the headquarters are assisted by provincial and district
school inspectors.

(b) Curriculum Development K.I.E

(i) The section of research and evaluation is responsible for curriculum
evaluation at both formative and summative phases. The work of
evaluating curriculum is done by curriculum development experts under
the auspices of the section of research and evaluation. Whatever
evaluation is undertaken by this group is used to supplement what is done
by the inspectorate.
(ii) K.I.E has a panel which reviews books for schools. Recommendation of
the books reviewed is transmitted to the Ministry of Education Science
and Technology. The approved books are either bought by the schools
Equipment Scheme and sent to schools or head-teachers may be provided
with the list of books to enable them to purchase them. The panel may
also recommend some books to be withdrawn from Circulation and use by
schools if they may find them to be undesirable. You have seen in your
schools lists and circulars from the Ministry of Education, Science and
Technology showing new books recommended as teachers references,
pupils class text etc. the circulars may also inform the teachers if the new
books will be set books for literature of fasihi ya kiswahili, etc.

(c) Role of the Kenya National Examinations Council

Instructional evaluation will reveal to us a lot of what goes on in various classrooms and
what actually happens in different schools. End o year examinations (National
Examinations) have been used for many years as a yardstick to measure the achievement
of curriculum objectives. The role of the Kenya National Examination Council is to
facilitate the setting, moderating, marking and grading of all national examinations for
various levels of education in this country. In particular, the council is in charge of
primary schools, secondary schools, Teachers colleges, Technical Training Institutions
and other relevant public examinations taken in the country.

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9.0 CURRICULUM INNOVATION
Issues and changes in curriculum are many. In recent years we have a seen wide range of
innovation s emerge in education. the efforts of the innovations for the innovations are
designed to improve the quality of schooling for all Kenyan children. The most recent
effort has been the introduction of the 8.4.4 system of education with vocational
education as its core. Other changes which have occurred in education since early sixties
through seventies are the establishment of the Jomo Kenyatta foundation for the
publication of educational books and other related teaching materials; the establishment
of Kenya School Equipment Scheme (KSES) for the acquisition and distribution of
school equipment to schools under the jurisdiction of the ministry of Education. the
scheme supplies mainly books and other instructional materials to the primary schools
through out the country.

However, many attempts to develop the systems designed to meet the needs of the
children in Kenya have appeared and again disappeared through out the history of
education in the country. Although we have not yet developed the means to implement
genuinely effective education programmes designed to meet the needs of individual
children, the government has increasingly a wide range of options and directions to be
followed.

This lecture is devoted to a discussion of such options and changes. Some changes have
been with us for long while others are quite recent in our educational practices.

Objectives

After studying this lecture, you should be able to:

(1) Identify curriculum changes before independence
(2) Identify specific curriculum changes in subject areas after independence
(3) Name some of the curriculum projects that have been initiated in Kenya
after independence
(4) Name curriculum projects initiated before independence

9.1 Curriculum Changes in Kenya

This study of curriculum changes in Kenya goes back to the year 1890 when Africans
rules themselves. The curriculum that was offered to the youth was meant to prepare him
for his responsibilities as an adult in his home, his village and his tribe. Instructions were
given by the fathers and through organized systems of elders or villagers.

The curriculum that was taught to the child included:

Craftsmanship through apprenticeship system, initiation of rites, religion, hunting,
farming including the raising of cattle, community responsibility, number work, dance
and music.

The elders as part of the instructors made sure that the youth were introduced to the
legends surrounding previous exploits of their tribe, to the mysteries of their religion and
practical aspects of hunting. Along this process of teaching learning aspects, there were

75
varieties of formal and non-formal observances in addition to the experience of daily
living which had a profound effect on the youth’s place in the society in which politics
economics and social relationships were invariably interwoven.

The period (1891-1911) of the curriculum development in Kenya was heavily assisted by
few Christians missions and indirect government help given in the form of grants in aid.
The primary goal of missionary education was to make converts and train catechists. But
it soon established as basic elements in the curriculum the following:
Practical skills, carpentry, gardening (to maintain mission stations) and literacy (reading
and writing).

These skills were taught specifically to children so that they could acquire skills to use
and also learn how to relate themselves properly to their immediate and extended
families, ancestors, their peers and their gods.

