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Code of Practice
ECV 411
Foundation Engineering II
Introduction to
Foundations
Foundations
 Every structure consists two basic components:
 The superstructure and
 The substructure or foundations
 The term superstructure is commonly used to
describe the engineered part of the system
bringing load to the foundation, or substructure.
 The substructure or foundations is the lower
portion of the building, usually located below the
ground level, which transmits the load of the
superstructure to the sub soil.
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Foundations
 A foundation is therefore that part of the
structure on which the building stands and which
is in direct contact with the ground to which the
loads are transmitted.
 The term superstructure has particular
significance for buildings and bridges; however,
foundations also may carry only machinery,
support industrial equipment (pipes, towers,
tanks), act as sign bases, and the like.
 For these reasons it is better to describe a
foundation as that part of the engineered system
that interfaces the load-carrying components to
the ground.
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 This British Standard code of practice (BS
8004:1986) for foundations, (formally CP 2004),
gives recommendations for the design and
construction of foundations for the normal range
of buildings and engineering structures.
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Foundations
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Foundations
 The foundation is the part of an engineered
system that transmits to, and into, the underlying
soil or rock the loads supported by the
foundation and its self-weight.
 A foundation is supposed to transmit the
structural loading to the supporting soil in such a
way that the soil is not overstressed and that
excessive settlements of the whole structure are
not caused.
 The resulting soil stresses—except at the ground
surface—are in addition to those presently
existing in the earth mass from its self-weight and
geological history.
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Foundation Engineering Foundation Engineering

 Foundation engineering may be defined as the art of
selecting, designing, and constructing the elements
that transfer the weight of a structure to the underlying
soil or rock.
 It is built on the basic principles of Soil Mechanics, Soil
Hydraulics and Structural Mechanics.
 It applies geology, soil mechanics, rock mechanics
and structural engineering to the design and
construction of foundations for civil engineering and
other structures.
 The term "foundation engineering" is used to include
the design of foundations for buildings and other
structures and also for such non-foundation problems
as designs of retaining walls, bulkheads, cofferdams,
tunnels, and earth dams, as well as the design of
natural slopes, dewatering of soils, and stabilization of
The Leaning Tower of Pisa soils mechanically and chemically.

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Why Foundation Engineering Role of the Foundation Engineer

 The role of the engineer is to select the type of
foundation, design it and supervise its
construction.

 Before the engineer can design a foundation

intelligently, he must have a reasonably accurate
conception of the physical properties and the
arrangement of the underlying materials.

 The foundation engineer must be able to predict

“Virtually every structure is supported by soil or rock. Those the performance or response of the foundation
that aren’t - either fly, float, or fall over.” soil or rock to the loads imposed by the structure.
-Richard Handy, 1995

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Functions of a Foundation Functions of a Foundation

 Basic function of a foundation – to transmit the load
from the structure as well as its own weight to the soil
in such a way that:
 The load does not exceed the ultimate bearing
capacity of the soil
 Settlement of the total structure are within
permissible (tolerable) limits
 Foundations serve the following objectives:
 Reduction of load intensity by distributing the
weight of the structure over a large area of soil.
 Avoid unequal or differential settlement by
uniformly distributing non uniform loads to the
subsoil.
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 Provision of level surface – foundations provide
leveled and hard surface over which the
superstructure can be built.
 Prevent the lateral movement of the structure and
increase structural stability – foundations anchor the
superstructure to the ground increasing the stability
of the building against sliding and overturning due
to horizontal forces.
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Types of Foundations Foundation Isolated or Pad or

Individual Footing
 The various types of structural foundations may be
grouped into two broad categories - shallow
Types Wall or Strip Footing
foundations and deep foundations. Shallow
Combined Footing
 The classification indicates the depth of the Foundation
foundation relative to its size and the depth of the Cantilever or Strap

Foundation
soil providing most of the support. Footing

System
 Shallow foundations are located just below the Raft or Mat
Foundation
lowest part of the superstructure they support; deep
foundations extend considerably deeper in to Deep Footings
earth.
 According to Terzaghi, a foundation is shallow if its Pile Foundation
Deep
depth is equal to or less than its width and deep Foundation
when it exceeds the width. Pier Foundation

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Shallow Foundations (𝑫 ≤ 𝑩) Shallow Foundations (𝑫 ≤ 𝑩)

 Shallow foundations are used where the soil at that
 Shallow foundations are taken to be those where level is capable of adequately supporting the load -
the depth below finished ground level is less than 3 when surface soils are sufficiently strong and stiff to
m and include strip, pad, combined, strap and raft support the imposed loads;
foundations.
 They are generally unsuitable in weak or highly
 The choice of 3 m is arbitrary; shallow foundations compressible soils, such as poorly-compacted fill,
where the depth/breadth ratio is high may need to peat, recent lacustrine and alluvial deposits, etc.
be designed as deep foundations.
 Similarly, shallow foundations result when footing
depth (D) is less than the width (B) of the footing
(where the depth/breadth ratio is low).
 The foundation requirements for many buildings
can be met by shallow foundations

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Shallow Foundations - Isolated Shallow Foundations - Isolated

 Isolated (pad/individual/spread) footings are the most
common, simplest and cheapest type of foundations.
 Generally used for ordinary buildings (up to five stories)
where the load of the structure is relatively low, columns
are not closely spaced and the bearing capacity of the
soil is high at a shallow depth.
 Usually, each column has its own footing.
 The footing directly transfers the loads form the column
to the soil.
 The footings may be rectangular, square or circular in
shape.
 Has uniform thickness.
 The size of the footing can be roughly calculated by
dividing the total load at the column base by the
allowable bearing capacity of the soil.
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Shallow Foundations - Strip Shallow Foundations - Strip

 Strip (wall) footings are used to distribute loads from
structural load-bearing walls to the ground.
 Also used to distribute loads from very closely spaced
Strip/Wall Footings columns to the ground.
 Wall foundation runs along the direction of the wall.
 The width of the wall foundation is generally 2-3 times of
the width of the wall.
 The wall footing is a continuous slab strip along the
length of the wall.
 Stone, brick, reinforced concrete etc. is used for the
construction of wall foundations.
 Wall footing is economical when:
a) Loads to be transmitted are of small magnitude.
b) The footing is placed on dense sand and gravels.
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Shallow Foundations - Combined

Shallow Foundations - Combined
 Used when the columns of the structure are closely
placed, or the bearing capacity of the soil is low resulting
in the column footings overlapping.

 The footings are therefore combined into one footing to

remove the overlap.

 They may be rectangular, tee-shaped or trapezoidal in

shape.

 Base arranged so that its centerline coincides with the

center of gravity of the total loads to ensure uniform
pressure distribution under the entire area of footing.

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Shallow Foundations - Combined Shallow Foundations - Strap

 Combined foundations are economic when:

 The columns are placed close to each other.

 When the column is close to the property line and the
isolated footing would cross the property line or
become eccentric.
 Dimensions of one side of the footing are restricted to
some lower value.