The period (1911) marked the beginning of the establishment of the department of
education with a Director. In 1924 there were four outstanding events, which contributes
largely to the process of Kenyan education. These events were as follows:
The visit of the Phelps stroke commission, the adaptation of the Education Ordinance of
1924, the appointment of the colonial office advisory committee and the appointment of
Local Advisory Committee on African Education.

The general policy of the Educational Department as adapted in 1911 and based upon the
excellent work of the great Afro-American known as Mr. Booker T. Washington in a
book entitled “working with the hands” not only remained unchanged in principles, but
was confirmed and strengthened, first by the agriculture policy of the late Sir Robert
Corydon and secondly by the principles advocated by Dr. Jones and the Phelps Stokes
Commission, namely Adaptation to Environment in Education, and the distinction
between the education of the masses and the education of the leaders.

By 1952 the principles governing the curriculum were based as far as possible on the
Mentality, Customs and Institutions of the Africans. New knowledge or skill was taught
in contact with the indigenous knowledge or skill. The curriculum was developed in view
of the needs of the village. The life of the school provided opportunity for the exercise of
the quality of character which the colonial office wished to impart and encourage and
therefore the curriculum was to utilize every opportunity of education arising in the life
of the school.

Since independence up to the present there has been a rapid expansion of education in
Kenya. First there was the integration of the pre-1963 African. Asian and European
syllabuses into one. Then there was the New Primary Approach which was initiated in
the mid-fifties by the special centre. The chief developments were seen in classroom
practice and in the material used for the teaching of English, Kiswahili, Mathematics and
Science by Curriculum Research and Development Centre was formed through
amalgamation of the Mathematics and Science Centre with the special centre. By 1968
Kenya Institute of Education (K.I.E) absorbed the C.R.D.C and its on-going projects. The

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biggest in scale of these were the safari English Services which were used in standard IV,
V and VI in high proportion.

9.2 Curriculum Innovations in Kenya

 New Primary Approach (NPA)

The New Primary Approach was an innovation in the teaching of English in Primary
Schools. The programme was initiated as a result of poor performance among the Asian
and African children in Kenya. Plans were made to start the programme in Asian
Schools first. Four years after the centre was opened, the Oxford University Press
launched the PEAK SERIES publications a groups of books in English designed to meet
the needs of Asian children in East Africa who begin their primary education in English
without prior knowledge of the language. The Ford Foundation provided printing
equipment, tape-recorders, and additional staff.

By 1963, the New Primary Approach had picked up very much. Teacher Training
Colleges introduced the NEW SERIES English Medium. The objective of this special
centre was to educate through the medium of English but not to teach English. By this
time (1963) the newly independent Kenya commended on the programme by saying that,
the government has been actively attacking the problem of standards of primary
education from the area of teaching methods and the curriculum. It went on to say that
one of the most promising ventures in the history of education in Kenya has been the
development of the New Primary Approach in the primary schools. The essence of the
programme is that the old concept of the child passively receiving instruction from the
teacher should be replaced by a system in which the pupil develops through active and
full participation in the education process.

There was a slow down on the program by 1970 because of lack of uniformity in the
quality of the NPA program. Supervision was inadequate; classroom and teaching
facilities were very poor. The government decided not to open more NPA classes.

The New Primary Approach influenced the teaching of vernacular languages and the
General Methods of K.I.E produced TKK series of vernacular readers which were very
useful pamphlets on the approach to reading, and a variety of other materials designed on
N.P.A lines.

 Science Education Programme for Africa (SEPA)

The Science Education Programme for Africa was unusual project since its inception in
1971, when the African Primary Science Programme (APSP) handed over its
responsibilities to it. The aim of SEPA was not only the production of curriculum
materials, but also it attempted to build into teachers at all levels of educational system
the ability to make effective decisions about curriculum.

The project influenced the teaching of primary science in Kenya through the following
objectives:
(i) Promotion effective ways of learning science by utilizing the child’s environment

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(ii) Developing and introducing new and relevant science curricula materials into
African schools
(iii) Establishing institutions in Africa concerned mainly with the furtherance of the
renewal of science curricula
(iv) Encouraging Kenyans to write more science materials

 Kenyans Primary Mathematics Project (KPMP)

The Kenya Primary Mathematics Project encountered a number of problems similar to
those encountered by the school Mathematics Study Group (SMSG) and the School
Mathematics of East Africa (SMEA).
Some of the problems that this project encountered were:
(i) Negligence of making mathematics practical
(ii) Isolation of mathematics from the physical and social sciences by putting too
much emphasis on such topics as set theory, symbolic logic abstract, algebra,
matrices and Bolean Algebra.
(iii) Lack of sufficient tools of evaluation because Kenya found that the Entebbe
project (SMEA) which was similar to the SMSG failed to meet the needs of the
country.
(iv) Lack of sufficient or proper trials.
(v) Teachers were not given chances of developing materials
(vi) In general this project filed to achieve its objectives.