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Shallow Foundations - Strap
 A strap or cantilever footing is used when the edge of
the exterior footing cannot be extended beyond the
property line, resulting in load eccentricity on the
exterior footing and therefore an overturning moment.
 The exterior footing is connected to the interior footing
using strap beam.
 The footings under the columns are built individually and
connected by strap beam constructed between the
exterior and adjacent interior footing.
 The purpose of the strap beam is to restrain overturning
forces due to load eccentricity on the exterior footing.
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Shallow Foundations - Raft
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Shallow Foundations - Raft
 It consists of a reinforced concrete slab or T-beam slab
placed over the entire area of the structure.
 The total load of the structure is spread evenly over the entire
area of the structure.
 It is called Raft because in this case, the building seems like a
vessel which floats on a sea of soil.
 Raft foundations are economical when:
 The soil has low bearing capacity and heavy loads are to
be spread over a large area.
 The structure includes a basement.
 Columns are closely placed.
 Other kinds of foundations are not feasible.
 Differential settlement is to be prevented – on soil mass that
contains compressible layers or the soil is variable resulting
in differential settlement that is difficult to control.
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Shallow Foundations - Strap
 The base area of the footings are proportioned to the
bearing pressure
 Bases arranged so that the resultant of the loads on the
two footings coincide with the centroid of the area of
the two bases
 The strap beam between the two footings should NOT
bear against the soil.
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Shallow Foundations - Raft
 A raft or mat foundation is a large footing, usually
supporting walls as well as several columns in two or
more rows.
 It is a combined footing which covers the whole
building and supports all walls & columns.
 This is adopted when individual column footings
would tend to be too close or tend to overlap;
further, this is considered suitable when differential
settlements arising out of footings on weak soils are
to be minimized.
 It is recommended in situations where the bearing
capacity of the soil is poor, and the load of the
structure is to be distributed over a large area,
normally the entire area of the structure.
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Deep Foundations (𝑫 ≥ 𝑩)
These are foundations too deeply below the finished
ground surface for their base bearing capacity to be
affected by surface conditions, this is usually at
depths >3 m below finished ground level.
They can be used to transfer the loading to a
deeper, more competent strata at depth if
unsuitable soils are present near the surface.
They are used when there are weak (“bad”) soils
near the surface or when loads are very high, such as
very large skyscrapers and derive their support from
deeper soils or bedrock.
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Deep Foundations - Footings Deep Foundations - Piles

According to Terzaghi, if the depth of a footing is less
than or equal to the width, it may be considered a
shallow foundation.

However, if the depth is more, the footings are

considered as deep footings (Figure below).

Deep footing

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Deep Foundations - Piles Deep Foundations - Piles

 Piles are slender members which are usually precast
(driven into the soil) or cast-in-place (bored).
 Pile foundations are intended to transmit structural loads
through zones of poor soil to a to a deeper soil or rock
strata when the bearing capacity of soil near the surface
is relatively low and the solid bearing stratum i.e. rock is
deeper than about 3 m.
 Piles transmit load either by skin friction or bearing.
 They are also used for resisting structures against uplift and
provide structures stability against lateral and overturning
forces. They obtain lateral support from the soil in which
they are embedded so that there is no concern with
regard to buckling.
 Soil survey is important to provide guide on the length of
pile and safe load capacity of the pile.
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 Pile foundations are frequently needed because of
the relative inability of shallow footings to resist
inclined, lateral, or uplift loads and overturning
moments.
 A pile foundation usually consists of a number of
piles, which together support a structure.
 Pile foundations are economical when:
 Soil with great bearing capacity is at a greater
depth.
 There are chances of construction of irrigation
canals in the nearby area.
 It is very expensive to provide raft or grillage
foundations.
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Deep Foundations - Piles Deep Foundations - Piers

 Pier foundations are
 The foundation is subjected to a heavy somewhat similar to pile
concentrated load. foundations but are
 In marshy places. typically larger in area
than piles.
 The topsoil layer is compressible in nature.
 In case of bridges when the scouring is more in
 Piers are foundations for
the river bed.
carrying a heavy
structural load which is
constructed insitu in a
deep excavation.

 Usually, pier foundations

are used for bridges.
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Deep Foundations - Piers Deep Foundations - Caissons

 Pier foundation is a cylindrical structural member
which transfer heavy load from superstructure to the
soil by end bearing. Unlike pile, it can only transfer
load by bearing and by not skin friction.
 Pier Foundation is economical when:
 Sound rock strata lie under a decomposed rock
layer at the top.
 The topsoil is stiff clay which resists driving the
bearing pile.
 When a heavy load is to be transferred to the
soil.