The only major significant success that this project made was production of plenty of
mathematics materials through workshops. Also commercial publishers entered into the
business of producing many books on new mathematics.

He reading below takes us into the historical development of the KPMP and the
criticisms the project received during its implementation.

This reading comes from an occasional paper written by Professor George Eshiwani. He
discusses the origin of the project and gives some of the criticisms that were given to the
project.

 Kenya Primary Mathematics (KPM)

In 1964, a decision was taken to begin along term project to develop a new series of
mathematics in Kenya Primary Schools, it was intended to use the Entebbe Mathematics
series for one year in each standard, beginning with standard 1 in 1965, and then each
year to replace this book with an experimental Kenya text which would lead to a definite
Kenya series. Twenty-five experimental schools in Nairobi and Kisumu Districts were
chosen. In-service programmes for the teachers in these schools were conducted and the
Teacher Training Colleges were visited on regular basis to acquiant tutors with the new
developments. The project proceeded more or less as planned until 1968 but in 1969
shortage of staff the mathematics section of the Kenya Institute of Education, which had
been entrusted with the production of the new materials, resulted in the experimental
editions of the books being dropped.

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In 1970 the decisions were taken to extend the new series, then named as Kenya Primary
Mathematics, to all schools in Kenya in January 1971. Curriculum work that had to be
undertaken by the Kenya Institute of Education to meet this new situation was gigantic.
The KPM textbooks had to be written hurriedly and passed on to schools.

As in the case of the SMEA programme, the content in the KPM consisted of more than
60 per cent of the topics from the traditional mathematics (e.g. Highway series). There
were few “new” topics such as sets, bases, probability, and statistics, transformation,
geometry and clock arithmetic. The major differences between the KPM texts and the
traditional text was in the presentation of the subject matter.

Criticism of New Mathematics Programme

In many countries, the new mathematics has provided a field day for cartoonists,
monologists, and polemicists. Some of the criticisms have been insightful while others
have been penetrating. It is worth mentioning that several people in Kenya have written
in the past about the shortcomings of the new mathematics. Several years ago the
following criticisms on the new mathematics in Kenya have been identified.

The new mathematics syllabus and the textbooks being used are far too difficult for the
average child in this country and the content is extremely demanding to both the student
and the teacher. The texts are best suited to the top students, especially those who will
continue in mathematics beyond the high school. Little attention has been devoted to the
average and below average and below average student. The fact that primary and
secondary school education is terminal for the majority of our school population dictates
that school curriculum should be tailored to this group and not to the academic extroverts.

The applications of mathematics were largely ignored. Mathematics should derive from
the application to the real world or it will lose its vitality one of the shortocomings of the
new mathematics curriculum in Kenya is that it was left largely in hands of expatriate
staff who could not translate their good intentions into reality for the Kenya child.

Rigour, precision and symbolism were overdone in both SARA and in the KRM
textbooks and sometimes become an end in themselves. Two effects of this were:
(i) A decline in interest on the part of students whose concern are more practical and
(ii) A peculiar form of notational mockery among some students, teachers and
examiners (if you cannot use the symbol you do not know basic mathematics).

The conceptual emphasis was so great that teachers would incorporate appropriate
computational skills in their instruction. The teachers did not do this and hence the public
outcry about the incompetence of the school children in performing simple computational
operations.

Both the primary and secondary school syllabus was overloaded. Most teachers
complained that there was so much work to be done that they had no time to try out new
techniques in their teaching.

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The language use in the SMRA and in the KPM textbooks was generally difficult for
most pupils. This has often led to inadequate understanding of the subject matter.
Lack of curriculum diffusion between those who develop curriculum at K.I.E and
teachers. The curriculum developers failed to communicate to classroom teachers what
they were trying to accomplish. There were as significant inservice training programs for
teachers who were supposed to teach new mathematics. As a result, many of the
mathematics teachers were no better than their students. Of course the new texts were
well taught by good teachers buy in the hands of poor teachers it was a complete disaster.
There was no evaluation of the new mathematics both at primary and secondary level.
This long term effect of changing from one type of curriculum to another was therefore
not evaluated.