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Deep Foundations - Caissons Deep Foundations - Caissons

• A caisson is a large water tight chamber, open at the
bottom, that is sunk into place or built in place by systematic
excavation below the bottom.
• It is then filled with concrete which ultimately converts to a
foundation.
• It is mostly used as bridge piers.
• Caissons are generally used in structures which requires
foundation beneath a river or similar water bodies. Reason
for choosing caisson foundation is that it can be floated to
the desired location and then sunk into place.
• Caisson foundations are economic when:
• Pile cap requirement is to be minimized
• Noise and vibration needed to be reduced
• Foundation has to be placed beneath water bodies.
• Highly lateral and axial loading capacity is required.
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Choice of Foundations - Factors Choice of Foundations - Steps

 The type of foundation most appropriate for a given
structure depends upon several factors:
1. The function of the structure and the loads it must
carry,
2. The subsurface conditions,
3. The cost of the foundation in comparison with the
cost of the superstructure.
 These are the principal factors, although several other
considerations may also enter into the picture.
 There are usually more than one acceptable solution to
every foundation problem in view of the interplay of
several factors.
 The following are the essential steps involved in
the final choice of the type of foundation:
1. Information regarding the nature of the
superstructure and the probable loading is
required, at least in a general way.
2. The approximate subsurface conditions or soil
profile is to be ascertained.
3. Each of the customary types of foundation is
considered briefly to judge whether it is
suitable under the existing conditions from
the point of view of the criteria for stability—
bearing capacity and settlement.

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Choice of Foundations - Steps
4. The obviously unsuitable types may be
eliminated, thus narrowing down the choice.
5. More detailed studies, including tentative
designs, of the more promising types are made in
the next phase.
6. Final selection of the type of foundation is made
based on the cost—the most acceptable
compromise between cost and performance
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Choice of Foundations
 In fact, when the area of all the footings appears to
be more than 50 per cent of the area of the structure
in plan, a raft should be considered.
 The total load it can take will be substantially greater
than footings for the same permissible differential
settlement.
 In case a shallow foundation does not answer the
problem on hand, in spite of choosing a reasonable
depth for the foundation, some type of deep
foundation may be required.
 A pier foundation is justified in the case of very heavy
loading as in bridges.
 Piles, in effect, are slender piers, which are used to
bypass weak strata and transmit loading to hard strata
below.
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Choice of Foundations
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Choice of Foundations
 The design engineer may sometimes be guided by the
successful foundations in the neighborhood.
 Besides the two well known criteria for stability of
foundations—bearing capacity and settlement—the
depth at which the foundation is to be placed, is another
important aspect.
 For small loading on good soils, spread footings could be
selected.
 For columns, individual footings are chosen unless they
come too close to one another, in which case, combined
footings are used.
 For a series of closely spaced columns or walls, continuous
footings are the obvious choice.
 When the footings for rows of columns come too close to
one another, a raft foundation will be the obvious choice.
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Choice of Foundations
 As an alternative to raft foundation, the economics
of bored piles is considered.
 After the preliminary selection of the type of the
foundation is made, the next step is to evaluate the
distribution of pressure, settlement, and bearing
capacity.
 Certain guidelines are given in the table below with
regard to the selection of the type of foundation
based on soil conditions at a site.
 For the design comments it is assumed that a
multistorey commercial structure, such as an office
building, is to be constructed.
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Choice of Foundations
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Choice of Foundations Choice of Foundations

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Choice of Foundations Assignment 1

Question 1
In your own words:
 Define a foundation.
 State why a foundation is provided.
 Explain why there are different types of foundations.
Question 2
 How many types of foundations are there and how many
types of combined footing are possible?
Explain your answers in Q2.
Question 3
• What necessitates the use of strap footings? Explain
• When two column loads are unequal, which is the most
likely footing to be provided? Explain
• When is a foundation said to be shallow.

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The End

Any Questions?

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