 The Gachathi Report of 1976 spelled out in details the objective of education. This
commission was assigned the task of investigating the quality of education in Kenya.
Primary education has been accused by members of the community that is lacked
quality, content and relevance and therefore it was not catering sufficiently for the
majority of our children for whom primary education is terminal.

In an effort to fulfil this responsibility, the government decided to introduce far reaching
changes in Kenya’s Primary Education Programme (PEP) which took into called primary
and relevance. The development of PEP started in 1997 and in progress was the piloting
of materials for standard one to five. Piloting of other classes followed this until they
were all covered. The development of PEP was based on the premise that:
(i) There is need to improve the quality, content and relevance of primary education
so that it centres more effectively for the majority of children for whom primary
education is terminal.
(ii) Primary education should be made available to all primary school age children.
(iii) Primary education should be broadly based and lead to the development of
competencies in a variety of practical skills.
(iv) Primary education should concentrate on the needs of the majority who terminate
their education at the primary school level while bearing in mind the needs of
those who will continue to the secondary ant tertiary cycles.

The programme consisted of three phases:

Designing of a primary and primary teacher education curriculum programme and
production of curriculum materials.
Implementation of the primary and primary teacher education programme into all the
primary schools and primary teachers colleges.
Summative evaluation of the programme

 The Mackay’s Report of 1981 which was presidential working party on the second
university recommended among other things the major changes to 8-4-4 system of
education.

The essential elements of the new system are in the area of structure which have 8 years
of primary, 4 years of secondary and 4 years minimum university education. In the area

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of curriculum, content is oriented towards technical education and movement away
examination centred.
The preparation of the curriculum for the 8 years primary cycle was patterned on similar
lines to the primary education project popularly known as PEP which was by then being
developed by the Kenya Institute of Education.

The most significant aspects of PEP with the 8 years of primary education are:
(i) Focus on the entire primary education
(ii) Relationalization of primary education
(iii) Reorganization of subjects into broad curriculum areas with common objectives
(iv) Introduction of new subjects to meet identified needs no presently adequately
catered for.

The curriculum is organized on two broad on two broad cycles:

Lower primary cycle (std. 1-3)
Upper primary (std. 4-8)

Lower primary (std. 1-3)

The main emphasis at this level is the development of numeracy and literacy
Language
(i) Mother tongue (including Kiswahili where it is used as a mother tongue). Mother
tongue is also used as the medium of instruction.
(ii) English

Mathematics
Science (integrating agriculture, home science and general science).
Social Studies (integrating geography, history, civics and social education).
Religious Education
(i) Christian Religious Education
(ii) Islamic Religious Education

Creative Arts:
(i) Art and Craft
(ii) Music
(iii) Physical education

Upper Primary (std. 4-8)

The main emphasis at this level is the development of practical skills to prepare children
for the world of work. The subject to be followed are:
Languages: (I) Kiswahili
(II) English – also used as the medium of instruction

Mathematics
Science
Home Science
Social Studies (incorporating Geography, history, civics and social education).

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Religious Education
(i) Christian Religious Education
(ii) Islamic religious Education

Practical skills education:

(i) Agriculture
(ii) Art Education
(iii) Craft Education
(iv) Business Education

Music
Physical Education

In an attempt to relate primary education to the development of life oriented skills, a new
cluster of subject known as practical skills was introduced in primary education. this was
adapted after extensive consultation and discussion in preference to occupational skills
Education that had been used earlier. The latter is considered to be presumptions and
gives the impression that at the end of primary education the pupils will have prepared
for a job or occupation. The most that can be expected to be achieved within the primary
cycle is the building of a solid education foundation with some practical skills on which
the pupils can build after leaving school.

(a) Standard 8 Curriculum

According to the primary education (PEP) project plan for std. 8 piloted in 1986 and were
to be available for use in all schools until 1989 as the earliest. Therefore, to facilitate the
implementation of the 8:4:4 program in 1985, an interim curriculum program for std. 8
replaced by PEP materials until it was completely phased out.

The interim curriculum was based on existing curriculum areas, that is, the subjects as
they appeared on the current primary timetable. And not as proposed by PEP. However,
not unduly penalized as they a waited for the completion of the development of PEP
materials. Care was taken to ensure that the transition from std. 7 to 8 in the interim
period was smooth.

A new examination was developed and used in 1985. The details of the examination were
worked out alongside the development of the interim curriculum. A new examination was
also developed through PEP.

(b) Secondary Education Cycle

The presentation of the secondary education cycle was made by the Director of Higher
Education, who made the following
That secondary education should take off from the cut off point of primary education and
hence down to standard VIII.
(i) That current from own work should not be pushed down to standard VIII.
(ii) Stds. VII and VIII will need to be diversified.

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(iii) The development of an elaborate secondary education curriculum is to take into
account the basic preparation offered in the primary education cycle, hence it has
to await the completion of the development of the 8-year primary education
curriculum
(iv) The secondary education curriculum is to be based on the terminal level of the
primary education cycle
(v) There was a need for continued close cooperation and liaison between the
Ministries of Basic and Higher Education in the implementation of the 8-4-4
education system.

That there was a need for agreement with the University on the terminal level of
secondary education particularly on what aspects of the current KACE academic work
should be retained in secondary education and what aspects should move to the
university.

There was a need to examine the various issues relating to the secondary terminal
examination, and certification, as well as the nature, level and duration of the various
post-secondary training programs.

 Four year University Education Cycle

The vice-chancellor of the University of Nairobi made the following presentation on thee
university Education Cycle. He made the following comments:
He reported that the senate in its discussion last year on the 8-4-4 education had raise
several points regarding.
(i) The level at which secondary school leavers will be selected for University entry.
(ii) What would be covered in the extra university year.

He noted that university education in East Africa is currently based on ‘A’ level academic
preparation and that recommended change to 4 year secondary education is very
fundamental.
The working party on the Second University did not go into details of the changes
University Education. It recommended that it should be more practical in its approach.
Graduates were to be practical oriented and aware of general development issues and
strategies. It was also recommended that the B.Ed. programme at Kenyatta University
should be reviewed to make it richer in content.
He noted that while University Education must continue at the present leve of
competence, there were mundane implications of lengthening the duration of University
Education.

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 Summary
In this lecture we have been able to discuss curriculum changes that have taken place in
Kenya'’ educational development. Specifically we have stated that changes in curriculum in
Kenya go away back to precolonial and colonial ear. In 1963, the New Primary Approach
was very popular as an innovation in schools. NPA did not last long in the system due to a
number of factors.
Science Education programme for Africa, the Kenya Primary mathematics project, and other
similar projects were introduced after independence.

Activities 36

Discus some curriculum changes in Kenya between 1960 and 1966.

Read more on N.P.A and give your views on why the project failed.
Examine the criticisms against the Kenya primary maths. Why was the programme criticized
so strongly?
Which areas in the 8:4:4 syllabus that you consider to the new and which ones are not?
Give reasons for your reactions.

References
1. Beecher Report 1949.
2. Ominde Report 1964
3. Gachathi Report 1976
4. Readings in Curriculum Development in Primary schools in Kenya by Jack G. Okech
and Prof. Hugh Howes. 1986.
5. New Primary Approach. NPA by Sifuna D.
6. Mackay Report – 2nd Ed. (1981)
7. The 8:4:4 System of Education

9.2 Forces Affecting Curriculum Innovation in Kenya

People who develop curriculum are faced with a lot of issues to wrestle with. Some of
these affect curriculum changes. In this lecture we shall refer to these issues as forces
which affected curriculum changes in Kenya.
Some specific forces have been selected for our discussion in this lecture. There are many
other which could not be discussed in the small space for this lecture. We shall
particularly discuss the drive for power, in a force, the appeal for the shillings, growth in
knowledge and peoples need in schools.

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Objectives
After studying this lecture you should be able to:
1. Describe some factors, which affect curriculum changes.
2. Explain how growth in knowledge has influenced curriculum decisions.
3. Examine various needs of the society, which must be considered in curriculum planning.

 Imminent Problem
Curriculum development is a difficult and complex task. There are many problems and
no ready solutions. In many cases curriculum, one would find in our schools appear to
stress the teaching of subject matter (knowledge) and forgetting to remember that the
child’s needs are paramount. There is too much of class instruction going on in our
schools and too little of education of the hands. The question of how far is our curriculum
in tune with our social change, needs and future aspirations has been asked again and
again. No solution has been given to this question. For those involved in the construction
of the school curriculum tend to adapt foreign ideas and use them in teaching. Some of
the ideas become completely impracticable and are abandoned before they mature.

There is need for changes which would occur gradually and not abruptly. In most cases
the syllabus is designed in such a way that knowledge is brought to the child go seeking
for knowledge. The teacher should initiate the child and arouse his curiosity which will
lead the child in seeking for knowledge. This process can be termed self-learning which
is true learning.

President Moi has repeatedly pointed out that a discipline should be studied more that the
content of the subject. This is to say that in studying agriculture children should study the
subject from the agriculturist approach and so on. The exploration and inquiry
approaches should be given the priority. While studying a discipline it should be studied
in the manner in which it affects our society.

Our classroom instruction does not provide sufficient freedom to the child. A flexible
classroom is needed where children go on discovering the world around them as they
seek that knowledge is unknown to them.

From the beginning of Kenya’s independence in the 1963 hostile influences have
continued to play our school systems.

Groups and individuals of varied view-points have since then affected our schools. Today
those of us in curriculum work recognized that some agents of forces, and thus some
forces and themselves affect the curriculum intimately and consistently. These special
and permanent forces, with their temporary agents tend to cause curriculum change,
though sometimes they hold it back. Because the curriculum is where people are, the
special, permanent forces bringing about the other affecting curriculum change are dearly
human. Each force in its quality of humanness hold potential for good and potential for
end. Each lies deep in human motivation.

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Four forces affecting curriculum in Kenya have become especially prominent. These are:
(i) The drive for power
(ii) The appeal of the shilling
(iii) The growth in knowledge with corresponding efforts at evaluation acquisition of
knowledge
(iv) The needs and concerns of people in schools within surrounding social and
cultural factors

 The Drive to Power

During the sixties the people’s drive for power over the curriculum revealed itself in the
urge of people to speak loudly, to alert other citizens to an alleged problem, to become
nationally prominent. Sometimes the drive had a helpful end, often it seemed only a quest
for power for power’s sake. During the early sixties the attack on the curriculum was
justified because the colonial curriculum was not designed to the needs of the Kenya
people. So improvement was needed in providing education geared to meet the need of
the learners and for national development.

There has been in the past militancy by teachers organizations which have learned that
when one begin to talk about teachers’ welfare, he must soon discuss organization of
schools and children’s’ curricula, both of which matters have previously been in the
presence of Ministry of Education.

The militant behaviour of youth, beginning at university and moving to the second
schools. There has been also a push by scholars in the subject-fields or political positions
who often at the expense of professional educators and especially curriculum leaders,
who criticize what primary and secondary schools teaching.

While formal arrangements for decision making about the curriculum have not materially
changed, the people who have initiated and sanctioned curriculum ideas have often been
those who do not understand the concept of curriculum change.

 The Appeal for the Shilling

A second fundamental force which has affected curriculum change in Kenya has been the
strong appeal which money has for curriculum makers. People are always in need of
funds to do what they have wanted to do for children, curriculum personnel have found a
bonanza in grants-in-aid, which have frequently proved to be mixed blessings. The
ministry of education has become a seeker of special grants or leans to improve
curriculum. When this money has been acquired, the government through the ministry of
education still has something to say about ways in which funds are to be used for
supporting and expanding the curriculum.

On the other hand foreign donors in recent years have frequently earn marked,
designated, or categorically controls the precise nature of curriculum reform they want.
This has been viewed by the country receiving the aid as stifling creativeness and holding

86
back development in the third world among which Kenya is one, as well causing
excessive dependence on the developed countries.

While grants or loans have emphasized, for example, particularized the teaching of new
mathematics, material developers have demanded financial profits through new
educational ideas and increase in child population. Because of the appeal of the shilling
the producers of educational materials has flooded the market with these materials which
are conditioning, increasingly, what children learn. Thus one can say that both the
curriculum package sealers from foreign countries and the sales promotion schemes of
businessman here in Kenya are having unprecedented impact on curriculum decision
making.

 Growth of Knowledge
A third force persistently affecting curriculum change in growth in knowledge, which is
the past occurred slowly and quite steadily but now shows marked erratic burst of speed.
The teacher is no longer able to recover the book. Instead many books now cover the
teacher. Nowadays knowledge filters in all fields, so that Herbert Spencer’s question of
“what knowledge is of most worth?” becomes more and more pertinent. Against a
backdrop of educational objectives curriculum planners are forced to seek new answers to
Spencer’s question.
Summary
This lecture has explored various issues and changes that have taken place in Kenya before
and after independence. Among those issues and changes which took place before
independence was the Phelps stokes report which recommended separate education for
Africans. Asians and white children allowed to proceed to secondary schools.

The post-independence curriculum changes are discussed starting from the Ominde report
(1964) the Gachathi report (1976) and Mackey report of 1981. All these education
commissions and committees did recommended that the Kenyan education should be made
more practical for the Kenyan child whose education is likely to end at primary school levels.

Curriculum change as through as they have wished, in part they have been able to show
interests in ideas that can now be seen in the newly introduce 8-4-4 system of education
Experience has shown tat to organize human knowledge for teaching there is a need for
academic scholars to team up with curriculum specialist, behavioral scientists, and
specialists, behavioral scientists, and specialists in research and evaluation of curriculum
aspects.

With the increasing growth of knowledge definite attitudes towards the of its growth
have emerged. While one of those attitudes has been concerned with how to sort out

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elements of knowledge and place them with the curriculum, another attitude has been fear
that even the former elements are not being understood and learned.

 Needs of the People in School

A fourth force affecting curriculum change is the need and concerns of pupils, teachers,
parents and administration for children .

The real needs and concerns of people have part of their foundation in society and
community. Therefore, parents and other community members should be expected to
contribute to in-school education. This is not the case with our Kenyan community where
most parents feel that the school is an independent institution away from the society in
which they live. The present economic order in Kenya assisted by a new technology
requires that

Pupils be introduced to new sets of skills to deal with it. The experience in the urban and
the rural call for school curriculum to face live social problems Furthermore, the current
crisis in unemployment and values among our youth makes us seek better ways of
educating in the effective domain.

A major concern of teaching and administrators is for pre-service and in-service

development of teaching skills which will help teachers do their best in classrooms.
Because of not providing better training facilities to out teachers it has bees difficult for
these curriculum change.

9.3 Some Curriculum Development Tips

Role of curriculum agents, steps in curriculum development process, translation of theory
into practice, recognizing and rewarding academic excellence, affecting methods to
enhance learning, the need for foundation of curriculum, classification of curriculum
objectives, behaviorism in class-room situation, teaching critical thinking, deciding and
applying teaching methods, understanding curriculum designs and sharing curriculum
activities.

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10.0 GENERAL REFERENCES

Bishop, G. (1985). Curriculum Development. A Textbook for Students, London:

McMillan Publishers.

Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification of

Educational Goals. Handbook 1: Cognitive Domain, New York:
David Mackay Company.

D’Souza, H. (1987). Kenya Education in it’s African Context Vol. 2, Vantage Press.
Flaunders, N. A. (1970). Analyzing Teaching Behavior. Addison Wesley Publishing
Company.

Johnson, H. T. (1968). Foundations of curriculum.

Kaba, B. D. and Rayapen, L. (1990). Relevant Education for Africa, Yaunde: APWPA
Book, Professors World Peace Academy.

Kerr, J. F. (1968). Changing the curriculum, London: Unibooks, University of London

Press Ltd.

Okech, J. G. and Asiachi, J. A. (1992). Curriculum Development for Schools, Nairobi:

ERAP.

Okech, J. G. and Hawes H. (1986). Reading in Curriculum Development in Primary

Schools: Vol. 1 Series on Provision… thro’ British Council HED
Section London: University of London Institute of Education.

Oluoch, G. P. (1982). Essential of Curriculum Development, Nairobi: Elimu Publishers

Ltd.
Ruju, B. M. (1973). Education in Kenya: Problems and Perspectives in Educational
Planning and Administration, Unesco Project Faculty of Education,
University of Nairobi and London: Heinemann.

Shiundu, J. S. and Omulando, S. J. (1992). Curriculum: Theory and Practice in Kenya

Nairobi; Oxford University Press.

Taba, H. B. (1962). Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice, New York: Harcourt
Brace.

Tyler, R. W. (1949). Basic Principles off Curriculum and Instruction, Chicago: The
University of Chicago Press.

Wheeler, D. K. (1967). The Curriculum Process. London: University of London Press.

Additional Readings:

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